emotional intelligence college essays

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Emotional Intelligence: Key to College Success

By Eric Eng

Emotional intelligence (EI), or the ability to understand and manage one’s own emotions and the emotions of others, is a vital skill that can greatly benefit college students.

In such a dynamic setting, EI is crucial in helping college students manage their emotions, build healthy connections, and achieve their academic and personal goals. From developing self-awareness to practicing empathy and effective communication, EI skills can provide a foundation for success long after graduation.

In this blog post, we’ll delve into the importance of EI for college students and how it can shape their experiences and outcomes during this important time in their lives.

What is emotional intelligence?

What does it mean to be emotionally intelligent? EI is how well a person can recognize, control, and evaluate their own feelings and those of others. Some researchers think these skills come naturally, but some also think they can be taught or improved.

Most people think that to be successful in life, you need to have both a high intelligence quotient (IQ) and a high emotional quotient (EQ).

Four Components of Emotional Intelligence

The idea of EI can be broken down into four main parts to make it easier to understand:

1. Self-Awareness

How well a person understands their own feelings can be used to measure how self-aware they are.

One important part of this quality is being aware of how you feel about others. Many people think that people who are aware of themselves are more creative, have more confidence, and can make better decisions.

2. Self-Management

Self-management is a skill that starts with being aware of yourself. Since you are aware of your feelings, you can control and manage them, as well as the actions that come from them.

This is what it means to take good care of yourself. Instead of yelling or hitting out right away when something makes you angry, try taking a step back and taking a deep breath first.

This is a great example of how this rule works in the real world. Communication with other people and making decisions when you’re angry rarely go together well.

3. Social Awareness

Empathy is the most important part of social awareness. Someone with a strong sense of social awareness can understand how other people feel and respond to those feelings correctly. This is different from trying to see things from someone else’s point of view.

When it comes to being socially aware, what matters most is how the other person feels, not how you would act in their situation. People who are good at being socially aware are usually kind-hearted and respected.

4. Relationship Management

Relationship management, another name for social skills, often makes a good manager stand out from a mediocre one. This skill is also sometimes called “people skills.” Some of these skills include the ability to motivate others, solve problems, work well in a team, and have an effect on other people.

Not only are they helpful for building good professional relationships, but they can also help with other parts of a person’s personal life, like how their family works, how they get along with other people, and how they do in school group projects.

How does emotional intelligence impact students?

What kinds of things do students get out of being emotionally intelligent? EI can affect many parts of your life, like how well you do in school and at work.

Once you go to college, it’s clear that good grades will still be important. But this is also when you’ll start to see some of the other benefits of having a high EI.

Some studies have found that going to college and having a high EI can benefit a person’s emotional, social, and even physical health. If you work on your EI while you’re still in school, you’ll be better able to deal with problems when you go to college.

For example, university students with a high EI are more likely to:

• Be socially engaged and involved
• Feel less anxious and depressed
• Be in great physical shape
• Feel healthy

Like in high school, you will have more chances to become friends with your teachers and classmates.

How can college students improve their emotional intelligence?

What are some ways that college students can improve their EI? There are a number of ways to improve your EI, such as the following:

1. Practice self-awareness

Getting to know yourself better can be done in several ways. One way is by practicing mindfulness, which means paying attention only to the present and not worrying about things that don’t matter.

You could also ask people you can count on, like friends and family, what they think of your empathy, flexibility, willingness to work with others, and ability to adapt. Use criticism to improve your EI and grow as a person.

2. Empathize with others

You can also improve your EI by learning how to understand how other people feel. You can improve by reading books or articles, going to the theater, or even just appreciating different kinds of art. The important thing is to make you feel something, which could be anything from anger to joy and sadness to happiness.

3. Keep a good attitude

Being upbeat not only makes you more fun to be around, but it also helps your brain work better. Spending three to five minutes a day thinking about your goals or something good about yourself and your life can help reduce stress and improve your ability to learn.

Positive affirmations may sound like a new trend in self-help, but they are actually very helpful. Affirmations are a great way to get rid of negative thought patterns and change your outlook on life.

