Example: randomized controlled trial - case-control study- cohort study.
2- What is the study type (design)?
The study design of the research is fundamental to the usefulness of the study.
In a clinical paper the methodology employed to generate the results is fully explained. In general, all questions about the related clinical query, the study design, the subjects and the correlated measures to reduce bias and confounding should be adequately and thoroughly explored and answered.
Participants/Sample Population:
Researchers identify the target population they are interested in. A sample population is therefore taken and results from this sample are then generalized to the target population.
The sample should be representative of the target population from which it came. Knowing the baseline characteristics of the sample population is important because this allows researchers to see how closely the subjects match their own patients [ 4 ].
Sample size calculation (Power calculation): A trial should be large enough to have a high chance of detecting a worthwhile effect if it exists. Statisticians can work out before the trial begins how large the sample size should be in order to have a good chance of detecting a true difference between the intervention and control groups [ 5 ].
Researchers use measuring techniques and instruments that have been shown to be valid and reliable.
Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.
(the extent to which the value obtained represents the object of interest.)
Reliability: In research, the term reliability means “repeatability” or “consistency”
Reliability refers to how consistent a test is on repeated measurements. It is important especially if assessments are made on different occasions and or by different examiners. Studies should state the method for assessing the reliability of any measurements taken and what the intra –examiner reliability was [ 6 ].
3-Selection issues:
The following questions should be raised:
Researchers employ a variety of techniques to make the methodology more robust, such as matching, restriction, randomization, and blinding [ 7 ].
Bias is the term used to describe an error at any stage of the study that was not due to chance. Bias leads to results in which there are a systematic deviation from the truth. As bias cannot be measured, researchers need to rely on good research design to minimize bias [ 8 ]. To minimize any bias within a study the sample population should be representative of the population. It is also imperative to consider the sample size in the study and identify if the study is adequately powered to produce statistically significant results, i.e., p-values quoted are <0.05 [ 9 ].
4-What are the outcome factors and how are they measured?
5-What are the study factors and how are they measured?
Data Analysis and Results:
- Were the tests appropriate for the data?
- Are confidence intervals or p-values given?
Confounding Factors:
A confounder has a triangular relationship with both the exposure and the outcome. However, it is not on the causal pathway. It makes it appear as if there is a direct relationship between the exposure and the outcome or it might even mask an association that would otherwise have been present [ 9 ].
6- What important potential confounders are considered?
7- What is the statistical method in the study?
Interpretation of p-value:
The p-value refers to the probability that any particular outcome would have arisen by chance. A p-value of less than 1 in 20 (p<0.05) is statistically significant.
Confidence interval:
Multiple repetition of the same trial would not yield the exact same results every time. However, on average the results would be within a certain range. A 95% confidence interval means that there is a 95% chance that the true size of effect will lie within this range.
8- Statistical results:
Are statistical tests performed and comparisons made (data searching)?
Correct statistical analysis of results is crucial to the reliability of the conclusions drawn from the research paper. Depending on the study design and sample selection method employed, observational or inferential statistical analysis may be carried out on the results of the study.
It is important to identify if this is appropriate for the study [ 9 ].
Clinical significance:
Statistical significance as shown by p-value is not the same as clinical significance. Statistical significance judges whether treatment effects are explicable as chance findings, whereas clinical significance assesses whether treatment effects are worthwhile in real life. Small improvements that are statistically significant might not result in any meaningful improvement clinically. The following questions should always be on mind:
9- What conclusions did the authors reach about the study question?
Conclusions should ensure that recommendations stated are suitable for the results attained within the capacity of the study. The authors should also concentrate on the limitations in the study and their effects on the outcomes and the proposed suggestions for future studies [ 10 ].
Do the citations follow one of the Council of Biological Editors’ (CBE) standard formats?
10- Are ethical issues considered?
If a study involves human subjects, human tissues, or animals, was approval from appropriate institutional or governmental entities obtained? [ 10 , 11 ].
Critical appraisal of RCTs: Factors to look for:
[ Table/Fig-2 ] summarizes the guidelines for Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials CONSORT [ 12 ].
Summary of the CONSORT guidelines.
Title and abstract | Identification as a RCT in the title- Structured summary (trial design, methods, results, and conclusions) |
---|---|
Introduction | -Scientific background -Objectives |
Methods | -Description of trial design and important changes to methods -Eligibility criteria for participants -The interventions for each group -Completely defined and assessed primary and secondary outcome measures -How sample size was determined -Method used to generate the random allocation sequence -Mechanism used to implement the random allocation sequence -Blinding details -Statistical methods used |
Results | -Numbers of participants, losses and exclusions after randomization -Results for each group and the estimated effect size and its precision (such as 95% confidence interval) -Results of any other subgroup analyses performed |
Discussion | -Trial limitations -Generalisability |
Other information | - Registration number |
Critical appraisal of systematic reviews: provide an overview of all primary studies on a topic and try to obtain an overall picture of the results.
In a systematic review, all the primary studies identified are critically appraised and only the best ones are selected. A meta-analysis (i.e., a statistical analysis) of the results from selected studies may be included. Factors to look for:
[ Table/Fig-3 ] summarizes the guidelines for Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses PRISMA [ 13 ].
Summary of PRISMA guidelines.
Title | Identification of the report as a systematic review, meta-analysis, or both. |
---|---|
Abstract | Structured Summary: background; objectives; eligibility criteria; results; limitations; conclusions; systematic review registration number. |
Introduction | -Description of the rationale for the review -Provision of a defined statement of questions being concentrated on with regard to participants, interventions, comparisons, outcomes, and study design (PICOS). |
Methods | -Specification of study eligibility criteria -Description of all information sources -Presentation of full electronic search strategy -State the process for selecting studies -Description of the method of data extraction from reports and methods used for assessing risk of bias of individual studies in addition to methods of handling data and combining results of studies. |
Results | Provision of full details of: -Study selection. -Study characteristics (e.g., study size, PICOS, follow-up period) -Risk of bias within studies. -Results of each meta-analysis done, including confidence intervals and measures of consistency. -Methods of additional analyses (e.g., sensitivity or subgroup analyses, meta-regression). |
Discussion | -Summary of the main findings including the strength of evidence for each main outcome. -Discussion of limitations at study and outcome level. -Provision of a general concluded interpretation of the results in the context of other evidence. |
Funding | Source and role of funders. |
Critical appraisal is a fundamental skill in modern practice for assessing the value of clinical researches and providing an indication of their relevance to the profession. It is a skills-set developed throughout a professional career that facilitates this and, through integration with clinical experience and patient preference, permits the practice of evidence based medicine and dentistry. By following a systematic approach, such evidence can be considered and applied to clinical practice.
Critical appraisal is the process of carefully and systematically examining research to judge its trustworthiness, value and relevance in a particular context. It is an essential skill for evidence-based practice as it allows people to find and use research evidence reliably and efficiently.
Key steps in critical appraisal:
1. Thoroughly understanding the research, including its aims, methodology, results and conclusions, while being aware of any limitations or potential bias.
2. Using a framework or checklist to provide structure and ensure all key points are considered. This allows you to record your reasoning behind decisions based on the research.
3. Identifying the research methods, such as study design, sample size, and data collection and analysis techniques, to assess validity and reliability.
4. Checking the results and conclusions to ensure they are justified by the data and not unduly influenced by bias.
5. Determining the relevance and applicability of the research findings to your specific context or question.
Critical appraisal skills are important as they enable you to systematically and objectively assess published papers, regardless of where they are published or who wrote them. It is crucial to avoid being misled by poor quality research and ensure that any findings used as evidence can reliably improve practice.
Critical appraisal tools are instruments or checklists used to assess the methodological quality, validity, and relevance of published research studies. They provide a structured framework to evaluate various aspects of a study, such as the study design, sampling methods, data collection, statistical analysis, ethical considerations, and applicability of the results.
Key Points About Critical Appraisal Tools
They aim to assess the trustworthiness, relevance, and results of published papers by examining different components of the research process.
The content and criteria assessed by these tools can vary significantly, as there is a lack of consensus on the essential items for critical appraisal.
Many tools are study design-specific, evaluating different aspects for randomized controlled trials, observational studies, qualitative research, systematic reviews, and other study types.
Common elements appraised include sampling methods, internal validity, control of confounding factors, ethical conduct, statistical analysis, and generalizability of results.
Some tools provide an overall quality rating (e.g. high, medium, low) based on the individual item assessments.
The empirical basis for the construction and validation of many critical appraisal tools is often lacking, with limited evidence of their reliability and validity.
In summary, critical appraisal tools are structured instruments that aim to evaluate the methodological rigor and quality of research studies. They assess various aspects of the research process, but their content and criteria can vary widely due to the lack of consensus on essential items and empirical validation.
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Critical appraisal is a systematic process used to identify the strengths and weaknesses of a research article in order to assess the usefulness and validity of research findings. The most important components of a critical appraisal are an evaluation of the appropriateness of the study design for the research question and a careful assessment of the key methodological features of this design. Other factors that also should be considered include the suitability of the statistical methods used and their subsequent interpretation, potential conflicts of interest and the relevance of the research to one's own practice. This Review presents a 10-step guide to critical appraisal that aims to assist clinicians to identify the most relevant high-quality studies available to guide their clinical practice.
Critical appraisal is a systematic process used to identify the strengths and weaknesses of a research article
Critical appraisal provides a basis for decisions on whether to use the results of a study in clinical practice
Different study designs are prone to various sources of systematic bias
Design-specific, critical-appraisal checklists are useful tools to help assess study quality
Assessments of other factors, including the importance of the research question, the appropriateness of statistical analysis, the legitimacy of conclusions and potential conflicts of interest are an important part of the critical appraisal process
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Manjali, Jifmi Jose; Gupta, Tejpal
Department of Radiation Oncology, Tata Memorial Centre, Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Address for correspondence: Dr. Tejpal Gupta, ACTREC, Tata Memorial Centre, Homi Bhabha National Institute, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai - 410 210, Maharashtra, India. E-mail: [email protected]
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In the present era of evidence-based medicine (EBM), integrating best research evidence into the clinical practice necessitates developing skills to critically evaluate and analyze the scientific literature. Critical appraisal is the process of systematically examining research evidence to assess its validity, results, and relevance to inform clinical decision-making. All components of a clinical research article need to be appraised as per the study design and conduct. As research bias can be introduced at every step in the flow of a study leading to erroneous conclusions, it is essential that suitable measures are adopted to mitigate bias. Several tools have been developed for the critical appraisal of scientific literature, including grading of evidence to help clinicians in the pursuit of EBM in a systematic manner. In this review, we discuss the broad framework for the critical appraisal of a clinical research paper, along with some of the relevant guidelines and recommendations.
Medical research information is ever growing and branching day by day. Despite the vastness of medical literature, it is necessary that as clinicians we offer the best treatment to our patients as per the current knowledge. Integrating best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values has led to the concept of evidence-based medicine (EBM).[ 1 ] Although this philosophy originated in the middle of the 19 th century,[ 2 ] it first appeared in its current form in the modern medical literature in 1991.[ 3 ] EBM is defined as the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of the current best evidence in making decisions about the care of an individual patient.[ 1 ] The essentials of EBM include generating a clinical question, tracking the best available evidence, critically evaluating the evidence for validity and clinical usefulness, further applying the results to clinical practice, and evaluating its performance. Appropriate application of EBM can result in cost-effectiveness and improve health-care efficiency.[ 4 ] Without continual accumulation of new knowledge, existing dogmas and paradigms quickly become outdated and may prove detrimental to the patients. The current growth of medical literature with 1.8 million scientific articles published in the year 2012,[ 5 ] often makes it difficult for the clinicians to keep pace with the vast amount of scientific data, thus making foraging (alerts to new information) and hunting (finding answers to clinical questions) essential skills to help navigate the so-called “jungle” of information.[ 6 ] Therefore, it is essential that health-care professionals read medical literature selectively to effectively utilize their limited time and assiduously imbibe new knowledge to improve decision-making for their patients. To practice EBM in its true sense, a clinician not only needs to devote time to develop the skill of effectively searching the literature, but also needs to learn to evaluate the significance, methodology, outcomes, and transparency of the study.[ 4 ] Along with the evaluation and interpretation of a study, a thorough understanding of its methodology is necessary. It is common knowledge that studies with positive results are relatively easy to publish.[ 7 8 ] However, it is the critical appraisal of any research study (even those with negative results) that helps us to understand the science better and ask relevant questions in future using an appropriate study design and endpoints. Therefore, this review is focused on the framework for the critical appraisal of a clinical research paper. In addition, we have also discussed some of the relevant guidelines and recommendations for the critical appraisal of clinical research papers.