4. Listen to feedback

Getting feedback can be hard, especially when some of it is given as constructive criticism. When someone gives you feedback, don’t get defensive or try to explain why you did it. Instead, use those times to learn and think about what you might do differently the next time you’re in a similar situation.

The best way to find out how well you can listen is to get feedback on how you did. Even if you can’t understand what people are telling you at the time, you should practice listening and writing down what they say so you can think about it more later.

5. Understand your motivations

A person with high emotional intelligence will try to determine why the other person is acting the way they are before taking action. This not only makes the person less likely to make bad decisions on the spot, but it also makes them more aware of themselves.

6. Keep negative emotions in check

People with high EQs are less likely to get angry or frustrated when things go wrong. Instead, they pay attention to how they feel and only act when they think they can feel and talk about it healthily.

When you feel yourself getting angry, it can help you to meditate, pray, or think about something positive. It can also help to actively focus on positive affirmations or thoughts while doing these things. All of these things can help you stay away from bad feelings and thoughts.

Networking lets you talk to more people—the more people you talk to, the more chances you’ll have to improve your ability to understand others and make real connections with them.

How to Know if You Have a High Emotional Intelligence?

• You naturally care about other people and are interested in their problems.
• You are not easy to insult (you can poke fun at yourself).
• You can think about constructive criticism without defending yourself or blaming others.
• You quickly forgive people, and you don’t hold grudges against them.
• You quickly say you’re sorry when you’ve done something wrong or hurt someone’s feelings.
• You know how to end the connection and when to do it.
• You have excellent listening skills.
• You keep an open mind and don’t judge people quickly.
• You can interact with toxic people without getting upset.
• You don’t try to hide the truth, and you don’t try to avoid hard conversations.

How can students apply emotional intelligence?

How can students use EI in their lives? Emotionally intelligent people are good at recognizing and controlling their own emotions. They also have a good understanding of the social world and its relationships.

The most hopeful thing is that practice and experience can improve EI over time. All it takes to learn new things and grow as a person is effort and determination.

College is a great place to start learning how to be emotionally intelligent. A high EI will help you become a more mature and successful student and set you up for healthier relationships in both your personal and professional lives.

Here are five things you should do to improve your EI.

1. Identify your emotions

Feelings are important because they let you know what’s happening inside you. If you choose to ignore the warning, you will have a mental breakdown at some point.

Your body is a complex system, and your feelings are like “flashing lights” that show you how you’re doing right now, whether it’s good or bad. You can’t make your feelings go away by pushing them down or denying them.

To improve your EI, you should first become more aware of your current emotional state. Once you know what an emotion is and what it is called, you will be better able to understand it, control it, and respond to it in the right way. This is true for all of your feelings, including the ones that make you feel bad.

To apply emotional intelligence, make it a habit to pay attention to your feelings and let yourself feel them without judging them. Even though all feelings are real and should be considered, they don’t always show the world as it is.

Remember that your current feelings can and will change, no matter how strong or difficult they are. Even though you can’t change how you feel right now, you can change how you feel over time by thinking about it. You have much power over your thoughts, which is good news.

Also, don’t be afraid to look into the different kinds of consulting services that your college or other institution offers. This is a great way to look at how you feel.

2. Manage your stress

There is always pressure, and this is especially true for college students who have to deal with homework, tests, relationships, jobs, internships, and the fact that they don’t know what their future holds.

When you start to feel the pressure building up, it’s important to use healthy ways to deal with stress so you don’t collapse under its weight. Before acting on strong emotions, it’s important to consider both your choices’ short-term and long-term effects.

Make a list of things you can do that are good for your health and will help you relax instead of using unhealthy or ineffective ways to deal with stress. Here are some ideas to think about:

• Take a 15-minute break to help your mind.
• Play a few of the songs you like.
• Enjoy a good book.
• Create a to-do list.
• Learn to be grateful.
• Do something that will make your body move.
• Contact your loved ones.
• Bake or cook with friends.
• Help other people without getting paid.

3. Cultivate meaningful relationships

Emotional intelligence is about more than just you. It also includes how you interact with others, such as in friendships and close relationships. It is important to have a support system made up of people who know and respect you.