Critical appraisal is the process of systematically examining the research evidence to assess its validity, results, and relevance before using it to inform a decision.[ 9 ] It entails the following:
Critical appraisal is performed to assess the following
aspects of a study:
Contrary to the common belief, a critical appraisal is not the negative dismissal of any piece of research or an assessment of the results alone; it is neither solely based on a statistical analysis nor a process undertaken by the experts only. When performing a critical appraisal of a scientific article, it is essential that we know its basic composition and assess every section meticulously.
This involves taking a generalized look at the details of the article. The journal it was published in holds special value – a peer reviewed, indexed journal with a good impact factor adds robustness to the paper. The setting, timeline, and year of publication of the study also need to be noted, as they provide a better understanding of the evolution of thoughts in that particular subject. Declaration of the conflicts of interest by the authors, the role of the funding source if any, and any potential commercial bias should also be noted.[ 10 ]
The components of any scientific article or clinical research paper remain largely the same. An article begins with a title, abstract, and keywords, which are followed by the main text, which includes the IMRAD – introduction, methods, results and discussion, and ends with the conclusion and references.
It is a brief summary of the research article which helps the readers understand the purpose, methods, and results of the study. Although an abstract may provide a brief overview of the study, the full text of the article needs to be read and evaluated for a thorough understanding. There are two types of abstracts, namely structured and unstructured. A structured abstract comprises different sections typically labelled as background/purpose, methods, results, and conclusion, whereas an unstructured abstract is not divided into these sections.
The introduction of a research paper familiarizes the reader with the topic. It refers to the current evidence in the particular subject and the possible lacunae which necessitate the present study. In other words, the introduction puts the study in perspective. The findings of other related studies have to be quoted and referenced, especially their central statements. The introduction also needs to justify the appropriateness of the chosen study.[ 11 ]
This section highlights the procedure followed while conducting the study. It provides all the data necessary for the study's appraisal and lays out the study design which is paramount. For clinical research articles, this section should describe the participant or patient/population/problem (P), intervention (I), comparison (C), outcome (O), and study design (S) PICO(S), generally referred to as the PICO(S) framework [ Table 1 ].
Study designs are broadly divided into descriptive and interventional studies,[ 12 ] which can be further subdivided as shown in Figure 1 . Each study design has its own characteristics and should be used in the appropriate setting. The various study designs form the building blocks of evidence. This in turn justifies the need for a hierarchical classification of evidence, referred to as “Levels of Evidence,” as it forms the cornerstone of EBM [ Table 2 ]. Most medical journals now mandate that the submitted manuscript conform to and comply with the clinical research reporting statements and guidelines as applicable to the study design [ Table 3 ] to maintain clarity, transparency, and reproducibility and ensure comparability across different studies asking the same research question. As per the study design, the appropriate descriptive and inferential statistical analyses should be specified in the statistical plan. For prospective studies, a clear mention of sample size calculation (depending on the type of study, power, alpha error, meaningful difference, and variance) is mandatory, so as to identify whether the study was adequately powered.[ 13 ] The endpoints (primary, secondary, and exploratory, if any) should be mentioned clearly along with the exact methods used for the measurement of the variables.
The statistical framework of any research study is commonly based on testing the null hypothesis, wherein the results are deemed significant by comparing P values obtained from an experimental dataset to a predefined significance level (0.05 being the most popular choice). By definition, P value is the probability under the specified statistical model to obtain a statistical summary equal to or more extreme than the one computed from the data and can range from 0 to 1. P < 0.05 indicates that results are unlikely to be due to chance alone. Unfortunately, P value does not indicate the magnitude of the observed difference, which may also be desirable. An alternative and complementary approach is the use of confidence intervals (CI), which is a range of values calculated from the observed data, that is likely to contain the true value at a specified probability. The probability is chosen by the investigator, and it is set customarily at 95% (1– alpha error of 0.05). CI provides information that may be used to test hypotheses; additionally, they provide information related to the precision, power, sample size, and effect size.
This section contains the findings of the study, presented clearly and objectively. The results obtained using the descriptive and inferential statistical analyses (as mentioned in the methods section) should be described. The use of tables and figures, including graphical representation [ Table 4 ], is encouraged to improve the clarity;[ 14 ] however, the duplication of these data in the text should be avoided.
The discussion section presents the authors' interpretations of the obtained results. This section includes:
It is imperative that the key relevant references are cited in any research paper in the appropriate format which allows the readers to access the original source of the specified statement or evidence. A brief look at the reference list gives an overview of how well the indexed medical literature was searched for the purpose of writing the manuscript.
After a careful assessment of the various sections of a research article, it is necessary to assess the relevance of the study findings to the present scenario and weigh the potential benefits and drawbacks of its application to the population. In this context, it is necessary that the integrity of the intervention be noted. This can be verified by assessing the factors such as adherence to the specified program, the exposure needed, quality of delivery, participant responsiveness, and potential contamination. This relates to the feasibility of applying the intervention to the community.
Research articles are the media through which science is communicated, and it is necessary that we adhere to the basic principles of transparency and accuracy when communicating our findings. Any such trend or deviation from the truth in data collection, analysis, interpretation, or publication is called bias.[ 15 ] This may lead to erroneous conclusions, and hence, all scientists and clinicians must be aware of the bias and employ all possible measures to mitigate it.
The extent to which a study is free from bias defines its internal validity. Internal validity is different from the external validity and precision. The external validity of a study is about its generalizability or applicability (depends on the purpose of the study), while precision is the extent to which a study is free from random errors (depends on the number of participants). A study is irrelevant without internal validity even if it is applicable and precise.[ 16 ] A bias can be introduced at every step in the flow of a study [ Figure 2 ].
The various types of biases in clinical research include:
In the recent times, it has become an ethical as well as a regulatory requirement in most countries to register the clinical trials prospectively before the enrollment of the first subject. Registration of a clinical trial is defined as the publication of an internationally agreed upon set of information about the design, conduct, and administration of any clinical trial on a publicly accessible website managed by a registry conforming to international standards. Apart from improving the awareness and visibility of the study, registration ensures transparency in the conduct and reduces publication bias and selective reporting. Some of the common sites are the ClinicalTrials. gov run by the National Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health (), Clinical Trials Registry-India () run by the Indian Council of Medical Research, and the International Clinical Trials Registry Platform () run by the World Health Organization.
Several tools have been developed to assess the transparency of the scientific research papers and the degree of congruence of the research question with the study in the context of the various sections listed above [ Table 5 ].
Bad ethics cannot produce good science. Therefore, all scientific research must follow the ethical principles laid out in the declaration of Helsinki. For clinical research, it is mandatory that team members be trained in good clinical practice, familiarize themselves with clinical research methodology, and follow standard operating procedures as prescribed. Although the regulatory framework and landscape may vary to a certain extent depending upon the country where the research work is conducted, it is the responsibility of the Institutional Review Boards/Institutional Ethics Committees to provide study oversight such that the safety, well-being, and rights of the participants are adequately protected.
Critical appraisal is the systematic examination of the research evidence reported in the scientific articles to assess their validity, reliability, and applicability before using their findings to inform decision-making. It should be considered as the first step to grade the quality of evidence.
Conflicts of interest.
There are no conflicts of interest.
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08 Dec 2017
This post was updated in 2023.
Critical appraisal is the process of carefully and systematically examining research to judge its trustworthiness, and its value and relevance in a particular context.
Amanda Burls, What is Critical Appraisal?
Literature searches using databases like Medline or EMBASE often result in an overwhelming volume of results which can vary in quality. Similarly, those who browse medical literature for the purposes of CPD or in response to a clinical query will know that there are vast amounts of content available. Critical appraisal helps to reduce the burden and allow you to focus on articles that are relevant to the research question, and that can reliably support or refute its claims with high-quality evidence, or identify high-level research relevant to your practice.
Critical appraisal allows us to:
Critical appraisal helps to separate what is significant from what is not. One way we use critical appraisal in the Library is to prioritise the most clinically relevant content for our Current Awareness Updates .
There are some general rules to help you, including a range of checklists highlighted at the end of this blog. Some key questions to consider when critically appraising a paper:
And an important consideration for surgeons:
At the end of the appraisal process you should have a better appreciation of how strong the evidence is, and ultimately whether or not you should apply it to your patients.
Kirsty Morrison, Information Specialist
Have you ever seen a news piece about a scientific breakthrough and wondered how accurate the reporting is? Or wondered about the research behind the headlines? This is the beginning of critical appraisal: thinking critically about what you see and hear, and asking questions to determine how much of a 'breakthrough' something really is.
The article " Is this study legit? 5 questions to ask when reading news stories of medical research " is a succinct introduction to the sorts of questions you should ask in these situations, but there's more than that when it comes to critical appraisal. Read on to learn more about this practical and crucial aspect of evidence-based practice.
Critical appraisal forms part of the process of evidence-based practice. “ Evidence-based practice across the health professions ” outlines the fives steps of this process. Critical appraisal is step three:
Critical appraisal is the examination of evidence to determine applicability to clinical practice. It considers (1) :
If practitioners hope to ‘stand on the shoulders of giants’, practicing in a manner that is responsive to the discoveries of the research community, then it makes sense for the responsible, critically thinking practitioner to consider the reliability, influence, and relevance of the evidence presented to them.
While critical thinking is valuable, it is also important to avoid treading too much into cynicism; in the words of Hoffman et al. (1):
… keep in mind that no research is perfect and that it is important not to be overly critical of research articles. An article just needs to be good enough to assist you to make a clinical decision.
Evidence-based practice is intended to be practical . To enable this, critical appraisal checklists have been developed to guide practitioners through the process in an efficient yet comprehensive manner.
Critical appraisal checklists guide the reader through the appraisal process by prompting the reader to ask certain questions of the paper they are appraising. There are many different critical appraisal checklists but the best apply certain questions based on what type of study the paper is describing. This allows for a more nuanced and appropriate appraisal. Wherever possible, choose the appraisal tool that best fits the study you are appraising.
Like many things in life, repetition builds confidence and the more you apply critical appraisal tools (like checklists) to the literature the more the process will become second nature for you and the more effective you will be.
Identifying the study type described in the paper is sometimes a harder job than it should be. Helpful papers spell out the study type in the title or abstract, but not all papers are helpful in this way. As such, the critical appraiser may need to do a little work to identify what type of study they are about to critique. Again, experience builds confidence but having an understanding of the typical features of common study types certainly helps.
To assist with this, the Library has produced a guide to study designs in health research .
The following selected references will help also with understanding study types but there are also other resources in the Library’s collection and freely available online:
In order to encourage consistency and quality, authors of reports on research should follow reporting guidelines when writing their papers. The EQUATOR Network is a good source of reporting guidelines for the main study types.
While these guidelines aren't critical appraisal tools as such, they can assist by prompting you to consider whether the reporting of the research is missing important elements.
Once you've identified the study type at hand, visit EQUATOR to find the associated reporting guidelines and ask yourself: does this paper meet the guideline for its study type?
Determining which checklist to use ultimately comes down to finding an appraisal tool that:
Below are some sources of critical appraisal tools. These have been selected as they are known to be widely accepted, easily applicable, and relevant to appraisal of a typical journal article. You may find another tool that you prefer, which is acceptable as long as it is defensible:
The information on this page has been compiled by the Medical Librarian. Please contact the Library's Health Team ( [email protected] ) for further assistance.
Reference list
1. Hoffmann T, Bennett S, Del Mar C. Evidence-based practice across the health professions. 2nd ed. Chatswood, N.S.W., Australia: Elsevier Churchill Livingston; 2013.
2. Greenhalgh T. How to read a paper : the basics of evidence-based medicine. 5th ed. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley; 2014.
3. Harris M, Jackson D, Taylor G. Clinical evidence made easy. Oxfordshire, England: Scion Publishing; 2014.
4. Aronoff SC. Translational research and clinical practice: basic tools for medical decision making and self-learning. New York: Oxford University Press; 2011.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjebm-2018-111132
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Qualitative evidence allows researchers to analyse human experience and provides useful exploratory insights into experiential matters and meaning, often explaining the ‘how’ and ‘why’. As we have argued previously 1 , qualitative research has an important place within evidence-based healthcare, contributing to among other things policy on patient safety, 2 prescribing, 3 4 and understanding chronic illness. 5 Equally, it offers additional insight into quantitative studies, explaining contextual factors surrounding a successful intervention or why an intervention might have ‘failed’ or ‘succeeded’ where effect sizes cannot. It is for these reasons that the MRC strongly recommends including qualitative evaluations when developing and evaluating complex interventions. 6
Is it necessary.
Although the importance of qualitative research to improve health services and care is now increasingly widely supported (discussed in paper 1), the role of appraising the quality of qualitative health research is still debated. 8 10 Despite a large body of literature focusing on appraisal and rigour, 9 11–15 often referred to as ‘trustworthiness’ 16 in qualitative research, there remains debate about how to —and even whether to—critically appraise qualitative research. 8–10 17–19 However, if we are to make a case for qualitative research as integral to evidence-based healthcare, then any argument to omit a crucial element of evidence-based practice is difficult to justify. That being said, simply applying the standards of rigour used to appraise studies based on the positivist paradigm (Positivism depends on quantifiable observations to test hypotheses and assumes that the researcher is independent of the study. Research situated within a positivist paradigm isbased purely on facts and consider the world to be external and objective and is concerned with validity, reliability and generalisability as measures of rigour.) would be misplaced given the different epistemological underpinnings of the two types of data.
Given its scope and its place within health research, the robust and systematic appraisal of qualitative research to assess its trustworthiness is as paramount to its implementation in clinical practice as any other type of research. It is important to appraise different qualitative studies in relation to the specific methodology used because the methodological approach is linked to the ‘outcome’ of the research (eg, theory development, phenomenological understandings and credibility of findings). Moreover, appraisal needs to go beyond merely describing the specific details of the methods used (eg, how data were collected and analysed), with additional focus needed on the overarching research design and its appropriateness in accordance with the study remit and objectives.
Poorly conducted qualitative research has been described as ‘worthless, becomes fiction and loses its utility’. 20 However, without a deep understanding of concepts of quality in qualitative research or at least an appropriate means to assess its quality, good qualitative research also risks being dismissed, particularly in the context of evidence-based healthcare where end users may not be well versed in this paradigm.
Appraising the quality of qualitative research is not a new concept—there are a number of published appraisal tools, frameworks and checklists in existence. 21–23 An important and often overlooked point is the confusion between tools designed for appraising methodological quality and reporting guidelines designed to assess the quality of methods reporting. An example is the Consolidate Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) 24 checklist, which was designed to provide standards for authors when reporting qualitative research but is often mistaken for a methods appraisal tool. 10
Broadly speaking there are two types of critical appraisal approaches for qualitative research: checklists and frameworks. Checklists have often been criticised for confusing quality in qualitative research with ‘technical fixes’ 21 25 , resulting in the erroneous prioritisation of particular aspects of methodological processes over others (eg, multiple coding and triangulation). It could be argued that a checklist approach adopts the positivist paradigm, where the focus is on objectively assessing ‘quality’ where the assumptions is that the researcher is independent of the research conducted. This may result in the application of quantitative understandings of bias in order to judge aspects of recruitment, sampling, data collection and analysis in qualitative research papers. One of the most widely used appraisal tools is the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) 26 and along with the JBI QARI (Joanna Briggs Institute Qualitative Assessment and Assessment Instrument) 27 presents examples which tend to mimic the quantitative approach to appraisal. The CASP qualitative tool follows that of other CASP appraisal tools for quantitative research designs developed in the 1990s. The similarities are therefore unsurprising given the status of qualitative research at that time.
Frameworks focus on the overarching concepts of quality in qualitative research, including transparency, reflexivity, dependability and transferability (see box 1 ). 11–13 15 16 20 28 However, unless the reader is familiar with these concepts—their meaning and impact, and how to interpret them—they will have difficulty applying them when critically appraising a paper.
The main issue concerning currently available checklist and framework appraisal methods is that they take a broad brush approach to ‘qualitative’ research as whole, with few, if any, sufficiently differentiating between the different methodological approaches (eg, Grounded Theory, Interpretative Phenomenology, Discourse Analysis) nor different methods of data collection (interviewing, focus groups and observations). In this sense, it is akin to taking the entire field of ‘quantitative’ study designs and applying a single method or tool for their quality appraisal. In the case of qualitative research, checklists, therefore, offer only a blunt and arguably ineffective tool and potentially promote an incomplete understanding of good ‘quality’ in qualitative research. Likewise, current framework methods do not take into account how concepts differ in their application across the variety of qualitative approaches and, like checklists, they also do not differentiate between different qualitative methodologies.
Current approaches to the appraisal of the methodological rigour of the differing types of qualitative research converge towards checklists or frameworks. More importantly, the current tools do not explicitly acknowledge the prejudices that may be present in the different types of qualitative research.
Transferability: the extent to which the presented study allows readers to make connections between the study’s data and wider community settings, ie, transfer conceptual findings to other contexts.
Credibility: extent to which a research account is believable and appropriate, particularly in relation to the stories told by participants and the interpretations made by the researcher.
Reflexivity: refers to the researchers’ engagement of continuous examination and explanation of how they have influenced a research project from choosing a research question to sampling, data collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
Transparency: making explicit the whole research process from sampling strategies, data collection to analysis. The rationale for decisions made is as important as the decisions themselves.
However, we often talk about these concepts in general terms, and it might be helpful to give some explicit examples of how the ‘technical processes’ affect these, for example, partialities related to:
Selection: recruiting participants via gatekeepers, such as healthcare professionals or clinicians, who may select them based on whether they believe them to be ‘good’ participants for interviews/focus groups.
Data collection: poor interview guide with closed questions which encourage yes/no answers and/leading questions.
Reflexivity and transparency: where researchers may focus their analysis on preconceived ideas rather than ground their analysis in the data and do not reflect on the impact of this in a transparent way.
The lack of tailored, method-specific appraisal tools has potentially contributed to the poor uptake and use of qualitative research for informing evidence-based decision making. To improve this situation, we propose the need for more robust quality appraisal tools that explicitly encompass both the core design aspects of all qualitative research (sampling/data collection/analysis) but also considered the specific partialities that can be presented with different methodological approaches. Such tools might draw on the strengths of current frameworks and checklists while providing users with sufficient understanding of concepts of rigour in relation to the different types of qualitative methods. We provide an outline of such tools in the third and final paper in this series.
As qualitative research becomes ever more embedded in health science research, and in order for that research to have better impact on healthcare decisions, we need to rethink critical appraisal and develop tools that allow differentiated evaluations of the myriad of qualitative methodological approaches rather than continuing to treat qualitative research as a single unified approach.
Contributors VW and DN: conceived the idea for this article. VW: wrote the first draft. AMB and DN: contributed to the final draft. All authors approve the submitted article.
Competing interests None declared.
Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.
Correction notice This article has been updated since its original publication to include a new reference (reference 1.)
““Assessment of risk of bias is a key step that informs many other steps and decisions made in conducting systematic reviews. It plays an important role in the final assessment of the strength of the evidence.” 1
1. Viswanathan, M., Patnode, C. D., Berkman, N. D., Bass, E. B., Chang, S., Hartling, L., ... & Kane, R. L. (2018). Recommendations for assessing the risk of bias in systematic reviews of health-care interventions . Journal of clinical epidemiology , 97 , 26-34.
2. Kolaski, K., Logan, L. R., & Ioannidis, J. P. (2024). Guidance to best tools and practices for systematic reviews . British Journal of Pharmacology , 181 (1), 180-210
3. Fowkes FG, Fulton PM. Critical appraisal of published research: introductory guidelines. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 1991;302(6785):1136-1140.
4. Shea BJ, Reeves BC, Wells G, et al. AMSTAR 2: a critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews that include randomised or non-randomised studies of healthcare interventions, or both. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2017;358:j4008.
5.. Whiting P, Savovic J, Higgins JPT, et al. ROBIS: A new tool to assess risk of bias in systematic reviews was developed. Journal of clinical epidemiology. 2016;69:225-234.
6. Sterne JAC, Savovic J, Page MJ, et al. RoB 2: a revised tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2019;366:l4898.
7. Moher D, Hopewell S, Schulz KF, et al. CONSORT 2010 Explanation and Elaboration: Updated guidelines for reporting parallel group randomised trials. Journal of clinical epidemiology. 2010;63(8):e1-37.
8.. Sterne JA, Hernan MA, Reeves BC, et al. ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2016;355:i4919.
9. Downes MJ, Brennan ML, Williams HC, Dean RS. Development of a critical appraisal tool to assess the quality of cross-sectional studies (AXIS). BMJ open. 2016;6(12):e011458.
10. Guo B, Moga C, Harstall C, Schopflocher D. A principal component analysis is conducted for a case series quality appraisal checklist. Journal of clinical epidemiology. 2016;69:199-207.e192.
11. Murad MH, Sultan S, Haffar S, Bazerbachi F. Methodological quality and synthesis of case series and case reports. BMJ evidence-based medicine. 2018;23(2):60-63.
12. Slim K, Nini E, Forestier D, Kwiatkowski F, Panis Y, Chipponi J. Methodological index for non-randomized studies (MINORS): development and validation of a new instrument. ANZ journal of surgery. 2003;73(9):712-716.
13. Whiting PF, Rutjes AWS, Westwood ME, et al. QUADAS-2: a revised tool for the quality assessment of diagnostic accuracy studies. Annals of internal medicine. 2011;155(8):529-536.
14. Bossuyt PM, Reitsma JB, Bruns DE, et al. STARD 2015: an updated list of essential items for reporting diagnostic accuracy studies. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 2015;351:h5527.
15. Hooijmans CR, Rovers MM, de Vries RBM, Leenaars M, Ritskes-Hoitinga M, Langendam MW. SYRCLE's risk of bias tool for animal studies. BMC medical research methodology. 2014;14:43.
16. Percie du Sert N, Ahluwalia A, Alam S, et al. Reporting animal research: Explanation and elaboration for the ARRIVE guidelines 2.0. PLoS biology. 2020;18(7):e3000411.
17. O'Connor AM, Sargeant JM. Critical appraisal of studies using laboratory animal models. ILAR journal. 2014;55(3):405-417.
Critical appraisal checklists, video: using the casp checklist for appraisal of qualitative research, critical thinking.
The second stage to the evaluative process is critical appraisal. This involves a careful examination of the author's arguments and the evidence they provide to support their claims. Even if you are reading an article published in a top academic journal or a book by a leading authority in your field of study, you should start from a position of neutrality and take the approach that the author (whoever they are) must make a case to persuade you of the validity of their arguments.
Ask questions...
In addition to the facts and analysis offered by the authors, think about the context of their research, the appropriateness and limitations of study design, and any external factors that may impact the relevance or the importance of their approach.
Look at the bigger picture
When consulting the literature, seek out the different points of view, set them against each other, test them by questioning them, and see how well they stand up when you raise objections and expose them to opposing views by other authors.
There are a number of critical appraisal checklists which can help you evaluate particular kinds of studies. Though primarily intended for healthcare clinicians, these checklists are excellent tools for researchers in any discipline Here are a few examples:
CASP
CONSORT
TREND
Keep in mind that most studies have imitations and will rarely tick every box. When a study fails to satisfy one or more criteria on a checklist, consider the extent to which this impacts the evidence (if at all).These considerations can inform the critical discussion in your essay.
Critical thinking is the foundation for good academic writing. It should inform every stage of the journey from planning your essay to embarking on your research project to writing the final draft of your paper. Evaluating and critically appraising sources is a key stage in this process,
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A critical appraisal of reporting in randomized controlled trials investigating osteopathic manipulative treatment: a meta-research study.