Even if you only make one or two good connections, they can have a big effect on your life. It can be tempting to stay inside yourself when you’re having a hard day or stretch of days. It’s fine to spend some time alone, but when you’re ready to talk to someone, it’s best to reach out to a trusted friend or family member.

Being a good friend yourself is the first step toward making relationships that work out well for others. Think about these tips for being polite in society:

• Learn about the lives of the people around you.
• Ask questions.
• Manifest your support.
• Send an audio message or a text message to say “hello.”
• Organize get-togethers.
• Share some laughter (or tears).
• When you do something wrong, admit it and say you’re sorry.

By doing these simple things, you’ll be able to show more empathy, which is the ability to understand and relate to the feelings and experiences of another person. Your ability to understand other people is what keeps you close to them.

4. Develop social awareness

If you want to do well in the world, you need to know how to deal with more than just your closest friends and family regarding social situations and environments.

As you go through college and beyond, you’ll meet people from many different cultures and ethnic groups. Spend some time getting to know your coworkers, roommates, teachers, and employees personally so you can get along with them better.

To apply emotional intelligence, put aside your ideas about people and talk to them with an open mind. Giving someone your full attention and paying close attention to what they say are both great ways to build empathy and mutual respect.

Instead of always trying to win an argument, learn to ask questions when you are in a disagreement or conflict. You should try to understand different ideas and points of view, but you should also remember that you can leave an unhealthy argument if it gets out of hand.

Also, it is important to set and keep healthy physical and emotional boundaries. No rule says everyone has to be available at all times.

In your relationships, it’s important to be clear about what you want and expect. Learn how and when to say “no.” You owe it to yourself to protect your time, privacy, and feelings, and you should do the same for other people.

5. Practice forgiveness

Even though forgiving someone is a simple thing to do, that doesn’t mean it’s easy. Getting there is both a choice and a process.

When you have been hurt in some way, whether physically or emotionally, it is only natural to feel angry and sad. When you let your anger grow into bitterness and resentment, that’s when you have a problem. At this point, you are hurting yourself and no one else. You have no one but yourself to blame.

Forgiveness is important because it allows a person’s mental, physical, emotional, and spiritual health to be restored, healed, and brought back to a state of wholeness.

One of the best ways to improve your EI is to put forgiveness first in your mind. You won’t have to worry about mistakes you made in the past, and you’ll be able to focus on the relationships in your life that mean the most to you.

In conclusion, EI plays a crucial role in the overall well-being and success of college students. Developing EI skills such as self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, motivation, and social skills can improve academic performance, relationships, and mental health.

By enhancing EI, college students can better understand themselves and others, manage their emotions effectively, and navigate complex social situations. Therefore, colleges and universities need to prioritize emotional intelligence education and incorporate it into their curriculum, campus culture, and student support services.

By doing so, they can equip students with the skills and tools necessary to thrive in both their personal and professional lives.

EI is a critical aspect of a student’s overall academic and personal success, making it an essential factor in the college admissions process.

The college admissions committee seeks students with a high level of EI because they are better equipped to handle the demands of college life , such as managing stress, building relationships, and making responsible decisions.

Here at AdmissionSight , our college admissions experts can help you showcase your EI in the college admissions process. We provide personalized college admissions consulting services, including guidance on how to present yourself as a well-rounded applicant with EI skills.

So why wait? Book your initial consultation today!

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Emotional intelligence, belongingness, and mental health in college students.

• 1 Department of Psychology, Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT, United States
• 2 Department of Psychological Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, United States

Mental health problems are prevalent amongst today’s college students and psychosocial stress has been identified as a strong contributing factor. Conversely, research has documented that emotional intelligence (EQ) is a protective factor for depression, anxiety and stress (mental health problems). However, the underlying mechanism whereby EQ may support stronger mental health is currently not well understood. This study used regression analyses to examine the hypothesis that belongingness (inclusion, rejection) partially mediates the effects of EQ (attention, clarity, repair) on psychological well-being in a large sample ( N = 2,094) of undergraduate students. Results supported the mediation hypotheses for all three EQ components and highlighted that the effects of rejection on psychological well-being were particularly strong. In line with prior research, our results indicate that prevention and intervention efforts with college students could explicitly target EQ skills in an effort to reduce perceived rejection and promote student well-being.