2. materials and methods, 2.1. eligibility, 2.2. study selection, 2.3. data collection process, 2.4. evaluating the completeness of reporting, 2.5. evaluating the risk of bias, 2.6. statistical analysis, 3.1. adherence to consort checklist (completeness of reporting), 3.2. relationship between completeness of reporting and risk of bias, 3.3. relationship between completeness of reporting and protocol registration, journals characteristics and date of publication, 4. discussion, 4.1. summary of results, 4.2. implications for future research, 4.3. limitations, 5. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
Click here to enlarge figure
CONSORT Items | Studies Where Item Was Not Applicable (n) | Mean Adherence (%) Calculated in Studies Where Item Was Applicable | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
1a | Identification as a randomised trial in the title | 0 | 65 | |
1b | Structured summary of trial design, methods, results, and conclusions | 0 | 99 | |
Background and objectives | 2a | Scientific background and explanation of rationale | 0 | 98 |
2b | Specific objectives or hypotheses | 0 | 100 | |
Trial design | 3a | Description of trial design including allocation ratio | 0 | 24 |
3b | Important changes to methods after trial commencement (such as eligibility criteria), with reasons | 128 | 67 | |
Participants | 4a | Eligibility criteria for participants | 0 | 95 |
4b | Settings and locations where the data were collected | 0 | 50 | |
Interventions | 5 | The interventions for each group with sufficient details to allow replication, including how and when they were actually administered | 0 | 79 |
Outcomes | 6a | Completely defined prespecified primary and secondary outcome measures, including how and when they were assessed | 29 | 87 |
6b | Any changes to trial outcomes after the trial commenced, with reasons | 129 | 50 | |
Sample size | 7a | How sample size was determined | 29 | 57 |
7b | When applicable, explanation of any interim analyses and stopping guidelines | 127 | 100 | |
Sequence generation | 8a | Method used to generate the random allocation sequence | 0 | 73 |
8b | Type of randomization; details of any restriction (such as blocking and block size) | 0 | 30 | |
Allocation concealment | 9 | Mechanism used to implement the random allocation sequence, describing any steps taken to conceal the sequence until interventions were assigned | 0 | 18 |
Implementation | 10 | Who generated the random allocation sequence, who enrolled participants, and who assigned participants to interventions | 0 | 10 |
Blinding | 11a | If performed, who was blinded after assignment to interventions and how | 27 | 74 |
11b | If relevant, description of the similarity of interventions | 64 | 55 | |
Statistical methods | 12a | Statistical methods used to compare groups for primary and secondary outcomes | 0 | 24 |
12b | Methods for additional analyses, such as subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses | 115 | 69 | |
Participant flow | 13a | For each group, the numbers of participants who were randomly assigned, received intended treatment, and were analysed for the primary outcome | 0 | 69 |
13b | For each group, losses and exclusions after randomization, together with reasons | 45 | 53 | |
Recruitment | 14a | Dates defining the periods of recruitment and follow-up | 0 | 40 |
14b | Why the trial ended or was stopped | 129 | 50 | |
Baseline data | 15 | A table showing baseline demographic and clinical characteristics for each group | 0 | 79 |
Numbers analysed | 16 | For each group, number of participants (denominator) included in each analysis and whether the analysis was by original assigned groups | 0 | 24 |
Outcomes and estimation | 17a | For each primary and secondary outcome, results for each group, and the estimated effect size and its precision (such as 95% CI) | 0 | 40 |
17b | For binary outcomes, presentation of both absolute and relative effect sizes is recommended | 124 | 71 | |
Ancillary analyses | 18 | Results of any other analyses performed, including subgroup analyses and adjusted analyses, distinguishing prespecified from exploratory | 116 | 73 |
Harms | 19 | All important harms or unintended effects in each group | 0 | 47 |
Limitations | 20 | Trial limitations, addressing sources of potential bias, imprecision, and, if relevant, multiplicity of analyses | 0 | 85 |
Generalizability | 21 | Generalizability (external validity, applicability) of the trial findings | 0 | 21 |
Interpretation | 22 | Interpretation consistent with results, balancing benefits and harms, and considering other relevant evidence | 0 | 91 |
Registration | 23 | Registration number and name of trial registry | 0 | 50 |
Protocol | 24 | Where the full trial protocol can be accessed, if available | 0 | 4 |
Funding | 25 | Sources of funding and other support (such as supply of drugs), role of funders | 0 | 73 |
L | H | Diff | L | H | Diff | L | H | Diff | L | H | Diff | L | H | Diff | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
91.1 | 71.0 | −20.1 | 95.1 | 78.7 | −16.4 | 83.1 | 76.9 | −6.2 | 82.6 | 78.5 | −4.1 | 89.8 | 78.1 | −11.7 | |
98.0 | 100 | 2.0 | 98.3 | 98.9 | 0.6 | 98.6 | 100 | 1.4 | 98.3 | 100 | 1.7 | 98.3 | 100 | 1.7 | |
63.8 | 35.9 | −27.9 | 64.6 | 50.7 | −13.9 | 51.4 | 43.4 | −8 | 53.0 | 43.0 | −10.0 | 60.8 | 51.1 | −9.7 | |
69.6 | 32.9 | −36.7 | 76.8 | 49.6 | −27.2 | 51.8 | 30.3 | −21.5 | 50.3 | 56.4 | 6.1 | 68.2 | 42.7 | −25.5 | |
70.0 | 59.1 | −10.9 | 79.1 | 62.5 | −16.6 | 65.5 | 61.0 | −4.5 | 66.9 | 56.7 | −10.2 | 70.7 | 61.9 | −8.8 | |
53.7 | 31.2 | −22.5 | 51.1 | 42.8 | −8.3 | 42.3 | 43.1 | 0.8 | 43.4 | 37.7 | −5.7 | 62.1 | 49.5 | −12.6 | |
69.1 | 44.6 | −24.5 | 72.0 | 56.4 | −15.6 | 57.7 | 48.4 | −9.3 | 58.0 | 54.2 | −3.8 | 68.4 | 55.6 | −12.8 |
Coefficients | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
95% CI | ||||
Variables | Beta Unstandardized (β) | p | Lower | Upper |
D1 | 12.368 * | <0.001 ** | 8.901 * | 15.835 * |
D2 | 7.218 * | 0.001 ** | 2.848 * | 11.589 * |
D3 | 4.007 * | 0.044 * | 0.117 * | 7.898 * |
D4 | 0.798 | 0.650 | −2.671 | 4.266 |
D5 | 10.836 * | <0.001 ** | 7.267 * | 14.405 * |
Overall RoB | −9.494 | 0.001 | −15.15 | −3.838 |
Coefficients | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
95% CI | ||||
Variables | Beta Unstandardized (β) | p | Lower | Upper |
Recent year of publication | 0.453 | 0.168 | −0.193 | 1.098 |
Higher quartile | 5.416 * | <0.001 ** | 2.805 * | 8.026 * |
Open Access publication | −5.649 * | 0.016 * | −10.231 * | −1.067 * |
Preliminary protocol | 19.226 * | <0.001 ** | 14.452 * | 24.001 * |
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Zambonin Mazzoleni, G.; Bergna, A.; Buffone, F.; Sacchi, A.; Misseroni, S.; Tramontano, M.; Dal Farra, F. A Critical Appraisal of Reporting in Randomized Controlled Trials Investigating Osteopathic Manipulative Treatment: A Meta-Research Study. J. Clin. Med. 2024 , 13 , 5181. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13175181
Zambonin Mazzoleni G, Bergna A, Buffone F, Sacchi A, Misseroni S, Tramontano M, Dal Farra F. A Critical Appraisal of Reporting in Randomized Controlled Trials Investigating Osteopathic Manipulative Treatment: A Meta-Research Study. Journal of Clinical Medicine . 2024; 13(17):5181. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13175181
Zambonin Mazzoleni, Gabriele, Andrea Bergna, Francesca Buffone, Andrea Sacchi, Serena Misseroni, Marco Tramontano, and Fulvio Dal Farra. 2024. "A Critical Appraisal of Reporting in Randomized Controlled Trials Investigating Osteopathic Manipulative Treatment: A Meta-Research Study" Journal of Clinical Medicine 13, no. 17: 5181. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13175181
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BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making volume 24 , Article number: 243 ( 2024 ) Cite this article
Metrics details
Data quality in health information systems has a complex structure and consists of several dimensions. This research conducted for identify Common data quality elements for health information systems.
A literature review was conducted and search strategies run in Web of Knowledge, Science Direct, Emerald, PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar search engine as an additional source for tracing references. We found 760 papers, excluded 314 duplicates, 339 on abstract review and 167 on full-text review; leaving 58 papers for critical appraisal.
Current review shown that 14 criteria are categorized as the main dimensions for data quality for health information system include: Accuracy, Consistency, Security, Timeliness, Completeness, Reliability, Accessibility, Objectivity, Relevancy, Understandability, Navigation, Reputation, Efficiency and Value- added. Accuracy, Completeness, and Timeliness, were the three most-used dimensions in literature.
At present, there is a lack of uniformity and potential applicability in the dimensions employed to evaluate the data quality of health information system. Typically, different approaches (qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods) were utilized to evaluate data quality for health information system in the publications that were reviewed. Consequently, due to the inconsistency in defining dimensions and assessing methods, it became imperative to categorize the dimensions of data quality into a limited set of primary dimensions.
Peer Review reports
Appropriate planning in the health sector relies on the existence of accurate data and the quality of the data must be continuously controlled. The World Health Organization has tried to ensure the quality of health data by providing a toolkit. This toolkit supports countries to assess and improve the quality of health data [ 1 , 2 ].
The existence of accurate, complete, and timely data plays an important role in health care management [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Data quality is often only considered a component of the effectiveness of health information systems, and hiding the value of data quality in other parts of the health field can lead to incorrect decision-making [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Previous studies have confirmed that data quality is a multidimensional concept. Data quality assessment requires familiarity with different subjective and objective criteria and both subjective perceptions of people and objective measurements of information must be addressed [ 10 , 11 ]. Qualitative evaluations of subjective data reflect the needs and experiences of stakeholders, and objective evaluations reflect the needs of managers and stakeholders [ 12 ].
Adverse effects on the quality of care, increasing costs, creating liability risks, and reducing the benefits of investing in health information systems can be identified as the negative effects of poor-quality data [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. Defects in data quality can lead to incorrect diagnosis and intervention in health care [ 4 , 13 , 17 , 18 ]. The quality of healthcare depends on the existence of quality data, which ultimately leads to a significant impact on customer satisfaction [ 13 , 19 ].
Data quality in health information systems has a complex structure and consists of several dimensions and some critical factors performance such as environmental and organizational, technical and behavioral affected on data quality in health information system [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. As we mentioned later, previous studies have sporadically reported some data quality elements in health information systems. There is no comprehensive agreement on its dimensions and there is no unique accepted definition of data quality among researchers for health information systems. However, there is still a lack of a review compiling and synthesizing all elements introduced in the literature. In this study, a more comprehensive understanding of the elements for quality of data in health information systems has been done using a systematic review method. The findings of this study can provide opportunities for health policy maker to become familiar with various data quality elements in health information. This systematic review specifically answered the following research questions:
1- What are the common data quality elements for health information systems?
2- What are the roles of common data quality elements to improve the performance of health information systems?
In this review, we used a systematic approach to retrieve the relevant research studies. Our reporting strategy follows the PRISMA guidelines [ 23 ].
In this study the inclusion criteria were: (1) Data quality components were showcased within a health information system; (2) published from the year 2003 to 2024; (3) empirical studies that answered the research questions or tested the hypothesis and conducted on specific health system The exclusion criteria were: (1) Research that did not outline data quality dimensions in health management systems; (2) Content presented in a format other than a scientific article such as Conference papers, book sections, and …; (4) Methodologies deemed to be deficient in terms of quality; (5) Publication language not in English; and (7) The full text was unavailable.
The literature search was conducted between September and October 2023, using the following five electronic scientific databases: Web of Knowledge, Science Direct, Emerald, PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar search engine as an additional source for tracing references.
This study used a systematized review approach to identify common data quality elements for health information systems. The following keywords were used in the search strategy: Data quality, Health, clinic, Hospital, Medical, Information system. The keywords chosen were searched using various combinations and in the fields of title, abstract, subject, and keyword. We considered the search features in each database and used the Boolean operators (AND, OR) to combine and search selected keywords. An example of the search strategy was given in Table 1 .
All the results were imported into EndNote reference management software. The duplicate and non-journal papers were removed. Next, the title and abstract of the remaining articles were screened to detect subject relevance with the research objectives. The selected articles were analyzed based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Finally, the reference lists of all identified articles were searched for additional studies. Two researchers undertook the screening of titles and abstracts obtained through the searches. A sample of just over 20% of articles was double screened in order to assess the level of agreement between the researchers. Disagreements were resolved through discussion or consultation with a third researcher.
Data extraction was completed independently by two assessors. The data were extracted from including four sections: bibliographic information, methodology, and the data quality elements investigated, and key findings. Each study was treated as a single unit of analysis and the relevant information in each study was extracted using a designated data extraction form.
Information was extracted from each included study (including first author, title, publication date, type of study, methodology, processes of knowledge management that were studied and selected results). We emphasize the results of selected papers that have reported elements for assessment data quality in health information systems.
In this study, we used the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklist [ 24 ] for quality assessment. The authors assessed the included studies with a further random examination by two independent reviewers. The results of the quality assessment were compared any disagreements between the reviewers were addressed through discussion or by involving a third reviewer.
In this review, by adopting similar identifies elements as broader themes, the results of the included studies were analyzed and categorized. Finally, the homogeneous data quality elements in health information systems were synthesized and described.
The JBI checklist was applied to all 58 studies; none were excluded based on quality assessment and all studies were rated as unclear or high risk of bias. In 16% of studies, we cannot find “statement locating the researcher culturally or theoretically” and in 37%, “influence of the researcher on the research” is not addressed.
The search for systematic reviews identified 734 references published between 2003 and 2024. Title and abstract review selected 167 references for full text review. In the analysis, it was found that 68 papers did not address research questions or test hypotheses, 32 papers lacked discussion on data quality dimensions in health management systems, and nine documents presented content in a format other than a scientific article.
Out of the 58 selected paper for final review, 42 were released between 2013 and 2024 [ 1 , 4 , 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 21 , 22 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ]. Thirteen papers looked at information quality [ 7 , 11 , 14 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 31 , 37 , 52 , 54 , 55 , 56 ], five at content quality [ 7 , 15 , 21 , 43 , 50 ], and thirty-six at data quality [ 4 , 5 , 10 , 14 , 17 , 20 , 21 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 36 , 37 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 47 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 55 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 ]. None of the publications, however, made a distinction between “data” and “information,” or between “data quality” and “information quality.” As a result, “information quality” and “data quality” were used synonymously [ 21 ]. The search results and the study selection process are presented in Fig. 1 .
Flow diagram of study selection process
Evaluating the quality of the data was the primary goal of the reviewed studies [ 4 , 5 , 10 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 ].Two paper focused on information quality in health systems [ 11 , 52 ]. Methods for evaluating the quality of data were presented in eight publications [ 10 , 20 , 21 , 35 , 38 , 41 , 51 , 52 ], 19 publications tended to conduct on the health information [ 5 , 8 , 10 , 11 , 16 , 17 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 26 , 31 , 37 , 42 , 47 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 55 , 57 , 60 , 66 ] and eight paper focus on health or medical records as an information system in health context [ 13 , 19 , 25 , 38 , 44 , 45 , 64 , 67 ].
To describe data quality, the studies employed a total of 57 dimensions. The first data quality attribute for health information system that was most often used was accuracy [ 4 , 5 , 15 , 17 , 19 , 28 , 29 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 37 , 41 , 43 , 45 , 46 , 49 , 51 , 53 , 59 ], second is completeness [ 4 , 5 , 20 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 41 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 48 , 49 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 56 ], and third most-frequently criterion is timeliness [ 5 , 28 , 41 , 44 , 45 , 51 ]. Table 2 displays the common dimensions of data quality in health information systems that derived from existing literature.
Data accuracy measures the extent to which information accurately represents the objects or events. The accuracy of the information that is gathered, utilized, and stored is assessed through data accuracy. It is imperative for records to serve as a dependable source of information and to facilitate the generation of valuable insights through analysis. Maintaining high data accuracy guarantees that records and datasets meet the standards for reliability and trustworthiness, allowing for their use in decision-making and various applications [ 4 , 5 , 17 , 28 , 29 , 32 , 34 ]. Correctness, precision, free of error, validity, believability and integrity are common terms that use for describe data accuracy [ 21 ]. Data believability relates to whether the data is regarded as being true, real, and credible. Data believability is based on user’s perceptions [ 1 , 36 , 40 ].
Data consistency is the state in which all copies or instances of data are identical across various information systems. This uniformity is crucial in maintaining the accuracy, currency, and coherence of data across different platforms and applications. It is essential for instilling trust in users accessing the data. Implementing data validation rules, employing data standardization techniques, and utilizing data synchronization processes are some strategies to uphold data consistency. By ensuring data consistency, organizations can provide users with reliable information for making informed decisions, streamline operations, minimize errors, and enhance efficiency [ 9 , 45 , 48 , 51 , 52 , 65 ].
Data security is the practice of protecting information from corruption, theft, or unauthorized access throughout its life cycle. This involves safeguarding hardware, software, storage devices, and user devices, as well as implementing access controls, administrative controls, and organizational policies. By utilizing tools and technologies that enhance visibility of data usage, such as data masking, encryption, and redaction, organizations can ensure the security of their data. Moreover, data security assists organizations in streamlining auditing procedures and complying with data protection regulations, ultimately reducing the risk of cyber-attacks, human error, and insider threats [ 5 , 48 , 56 ]. Secure access, safe, confidentiality and privacy are common terms that use for describe data security [ 21 ].
Data timeliness denotes the currency and availability of data at the required time for its intended use. This is critical for enabling health organizations to make swift and accurate decisions based on the most up-to-date information. The timeliness of data has an impact on data quality as it determines the reliability and usefulness of information systems. Moreover, timely data can lead to cost savings as organizations can utilize real-time data to effectively manage inventories, optimize delivery routes, and coordinate with suppliers, thus reducing the risk of stock outs, minimizing delivery delays, and ensuring smooth operations [ 5 , 25 , 28 , 41 , 44 , 45 , 51 ].
Completeness of data refers to the extent to which information includes all necessary elements and observations for a specific purpose. This factor enhances the integrity and reliability of analyses, preventing gaps in understanding and supporting more robust decision-making processes. In a complete dataset, all variables relevant to the presentation of information should be present and fully populated with valid data values. Any missing, incorrect, or incomplete entries in the dataset can compromise the quality of analyses, interpretations, and decisions based on that data [ 4 , 5 , 9 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 41 , 44 , 45 , 52 ]. Coverage, comprehensiveness, appropriate amount, adequate, appropriate amount of data and integrity are common terms that use for describe data completeness [ 21 ]. The amount of data indicates the extent of data sets obtained for analysis and processing. In present-day information systems, these sets of data are frequently observed to be escalating in size, reaching capacities such as terabytes and petabytes [ 4 , 29 , 50 , 57 ].
Data reliability pertains to the uniformity of data across various records, programs, or platforms, as well as the credibility of the data source. Reliable data remains consistently accurate, while unreliable data may not always be valid, making it challenging to ascertain its accuracy. Consequently, organizations cannot depend on unreliable data for decision-making. Data reliability, also referred to as data observability, represents the trustworthiness of data and the insights derived from it for enabling sound decision-making. Reliability is characterized by two other fundamental elements of data quality include accuracy and consistency [ 9 , 49 , 53 , 57 , 59 , 65 ].
Data accessibility refers to the ease with which users can locate, retrieve, comprehend, and utilize data within an organization’s information systems. This is crucial in the modern digital landscape, where data is valuable for decision-making, strategic planning, and operational efficiency. Ensuring data accessibility involves creating an environment where data is available, understandable, and usable by individuals with varying levels of technical expertise. This approach is closely tied to data democratization, which aims to break down silos and make data available across different levels and departments of an organization. A well-implemented data accessibility strategy ensures that data is not locked away in isolated information systems but is integrated and accessible, contributing to a more informed and agile organizational structure. The ultimate goal is to empower users to leverage data in their daily tasks and decision-making processes, thus fostering a data-driven culture [ 4 , 26 , 29 , 33 , 50 , 57 ].
Data Objectivity refers to the extent to which data is free from personal biases, emotions, and subjective interpretations. Objective data is verifiable, reliable, and accurate, meaning that it can be verified independently by multiple parties. In other words, objective data is based on facts rather than opinions or judgments. In the context of information systems, data objectivity is crucial because it enables organizations to make informed decisions based on accurate and reliable information. Objective data helps to reduce errors, inconsistencies, and uncertainties, ensuring that business processes are efficient, effective, and compliant with regulatory requirements. Data objectivity in information systems is often hindered by biases in data collection, data quality issues, information overload, and lack of standardization. Biases may arise from human error, sampling errors, or deliberate data manipulation during the collection process. Inaccuracies, inconsistencies, and incompleteness resulting from poor data quality can compromise the objectivity of the information. The overwhelming amount of data available can make it challenging to differentiate between objective and subjective information. Inconsistencies in data representation and interpretation may occur due to the use of different systems or formats [ 36 , 41 , 44 , 45 , 46 ].
Data relevancy is an aspect of data quality that determines whether the data used or generated are relevant to add to the new target system and how usable it is for users [ 9 , 29 , 45 , 48 , 51 ]. Ease of operation, Usability, applicable, utility, Usefulness, Perceived usefulness and importance are common terms that use for describe data relevancy [ 21 ]. The concept of data usability revolves around a user’s ability to obtain meaningful information from various systems. When data is stored in text files that demand prolonged and intricate processing before it can be analyzed, its usability is limited. Conversely, data that is conveniently displayed on a performance dashboard for immediate interpretation is classified as highly usable [ 4 , 25 , 29 , 45 , 48 , 50 ]. The concept of data usefulness denotes the level at which data, post-analysis, aligns with the intended purpose within a given context for its user or consumer. In most cases, data usefulness is attained when all criteria related to data quality, such as dependability, thoroughness, uniformity, and others, are fulfilled [ 43 , 50 , 52 ].
Data Understandability refer to the level at which data exhibits qualities that facilitate understanding and analysis by users, and are presented in relevant languages, symbols, and measurements within a defined context of utilization [ 22 , 34 , 37 , 46 ]. Interpretability, ease of understanding, granularity and transparency are common terms that use for describe data understandability [ 21 ].
Data navigation refers to the process of searching, locating, and extracting relevant data from a vast pool of information to support decision-making, problem-solving, or analysis. It involves the utilization of different techniques and tools to navigate through extensive data, identify patterns, trends, and correlations, and present the information in a meaningful and actionable way. The success of data navigation is contingent upon several dimensions, including technical, domain knowledge, systems, methodological, and human dimensions. The technical dimension involves mastering programming languages like SQL and Python, utilizing data visualization software such as Tableau and Power BI, and implementing data mining techniques like machine learning algorithms. Domain knowledge dimension stresses the importance of expertise in specific fields. Information system dimension highlights the role of databases, data warehouses, cloud storage platforms, and other technologies in facilitating data navigation by storing, managing, and providing access to data. Methodological dimension focuses on statistical analysis, data mining techniques, and data visualization methods as key approaches to navigating data. Lastly, human dimension recognizes the significance of communication skills, collaboration, and critical thinking in the process of data navigation [ 4 , 50 , 65 , 68 ].
Data reputation is the evaluation of the trustworthiness, reliability, and credibility of data in an information system. It signifies the extent to which stakeholders, such as users, decision-makers, and other systems, perceive the data as accurate, reliable, and complete. Within an information system, data reputation plays a crucial role in decision-making, trust, system performance, and data sharing [ 42 , 60 , 61 ].
The concept of data efficiency revolves around an organization’s effectiveness in maximizing the value obtained from its data, while simultaneously minimizing the resources essential for processing, storing, and up keeping that data. Put simply, data efficiency focuses on streamlining the collection, storage, analysis, and utilization of data to meet objectives. When considering an information system, data efficiency can be examined from various angles, such as efficiency in data acquisition, storage, processing, analysis, visualization, security, retention, and archiving [ 7 , 28 , 29 , 48 ].
Data value-added pertains to the process of refining raw data into more useful, meaningful, and valuable information that can support decision-making, drive business outcomes, and create a competitive advantage. This process involves extracting insights, patterns, or trends from large datasets and presenting them in a manner that is easy to understand and act upon. By prioritizing these dimensions of data value-added within an information system, organizations can ensure that their data is transformed into valuable insights that support informed decision-making and drive business outcomes [ 5 , 22 , 25 , 45 ].
In a few papers, the concept of “fitness for use” was applied to data quality [ 6 , 55 , 69 ]. Two viewpoints can be used to characterize data quality: (1) the inherent quality of the data elements and set, and (2) how the set satisfies the needs of the user. The definition provided by the International Standards Organization best captures the accepted meaning of data quality, which is “the totality of features and characteristics of an entity that bears on its ability to satisfy stated and implied needs” [ 4 , 15 , 28 , 33 , 53 ].