Introduction

Mental health problems.

High rates of mental health problems have been documented amongst college students (for a discussion see Auerbach et al., 2016 ; Xiao et al., 2017 ). For example, one study reported that 17% of surveyed students met diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder ( Selkie et al., 2015 ). Using the Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale (DASS-21) Mahmoud et al. (2012) found 29% of college students had elevated levels of depression, while 27% had elevated anxiety and 24% elevated stress. The elevated rates of depression, anxiety and stress (mental health problems) are also noted in national data such as those from the American College Health Association’s National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA; American College Health Association, 2019 ). In their survey of undergraduate students, ACHA reports 26% of students reported feeling so depressed in the past 30 days that it was difficult to function, while 43% of students reported feeling overwhelmed by anxiety in the same period of time ( American College Health Association, 2019 ). While recognizing that many factors contribute to the high rates of psychopathology of college students, past research indicates that psychosocial stress is associated with mental health problems (e.g., Dusselier et al., 2005 ; Drum et al., 2009 ). The transition to college is associated with the developmental challenge of changes to existing relationships ( Hurst et al., 2013 ) while college students also experience increased exploration in the context of declining social support systems ( Conley et al., 2014 ). Given the close link between psychosocial stress and student mental health, applied work has explicitly targeted psychosocial functioning of college students (e.g., Pratt et al., 2000 ; Conley et al., 2013 ).

Emotional Intelligence

In light of the increasing mental health problems and the influence of psychosocial factors for college students, it has become increasingly important to understand the role of emotional intelligence of college students as researchers and practitioners begin exploring opportunities for interventions. Emotional intelligence (EQ) includes “the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions” ( Mayer et al., 2004 , p. 197). The variability in EQ suggests that some individuals are better able to perceive, correctly identify, and regulate emotions than others ( Mayer and Salovey, 1997 ). Various strands of research suggest that higher levels of EQ are associated with various aspects of psychological well-being, including greater levels of subjective well-being ( Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2015 ), life satisfaction ( Extremera and Fernández-Berrocal, 2005 ), and better mental health ( Martins et al., 2010 ; Ruiz-Aranda et al., 2012 ). Further, research has also shown that different aspects of EQ are related to an individual’s ability to perform certain tasks, including academic ( Parker et al., 2004 ; Costa and Faria, 2015 ) and athletic achievement ( Perlini and Halverson, 2006 ). Focusing specifically on undergraduate students, higher levels of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence have been linked to greater college retention ( Parker et al., 2006 ) and end-of-year GPA among first-year students ( Schutte et al., 1998 ; Parker et al., 2004 ).

Moving beyond emotional adaptation and individual competence, EQ also appears to be involved in the shaping of social functioning. In a study of undergraduate students, researchers found that participants’ EQ was related to their satisfaction with social relationships ( Lopes et al., 2003 ). Specifically, participants who reported having higher levels of emotion regulation abilities were more likely to also report having positive relationships with others, perceiving support from parents, and were less likely to have negative interactions with a friend ( Lopes et al., 2003 ). These results were largely supported by a second study in which an individual’s self-reported emotion regulation abilities were significantly correlated with self-reported positive interactions with friends ( Lopes et al., 2004 ). A noteworthy strength of this study is that the individual’s self-reported emotion regulation abilities were also significantly correlated with friends’ reports of interpersonal functioning ( Lopes et al., 2004 ). Research has demonstrated that higher scores of EQ are associated with more social acceptance and fewer experiences of rejection ( Kokkinos and Kipritsi, 2012 ), as well as larger and more fulfilling social support networks ( Ciarrochi et al., 2001 ). Taken together, these results support the view that the multiple aspects of EQ are associated with better social functioning. Stated differently, individuals who are better able to recognize and regulate their own emotions appear better able to establish and maintain healthy social relationships with peers and parents.