Current review study identified 14 common dimensions for data quality in health information system. In related research data quality dimensions classified on four dimensions include: intrinsic (accuracy, objectivity, reputation), contextual timeliness, completeness, and relevancy), representational (representational format, understandability, consistency), and accessibility (accessibility, security) categories [ 53 , 60 , 69 , 70 , 71 ]. There exists a certain level of intersection between the aspects of data quality recognized in this review and those research in prior classifications of data quality.
Previous literature has often discussed intrinsic data quality in terms of the absence of defects, as indicated by various dimensions such as accuracy, perfection, freshness, and uniformity [ 72 ]. and “completeness, unambiguity, meaningless and correctness” [ 54 , 73 , 74 ]. The Canadian Institute for Health Information put forth a set of 69 quality criteria, organized into 24 quality characteristics, and further classified into 6 quality dimensions: accuracy, timeliness, comparability, usability, relevance, and privacy & security [ 58 , 71 ]. Research on data quality has primarily concentrated on recognizing general quality traits like accuracy, currency, completeness, correctness, consistency, and timeliness as fundamental aspects of data quality applicable across different fields. Nevertheless, existing reviews reveal a lack of consensus regarding the conceptual framework and definition of data quality [ 70 , 73 ]. However, our pervious review shows there is a lack of consensus conceptual framework and definition for data quality [ 1 , 71 ].
In this study, the three most-frequently used dimensions of data quality were accuracy, completeness and timeliness, respectively. This arrangement is somewhat different from previous literature in which the three most-frequently used dimensions were arranged in the order of completeness, accuracy, and timeliness, respectively [ 43 , 51 , 53 ]. Furthermore, the absence of a precise definition of the data quality dimensions led to complexities in evaluating them. The definitions of dimensions and their associated metrics were occasionally based on intuition, past experiences, or the underlying goals. These results indicate that data quality is a multi-faceted phenomenon. Likewise, other scholars argue that data quality is a multi-dimensional notion [ 5 , 28 , 38 , 52 , 61 ].
The Health Information Systems heavily rely on data, as they perform essential functions like generation, compilation, analysis, synthesis, communication, and data application to support decision-making. The literature frequently evaluates the dimensions of data quality, but there is currently a lack of consistency and potential generalizability in using these dimensions and methods to assess data quality in Health Information Systems. In this review of the literature, the data quality for health information system were examined and identified 14 common dimension include: Accuracy, Consistency, Security, Timeliness, Completeness, Reliability, Accessibility, Objectivity, Relevancy, Understandability, Navigation, Reputation, Efficiency and Value- added.
The quality of data in health information systems is indispensable for healthcare institutions to make well-informed decisions and provide patients with optimal care. Accurate and timely data assists healthcare organizations and professionals in identifying patterns, predicting outcomes, and enhancing patient results. Conversely, inadequate data quality in healthcare or other data-related issues can lead to inaccurate diagnoses, inappropriate treatments, and harm to patients. To ensure data quality in healthcare, organizations must prioritize investments in data governance, data management, and data analysis tools, while also maintaining a continuous process of monitoring and improving data quality in health information systems.
It is essential to have high-quality data in order to ensure the safe and dependable delivery of healthcare services. Health facility data plays a crucial role in monitoring performance. While various organizations may prioritize different aspects of data quality, it is important to acknowledge that no health data, regardless of its source, can be deemed flawless. All data are susceptible to various limitations related to data quality, including missing values, bias, measurement error, and human errors in data entry and computation. These limitations are associated with technical, behavioral, and organizational factors [ 75 ].
This study has limitations. Firstly, the number of articles with complete data was relatively small. Secondly, assessing the quality of some studies were difficult because the quality assessment criteria were not clearly identified. We have proposed four fundamental implications to inspire future research. Firstly, it is crucial for researchers to give equal attention to all dimensions of data quality, as these dimensions can have both direct and indirect effects on data quality outcomes. Secondly, researchers should aim to evaluate the existing data quality models and frameworks through a combination of mixed methods and case study designs. Thirdly, it is important to identify the underlying causes of data quality issues in health information systems. Lastly, efforts should be made to develop interventions that can effectively address and prevent data quality issues from occurring.
The datasets used and analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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Hossein Ghalavand & Zarrin Zarrinabadi
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Saied Shirshahi & Alireza Rahimi
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Fatemeh Amani
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Hossein Ghalavand and Saied Shirshahi Conceived the study, prepared the analysis plan, conducted the analysis, and prepared the draft manuscript. Alireza Rahimi, Zarrin Zarrinabadi and Fatemeh Amani Conceived the study, prepared the analysis plan, performed the literature search, screening for study inclusion/exclusion, and risk of bias assessment, conducted the analysis, and prepared the draft manuscript. All authors contributed to the final version of the manuscript.
Correspondence to Hossein Ghalavand .
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Ghalavand, H., Shirshahi, S., Rahimi, A. et al. Common data quality elements for health information systems: a systematic review. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak 24 , 243 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12911-024-02644-7
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Despite increasing interest in quality end-of-life care (EOLC), critically ill patients often receive suboptimal care. Critical care nurses play a crucial role in EOLC, but face numerous barriers that hinder their ability to provide compassionate and effective care.
An integrative literature review was conducted to investigate barriers impacting the quality of end-of-life care. This review process involved searching database like MEDLINE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, CINAHL, EBSCO, and ScienceDirect up to November 2023. Search strategies focused on keywords related to barriers in end-of-life care and critical care nurses from October 30th to November 10th, 2023. The inclusion criteria specified full-text English articles published between 2010 and 2023 that addressed barriers perceived by critical care nurses. This integrative review employs an integrated thematic analysis approach, which combines elements of deductive and inductive analysis, to explore the identified barriers, with coding and theme development overseen by the primary and secondary authors.
Out of 103 articles published, 11 articles were included in the review. There were eight cross-sectional descriptive studies and three qualitative studies, which demonstrated barriers affecting end-of-life care quality. Quality appraisal using the Mixed Method Appraisal Tool was completed by two authors confirmed the high credibility of the selected studies, indicating the presence of high-quality evidence across the reviewed articles. Thematic analysis led to the three main themes (1) barriers related to patients and their families, (2) barriers related to nurses and their demographic characteristics, and (3) barriers related to health care environment and institutions.
This review highlights barriers influencing the quality of end of life care perceived by critical care nurses and the gaps that need attention to improve the quality of care provided for patients in their final stages and their fsmilies within the context of critical care. This review also notes the need for additional research to investigate the uncover patterns and insights that have not been fully explored in the existing literature to enhance understanding of these barriers. This can help to inform future research, care provision, and policy-making. Specifically, this review examines how these barriers interact, their cumulative impact on care quality, and potential strategies to overcome.
Peer Review reports
It was estimated that 56.8 million people, including 25.7 million at the end of life, need palliative care; however, only about 14% of people who need palliative care currently receive it [ 1 ]. The need for acute care settings increased in response to life-threatening emergencies and the acute exacerbation of diseases [ 2 , 3 ]. These settings were developed to meet the need for providing optimal health care, saving patient lives and decreasing the rate of mortality using advanced technology [ 2 , 4 ]. Caring in intensive care units sometimes involves withholding or withdrawing treatments that have lasted a lifetime, and in these cases, the role of ICU nurses goes from providing life-saving measures to end-of-life care [ 5 ]. Care at the end of a life is a special kind of health care for individuals and families who are living with a life-limiting illness [ 6 ]. End-of-life care (EOLC) includes a crucial component of intensive care nurses’ work; nurses are in a unique position to cooperate with families to provide care for patients at the end of their lives [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 43 ].
Advanced technology in critical care units has led to improved nursing care in many areas, such as End-Of-Life-Care (EOLC) [ 11 ]. This type of care has moved towards enhancing comfort and reducing patients’ suffering [ 12 ]. As EOLC involves enhancing the physical, emotional, and spiritual quality of life for critically ill patients, traditional measures are now challenged as advanced technology has revolutionized nursing care through innovations such as adjustable beds and pressure-relieving mattresses, which help optimize patient comfort, and advanced communication technologies, for example, video conferencing facilitating communication between patients, families, and healthcare providers, allowing for ongoing support, counseling, and decision-making discussions throughout the end-of-life journey. Therefore, quality EOLC has become a significant concern for healthcare decision-makers, healthcare providers, researchers, patients, and families [ 13 ]. Despite the increased interest and demand in providing good EOLC, this care is still limited In the critical care and does not meet the recommended standards [ 14 ]. Critical Care Nurses spend more time with patients compared to other members of the multidisciplinary team. They serve as implementers, educators, and coordinators in end-of-life care. Their role in delivering EOLC is essential as they are presumably prepared to provide this care and meet patients and their family’s needs, including pain control, management of physical, emotional, spiritual, and social needs, and communication with patients and their families [ 15 ]. Therefore, it is important to look into the factors that impede the provision of quality end-of-life care from their perspectives. Many barriers affecting the provision of EOLC in critical care areas have been reported in the literature [ 13 , 16 , 17 ].
End-of-life care (EOLC) involves caring for and managing terminally ill patients and families. The quality of EOLC in critical care units has been evaluated based on factors such as patient/family involvement in decision-making, professional communication between health professionals and patients/families, care quality, support types, illness and symptom management, spirituality, and organizational support for critical care nurses [ 18 ]. Furthermore, working in a critical care unit environment is stressful and emotionally taxing for health professionals such as nurses. Carers of terminally ill patients may experience distressing emotions such as helplessness, loss of power, sadness, and hopelessness [ 18 ]. These feelings make it difficult to provide optimal end-of-life care. Additionally, nurses focus on managing symptoms, disease prognosis, treatment options, and physical aspects, but in fact, caring in critical care units follows a universal and holistic model. Previous research has shown that patients and families are not receiving adequate care at the end of life.
Researchers categorized factors that affect EOLC into barriers and challenges [ 13 ]. Barriers have been classified into three categories: patient and family-related, nurses and other health care workers’ related, and health care institutions’ related [ 16 , 17 ].
Barriers related to communication between health care providers and patients and families and characteristics of critical care nurses, including nurses’ age, gender, educational level, and end-of-life care training, significantly affect providing good EOLC [ 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ]. this integrative review aims to go beyond merely identifying and categorizing barriers. By synthesizing results from a wide range of studies, the review seeks to uncover patterns and insights that have not been fully explored in the existing literature to enhance understanding of these barriers. This can help to inform future research, care provision, and policy-making. Specifically, this review will examine how these barriers interact, their cumulative impact on care quality, and potential strategies to overcome Despite the fact that EOLC is decisive to patient care, appropriate provision of this service is still lacking in several aspects. In the ICUs, EOLC must be considered an essential factor. However, owing to the existing practices of nurses, the adequate delivery of EOLC tends to bear various inefficiencies.
Nurses and other healthcare staff seem to come across multiple barriers that hinder their ability to offer effective care to critically ill patients. Considering the given dearth of research in this context, we intend to present a comprehensive insight into the issue. In this review, we focused on EOLC provided by critical care nurses, who were defined as nurses dealing with patients suffering from acute health problems due to injury, surgery, or exacerbated chronic diseases and need close monitoring in units such as intensive care units (surgical, medical, and pediatric) and cardiac care units. Due to the importance of exploring these barriers in determining the quality of EOLC, this integrative review paper was conducted to examine and highlight evidence from the literature on these barriers that affect the provision of quality EOLC. This paper explores and identifies current published peer-reviewed studies addressing barriers that affect the quality of EOLC as perceived by critical care nurses. This integrative review seeks to answer the following question: What barriers affect the quality of end-of-life care perceived by nurses working in critical care units?
An integrative review design was the most suitable method to explore and produce a new understanding from various types of literature (experimental, non-experimental, and theoretical) to enhance understanding of the phenomenon under investigation (i.e., EOLC). This method also facilitated nursing science by informing further research, care provision, and policy-making. It also highlights strengths, weaknesses, limitations, and gaps in knowledge, and supports what is already known about theories relevant to our topic [ 24 ]. Therefore, this design helps meet this review’s purposes.
The search process involved four phases which were developed by the first author (YR) and validated by two expert authors (MCC and KLA) as follows: (1) identifying the problems related to the research question, (2) conducting a systematic literature search, (3) screening the articles to develop themes, and (4) performing critical analysis to develop the themes.
From October 30, 2023, to November 10, 2023, electronic literature searches were conducted using major databases such as MEDLINE, Cochrane, CINAHL, EBSCO, and ScienceDirect.
Search methods were defined using the MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) descriptors of the keywords “end-of-life care,” “barriers,” and “critical care nurses.” Additionally, the reference lists of all identified articles were manually searched for additional studies. The operators used in this search included “AND” and “OR,” as well as the truncation tools of each database. A refined search was performed with terms such as “critical care nurses’ perceptions” OR “opinions” AND “quality end-of-life care” OR “quality of death and dying.” Subsequently, terms like “barriers” OR “obstacles” OR “challenges” AND “quality end-of-life care” OR “quality of death and dying” were employed. Finally, the descriptors “critical care nurses’ perceptions,” “barriers,” and “quality end-of-life care” were used (Fig. 1 ).
PRISMA search flow diagram
The inclusion criteria for this search to select relevant articles were as follows: (1) Full-text articles, (2) Papers published in the English language from 2010 to 2023, and (3) Articles that specifically describe the barriers perceived by critical care nurses that affect the quality of end-of-life care.
Intervention studies and studies that describe barriers to providing quality end-of-life care from other perspectives, such as physicians and patients’ families were excluded. For the studies who included nurses and other health care workers within the context of critical care, the researchers included the results that relevant to nurses and excluded the others.
The data extraction and analysis were carried out to collect and consolidate the data from the selected studies into a standard format relevant to the research field. The extracted data included specific descriptions of the settings, populations, study methods, and outcome measures (Table 31 ). Two authors (YSR and KLA) independently extracted the data and reached an agreement after discussion with the third author (MCC).
Following the review process, the authors made the final decision on studies that met the study criteria. Out of a total of 103 articles, 9 duplicates were removed. The abstracts of the remaining 94 articles were initially found to be somewhat relevant to the research topic. However, after examining the articles in terms of research methodology and results, 36 articles that matched the selection criteria for this study were ultimately chosen. The full text of the 36 articles was reexamined based on the title first for suitability. Subsequently, the abstracts of the studies were reviewed, leading to the exclusion of 23 articles for various reasons, leaving 13 studies for further consideration in this study. However, two articles were disqualified as they did not contain a specific research methodology or reviewed literature papers; they relied solely on theoretical information. This step resulted in the inclusion of 11 research articles in this integrative review of the literature (Table 1 ).
To ensure the methodology’s quality and avoid bias in the design, highly credible and respected search engines were adopted to select peer-reviewed studies according to the inclusion criteria in this review. The articles chosen in this review were categorized into two sections based on study design and research methodology: quantitative and qualitative studies. These were evaluated manually and independently for each study, with any disagreements resolved by two experts (KLA, Professor, and MCC, Associate Professor) who have experience in research methodology, using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) version 2018 [ 25 ]. This tool includes specific criteria for evaluating the quality of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method studies. The MMAT consists of a checklist of five research components for each type of study with a rating scale including “Yes,” “No,” and “Can’t tell.” The overall results suggest that the evidence quality across the ten studies was high (Table 2 ).
Thematic analysis in this review involves a systematic process of coding and theme development, using both inductive and deductive approaches. This method ensures a comprehensive synthesis of diverse data sources, providing valuable insights into the research topic [ 24 , 26 ]. Thematic analysis was employed for all studies to investigate the subject of interest. The coding for the themes in this review followed the six recommended phases: Familiarizing with the data; making initial codes; searching for themes; reviewing themes and making a thematic plan; defining and naming themes; generating the final picture of the report [ 24 ]. The coding was conducted by the primary author (YSR) and confirmed by the three secondary authors (LH, SM, and LY). Any discrepancies were discussed and resolved through consensus.
The search process yielded a total of 103 articles. All articles resulting from the search process were independently reviewed by all authors in this study for the research process, purpose, methodology, tools, main findings, recommendations, and limitations.
Eight cross-sectional descriptive studies and three qualitative studies were selected, which were conducted in the following countries: two from the USA [ 27 , 28 ] and a single study from each of the following countries: Saudi Arabia [ 22 ], Jordan [ 29 ], Egypt [ 12 ], Malaysia [ 13 ], Scotland [ 30 ], Poland [ 31 ], Hong Kong [ 32 ], South Africa [ 33 ], and China [ 34 ].
In this comprehensive analysis of 11 studies, a diverse range of methodologies and findings were examined across different countries and healthcare settings. The studies included a mix of quantitative and qualitative approaches, with sample sizes varying from small convenience samples to larger cohorts. Key barriers to providing End of Life Care (EOLC) were identified, such as challenges in communication with families, lack of support from managers, and insufficient training in EOLC. The studies highlighted the importance of addressing these barriers to improve the quality of care provided by nurses in critical care settings. Notably, demographic characteristics and their impact on EOLC provision were not consistently addressed across the studies, indicating a potential area for further research and exploration in this field (Table 31 ).
The thematic analysis of included studies revealed several key themes and sub-themes related to barriers in End of Life Care (EOLC). These themes encompassed various aspects, including challenges related to patients and their families, healthcare institutions and the environment, as well as barriers specific to nurses. Communication and collaboration between patients, nurses, and families included issues such as seeking updates about patient status, misunderstandings about life-saving measures, misunderstanding poor prognosis, troubled family dynamics, and conflicts within families regarding life support decisions [ 22 , 34 ]. Additionally, barriers related to Institution Policy and procedures highlighted concerns such as insufficient standard procedures, communication challenges in decision-making, inadequate ICU design, inappropriate staffing policies, and deficiencies in rooms, supplies, and noise control. Furthermore, barriers associated with nurses encompassed their emotional experiences and socio-demographic characteristics [ 12 ] (Table 4 ).
Among the results of the selected articles on nurses’ perceptions of barriers affecting quality EOLC, three main themes were identified: (1) Communication and collaboration between patients, nurses, and families (2) Institution Policy and procedural barriers, and (3) barriers related to nurses and their demographics. An overlap in some of these areas, such as the themes addressing barriers related to patients and their families, was identified [ 11 , 22 , 35 ]. This overlap indicates a high level of consensus between the authors in identifying the barriers affecting the quality of end-of-life care.
After reviewing the existing body of literature in this domain, it was observed that some familial factors had been largely perceived as prominent barriers to providing EOLC by the nurses. Although some authors concluded family issues as the highest-ranking concern for nurses in providing quality EOLC, there were variations in the type of barriers they encountered [ 11 , 28 , 35 ]. For example, continuous requests for updates on patients’ status from their families were identified as the top-rated barrier affecting the quality of EOLC from the perspective of critical care nurses. In addition, family misunderstandings about life-saving measures, as well as doubts and uncertainties regarding prognosis, resulted in a lack of time for nurses to provide quality EOLC, as they spent significant time explaining these matters [ 29 ]. Similarly, continuous phone calls from family members seeking updates on patients’ conditions were ranked highest (M = 4.23) among barriers affecting EOLC [ 28 ]. Additionally, dealing with distressed family members also received the highest total mean score (M = 3.3) [ 13 ]. On the contrary, another study found that out of 70 nurses, the practice of calling nurses for updates on patients’ conditions had the lowest impact on EOLC practice (62.2%), while misunderstanding about life-saving measures (65.7%) played a crucial role in determining the quality of EOLC [ 36 ]. The study concluded that the primary barrier related to patients and their families was the lack of understanding among family members about what life-saving measures entailed. Similarly, another source also reported consistent findings indicating that families often did not accept poor prognoses for patients and struggled to grasp the significance of life-saving measures [ 22 ].
Furthermore, previous studies have indicated that barriers affecting EOLC and thereby the quality of care include the presence of family members with patients, inadequate communication with patients’ families, lack of involvement in discussions about patient care decisions, conflicts among family members regarding decisions to cease or continue life support treatment, and unrealistic expectations regarding prognosis [ 22 , 30 , 37 ].
Communication and collaboration among doctors and nurses are vital in designing an effective healthcare plan for patients. However, inadequate and inappropriate collaboration and support, such as conflicting opinions, disagreements, and insufficient cooperation between them, can lead to various difficulties that may result in poor patient care [ 22 ]. Research scholars who have conducted studies in this area have acknowledged that agreement between nurses and physicians regarding care directions for patients at the end of life is one of the most critical barriers to enhancing the quality of EOLC [ 29 ].
Similarly, another study found that poor communication between nurses and physicians resulted in inappropriate decision-making and disagreement about care plans, which subsequently impacted the quality of care [ 13 ]. Additionally, inadequate and poor communication between nurses and other healthcare teams diverted attention from the goal of care [ 28 ].
Failures in communication between nurses and other healthcare providers can lead to misunderstandings of care messages, which can affect EOLC practices [ 30 ]. It also highlighted the lack of communication and cooperation between doctors and other healthcare team members; nurses emphasized the need for a communication training course [ 11 ].
Good communication between nurses and physicians and consideration of nurses’ opinions were found to enhance the quality of EOLC [ 12 ]. Furthermore, educating critical care nurses about communication and collaboration skills was reported as crucial for improving the quality of EOLC [ 13 ].
The given three sub-themes were identified regarding the impact of nurses-related barriers and the influence of some of their demographic factors on the quality of EOLC:
Lack of opportunities for training and education.
Emotional and psychological issue.
Nurses’ socio -demographic factors.
It was reported that critical care nurses were not adequately prepared to provide EOLC; nurses needed to increase their knowledge about cultural aspects, ethical issues, skills, communication, and training regarding the continuity of care and the management of physical and psychosocial symptoms [ 11 , 13 , 28 ]. Furthermore, nurses who did not participate in any EOLC training course perceived more barriers to delivering quality EOLC than those who had participated in introductory training courses [ 13 , 28 ]. Attia et al. [ 12 ]. reported that 60% of critical care nurses perceived that they had received poor education and training concerning family grieving, symptom management, and quality EOLC. Furthermore, Holms et al. [ 30 ]. found that all participants acknowledged that they had received very little formal education and training on EOLC, particularly those who worked in intensive care. In a study by Jordan et al. [ 37 ], nurses emphasized that EOLC education is essential during the orientation period before starting their ICU jobs.
Five articles in this review have studied the effect of nurses’ feelings and emotions as barriers to providing quality EOLC [ 11 , 13 , 28 , 30 , 37 ]. Nurses stated that they feel sad when they cannot help the patients to die peacefully, and they lack emotional support, considering this one of the main barriers to providing EOLC [ 11 ]. Staff morale distress was reported repeatedly during interviews with ICU nurses about their experience of EOLC. This feeling of despair is accompanied by many causes, such as lack of staff experience, poor communication, inadequate training about EOLC, lack of a suitable environment, and lack of support from senior staff [ 30 ]. Nurses acknowledged that they felt like they were participating in decisions to withdraw or withhold life-sustaining treatment, resulting in conflicting emotions and feeling helpless in advocating for the patients with mixed feelings of sadness, grief, anger, and frustration [ 37 ]. Lastly, Crump et al. [ 28 ] and Omar Daw Hussin et al. [ 13 ] observed that critical care nurses received inadequate emotional support from managers and experts within healthcare institutions, which affects the quality of EOLC they provide.
It has been identified that some socio-demographic characteristics of nurses also play a significant role in shaping their opinions regarding perceived barriers. For example, age, education, experience in the field, and other similar factors profoundly impact their perceptions of the barriers to providing EOLC. A study by Omar Daw Hussin et al. [ 13 ] revealed that nurses ( n = 553) aged 21–30 years old had the highest mean total score for barrier factors to provide quality EOLC compared to other age groups. This was also higher in diploma holders than in nurses with certificates and bachelor’s degrees. Regarding years of experience as critical care nurses, they found that nurses with minimal years of experience (1–10 years) had the highest mean total score for difficulties. Similarly, Chan et al. [ 38 ] found that nurses’ age, qualifications, and experience in caring for patients at EOL were significantly associated with their perceived barriers. Nurses’ distress in intensive care units was linked to various factors, one of which is the lack of experience in providing EOLC, as reported by Holms et al. [ 30 ].
Healthcare facilities and the surrounding environment where patients stay have a significant influence on their quick recovery, mental and physical health, as well as health progress [ 11 ]. Therefore, healthcare institutions ought to establish a healthy environment for patients’ well-being. However, in the current review, it was understood that nurses identified a group of barriers related to hospital settings, such as the insufficiency of standard procedures pertaining to EOLC in place at the institution, inappropriate staffing policies in the ICU, lack of rooms prepared for EOLC, insufficient supplies to assist families in EOLC, and a noisy environment with bright lights in patients’ rooms [ 11 ]. Likewise, researchers concluded that intensive care unit nurses face time constraints due to heavy workloads; they also reported that intensive care units have poor designs that interrupt patients’ privacy and affect the provision of quality EOLC [ 12 , 28 ]. Previous studies identified a lack of EOLC rules and guidelines governing the provision of quality EOLC in critical care units, such as limited visiting hours, guiding preferred care pathways, and excessive paperwork burdens [ 12 , 13 , 30 ].
In this section, we discuss the results of this review on the barriers to providing quality end-of-life care derived from the literature and compare them with the results of previous studies.
The themes emerging from the data helped us understand that some familial factors play a decisive role in hindering timely and effective EOLC provision to patients. Our findings are consistent with Beckstrand et al. [ 36 ] and Friedenberg et al. [ 39 ], who also found that families’ lack of understanding or insufficient understanding of the life-saving measures performed for patients often contributes to delayed EOLC provision, due to their ambiguous opinions and uncertainty about the treatment given. Additionally, before taking any action, barriers related to other factors such as cultural aspects, not covered in this paper, should not be disregarded as they may have a significant influence on the outcomes.
There was agreement among all the authors in this review that communication and collaboration issues were at the forefront of factors that affect the quality of EOLC.in critical care setings, poor communication and collaboration between nurses and physicians makes nurses perceive their roles as secondary in the decision-making process. Additionally, critical care nurses also noted that interrupted communication leads to misunderstandings and conflicts in decision-making, diverting them from the goal of EOLC. It was also agreed that communication breakdown and conflicts in decision-making among healthcare teams impact the quality of care for patients with chronic end-stage diseases [ 40 ].
Reviewing the selected studies made us aware that nurses perceived inadequate training and education about EOLC significantly impacts their practice in delivering quality EOLC. The nurses also acknowledged the importance of receiving training and education regarding EOLC, such as symptom management, dealing with grieving families, and communication skills during the orientation period before starting their work in critical care units. Therefore, critical care nurses need to enhance their knowledge about cultural aspects, ethical issues, communication skills, and training related to the continuity of care and the management of physical and psychosocial symptoms [ 36 ].
Apart from training issues, we found that the feeling of not being able to provide proper care to some patients, consistent distress due to increased workload, or managing patients with critical conditions such as prolonging unavoidable death could be attributed to their deteriorating mental health, which they perceive as a barrier to offering EOLC. These results were also supported by Calvin et al. [ 41 ], who found that novice cardiac care unit nurses expressed more fear and discomfort while caring for dying patients and communicating with their families.
This review further shows that healthcare organizations lack policies and guidelines that govern EOLC, such as staffing policies and scheduling visiting hours, leading to a shortage of nurses, increased workload, and decreased presence of family members with their patients. This lack of policies was also indicated in their study [ 36 ]. Critical care units in this review have a poor design that challenges nurses when providing EOLC and interrupts patient privacy. This is consistent with Sheward et al. [ 42 ], who found that the poor design of critical care units may compromise patients’ confidentiality and affect the provision of quality EOLC.
In summary, our findings revealed that some familial factors play a decisive role in hindering timely and effective EOLC provision to patients. Moreover, nurses perceived that inadequate training and education about EOLC significantly impact their practice in providing good EOLC. Therefore, these aspects of our results are confirmed by broader literature, as evidenced before. The ceuurent review highlights the importance of enhancing family communication throught the needs for conducting education and training programs among health care profesionals in crirical care settings about communication skills. Additionally, healthcare organizations lack policies and guidelines that lead to a shortage of nurses, increased workload, and decreased family members’ presence with their patients, governing EOLC. Thus, this integrative review addresses the question of what barriers affect the quality of end-of-life care as perceived by nurses working in critical care units. Combining diverse methodologies can lead to inadequate rigor, imprecision, bias, flawed analysis, synthesis, and deductions. Therefore, there is a need for future studies to further refine the key indicators.
The selected studies were conducted in several countries, which may enhance the generalizability of the study findings. The limitations of this review study are that it focused mainly on descriptive and non-experimental studies. Additionally, the assessment of quality appraisal for selected studies was subjective to the authors according to MMAT, which could affect the studies’ appraisal. The selection of only English articles may introduce bias regarding barriers beyond EOLC in countries where English is not commonly spoken.
The review indicated that healthcare organizations must provide critical care nurses with evidence-based pathways and guidelines to guide them in providing EOLC, increase emotional support from nursing managers and supervisors, and improve critical care settings design. Further studies need to be conducted on the barriers that affect the quality of EOLC and suggestions to overcome these barriers at the level of patients and families, nurses, physicians, other healthcare providers, and healthcare organizations to enhance teamwork and collaboration and improve the quality of EOLC.
This review also calls for additional research to be conducted to explore the barriers that affect the quality of end-of-life care. These studies should investigate barriers at multiple levels, including those affecting patients and families, nurses, physicians, other healthcare providers, and healthcare organizations. By identifying and understanding these barriers, recommendations can be made to overcome them, ultimately enhancing teamwork, collaboration, and the overall quality of end-of-life care.
Many tools can be easily used to assess barriers to end-of-life care in critical care settings. We recommend monitoring and evaluating them regularly among nurses because they are significantly linked to the quality of end-of-life care. Furthermore, we advise to assess the quality of end-of-life care from patients and their families perspectives and provide them with greif and emotional support if they are unable to contribute in providing feedback that help in assissing the quality of end-of- life care. Refreshing training and education courses about end-of-life care aspects are significantly associated with the quality of care. We advise nursing management to conduct such courses for critical care nurses periodically. In general, there is an opportunity for improvement in terms of the quality of end-of-life care in critical care settings. As the critical care unit is part of a larger institution, it is worthwhile for the hospital’s management to adjust their policies regarding staffing, ICU design, visiting hours, and provide evidence-based guidelines so they can enhance the quality of end-of-life care.
The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.
End-Of-Life-Care
Mixed Method Appraisal Tool
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Department of Nursing Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Yousef Saleh Rubbai, Mei Chan Chong, Li Yoong Tang & Samira Mohajer
Princess Aisha bint AL-Hussein College of Nursing and Health Science, Al-Hussein Bin Talal University, Maan, Jordan
Yousef Saleh Rubbai
Department of Nursing, School of Medical and Life Science, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, 46200, Malaysia
Khatijah Lim Abdullah
Nursing and Midwifery Care Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
Samira Mohajer
Department of Nursing, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Torbat Heydariyeh University of Medical Sciences, Torbat Heydariyeh, Iran
Mohammad Namazinia
Faculty of medicine, Yarmouk University , Irbid, Jordan
Walid Theib Mohammad
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YSR and KLA set up the search strategy, with the verification of MCC. MCC, LYT, WTM analyzed results. All authors wrote and approved the final manuscript. SM, MN provided critical review and significant revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content, proof-read, and supervised the preparation of the manuscript.
Correspondence to Yousef Saleh Rubbai or Mei Chan Chong .
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Rubbai, Y.S., Chong, M.C., Tang, L.Y. et al. Barriers in providing quality end-of-life care as perceived by nurses working in critical care units: an integrative review. BMC Palliat Care 23 , 217 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12904-024-01543-y
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A critical appraisal is an academic approach that refers to the systematic identification of strengths and weakness of a research article with the intent of evaluating the usefulness and validity of the work's research findings. As with all essays, you need to be clear, concise, and logical in your presentation of arguments, analysis, and ...
What is critical appraisal? Critical appraisal involves a careful and systematic assessment of a study's trustworthiness or rigour (Booth et al., Citation 2016).A well-conducted critical appraisal: (a) is an explicit systematic, rather than an implicit haphazard, process; (b) involves judging a study on its methodological, ethical, and theoretical quality, and (c) is enhanced by a reviewer ...
Critical appraisal of a journal article 1. Introduction to critical appraisal Critical appraisal is the process of carefully and systematically examining research to judge its trustworthiness, and its value and relevance in a particular context. (Burls 2009) Critical appraisal is an important element of evidence-based medicine.
INTRODUCTION. Critical appraisal of a research paper is defined as "The process of carefully and systematically examining research to judge its trustworthiness, value and relevance in a particular context."[] Since scientific literature is rapidly expanding with more than 12,000 articles being added to the MEDLINE database per week,[] critical appraisal is very important to distinguish ...
A critical appraisal involves. a careful and systematic assessment of a study s trustworthiness. or methodological rigour, and contributes to assessing how. con fident people can be in the ...
SuMMarY. Critical appraisal is a systematic process used to identify the strengths. and weaknesse s of a res earch article in order t o assess the usefulness and. validity of r esearch findings ...
Critical appraisal is essential to: Combat information overload; Identify papers that are clinically relevant; Continuing Professional Development (CPD). Carrying out Critical Appraisal: Assessing the research methods used in the study is a prime step in its critical appraisal.
Critical appraisal is the assessment of research studies' worth to clinical practice. Critical appraisal—the heart of evidence-based practice—involves four phases: rapid critical appraisal, evaluation, synthesis, and recommendation. This article reviews each phase and provides examples, tips, and caveats to help evidence appraisers ...
Key Points About Critical Appraisal Tools. They aim to assess the trustworthiness, relevance, and results of published papers by examining different components of the research process. The content and criteria assessed by these tools can vary significantly, as there is a lack of consensus on the essential items for critical appraisal.
Key Points. Critical appraisal is a systematic process used to identify the strengths and weaknesses of a research article. Critical appraisal provides a basis for decisions on whether to use the ...
In addition, we have also discussed some of the relevant guidelines and recommendations for the critical appraisal of clinical research papers. CRITICAL APPRAISAL. Critical appraisal is the process of systematically examining the research evidence to assess its validity, results, and relevance before using it to inform a decision. It entails ...
Schondelmeyer A. C., Bettencourt A. P., Xiao R., Beidas R. S., Wolk C. B., Landrigan C. P., Brady P. W., Brent C. R., Parthasarathy P., Kern-Goldberger A. S., Sergay ...
A critical review (sometimes called a critique, critical commentary, critical appraisal, critical analysis) is a detailed commentary on and critical evaluation of a text. You might carry out a critical review as a stand-alone exercise, or as part of your research and preparation for writing a literature review. The
Critical appraisal allows us to: reduce information overload by eliminating irrelevant or weak studies. identify the most relevant papers. distinguish evidence from opinion, assumptions, misreporting, and belief. assess the validity of the study. assess the usefulness and clinical applicability of the study. recognise any potential for bias.
A "95% confidence interval" means that there is a 95% chance that the real difference between 2 groups would fall between the upper and lower limits measured. The wider the confidence interval, the more likely that a certain result will fall within that interval. Strong evidence will have a wider confidence interval.
Critical appraisal forms part of the process of evidence-based practice. " Evidence-based practice across the health professions " outlines the fives steps of this process. Critical appraisal is step three: Critical appraisal is the examination of evidence to determine applicability to clinical practice. It considers (1):
This may result in the application of quantitative understandings of bias in order to judge aspects of recruitment, sampling, data collection and analysis in qualitative research papers. One of the most widely used appraisal tools is the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP)26 and along with the JBI QARI (Joanna Briggs Institute ...
This article provides an approach to critically appraising papers based on the results of laboratory animal experiments, and discusses various bias domains in the literature that critical appraisal can identify. ... Critical appraisal of published research: introductory guidelines. BMJ (Clinical research ed). 1991;302(6785):1136-1140. 4.
Critical thinking is the foundation for good academic writing. It should inform every stage of the journey from planning your essay to embarking on your research project to writing the final draft of your paper. Evaluating and critically appraising sources is a key stage in this process, Critical engagement with the idea or topic.
Critical appraisal is the process of systematically examining research evidence to assess its validity, results, and relevance to inform clinical decision-making. All components of a clinical ...
Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications. ... "A Critical Appraisal of ...
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Data quality in health information systems has a complex structure and consists of several dimensions. This research conducted for identify Common data quality elements for health information systems. A literature review was conducted and search strategies run in Web of Knowledge, Science Direct, Emerald, PubMed, Scopus and Google Scholar search engine as an additional source for tracing ...
Inclusion and exclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria for this search to select relevant articles were as follows: (1) Full-text articles, (2) Papers published in the English language from 2010 to 2023, and (3) Articles that specifically describe the barriers perceived by critical care nurses that affect the quality of end-of-life care.
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