Sense of Belonging

An important aspect of social functioning is a sense of belonging. The role of perceived belongingness in psychological well-being has also been explored. The seminal work of Baumeister and Leary (1995) provides a valuable theoretical background for this notion. According to the Need to Belong Theory (NBT; Baumeister and Leary, 1995 ), human beings are motivated to establish a certain amount of stable and positive interpersonal relationships ( Baumeister and Leary, 1995 ). There is extensive evidence to support the NBT. There is a strong positive relation between an individual’s sense of interpersonal belonging and their ratings of happiness and subjective well-being ( McAdams and Bryant, 1987 ). While a lack of social bonds, or explicit feelings of social exclusion, contribute to feelings of anxiety ( Baumeister and Tice, 1990 ; Leary, 1990 ; Williamson et al., 2018 ), other mental health outcomes, including depression, loneliness, and social anxiety, are greatly reduced when college students experience a sense of belonging ( O’Keeffe, 2013 ; Stebleton et al., 2014 ; Raymond and Sheppard, 2018 ). The need to belong may be particularly pronounced in college students and appears to serve a protective function when satisfied. Yet, despite evidence that EQ is associated with higher quality social interactions with peers ( Brackett et al., 2004 ; Lopes et al., 2004 ), the relation between EQ and belongingness among college students is not well understood.

The Current Study

High rates of mental health problems are well documented in today’s college population. In an effort to support the well-being of undergraduate students, predictors of mental health problems need to be identified and fostered. In recognizing that psychosocial stressors are contributing to some of the psychological distress reported by college students, aspects of EQ and belongingness have emerged as correlates of mental health problems. To our knowledge, no study to date has examined the association between the different aspects of EQ, belongingness, and mental health in college students. Additionally, elucidating the effects of the EQ subscales (attention, clarity, repair) on mental health in college students could provide an opportunity to direct interventions that target specific emotional skills. Given that greater levels of each of the aspects of EQ have been associated with better interpersonal relationships, this study tested the hypothesis that belongingness (whether measured as level of acceptance, rejection, or both) mediates the effects of the EQ subscales (attention, clarity, repair) on psychological well-being.

Materials and Methods

The Middlebury Institutional Review Board (IRB) approved all study procedures. An ongoing longitudinal study, the College Student Mental Health Pathways study, is a study exploring social/emotional development and mental health outcomes among undergraduate college students. The present analysis utilizes data from wave two, collected in 2019. All students at two liberal arts colleges in the United States received an email inviting them to participate in a study about student stress and mental health. Students who clicked on the link in the email were directed to an informed consent page, approved by the primary author’s IRB. Students were able to consent after reading the consent form by selecting one of two radio buttons, ‘I consent to participate’ or ‘I do not consent to participate’. A total of 2,094 students completed wave two of the study, which resulted in a participation rate of 45.86%. At the completion of the survey, students could enter their contact information into a separate survey to participate in a raffle to win a gift card (values ranged from $25–100).

Demographics

Participants reported demographic information including gender, race/ethnicity, perceived socioeconomic status (SES), and sexual orientation. A majority of the sample identified as female (58.31%, n = 1,221), 38.73% ( n = 811) identified as male and 2.96% ( n = 62) non-binary. The majority of respondents identified as heterosexual, 79.04% ( n = 1,655), while 4.06% ( n = 85) identified as gay/lesbian, and 8.26% ( n = 173) identified as bisexual. Seventy-three percent ( n = 1,519) of the sample identified as White, followed by Asian 9.31% ( n = 195), Latinx 9.03% ( n = 189), and those identifying as mixed race or other 4.78% ( n = 100). Perceived SES status included 51.21% ( n = 1,060) of participants identifying as middle SES, 37.25% ( n = 771) as high SES, and 11.5% ( n = 239) as lower SES. The average age of the students was 19.94 ( SD = 1.33). Demographics are presented in Table 1 .

Table 1. Participant characteristics.

Depression, Anxiety, and Stress

The DASS-21 scale ( Henry and Crawford, 2005 ) was used to assess depression, anxiety, and stress. The scale can be utilized as a sum score or as three individual scales (i.e., depression, anxiety, stress). Participants were asked to respond to statements indicating how frequently in the past week they experienced any of the symptoms. Response sets and associated values for scoring were as follow: (0) did not apply to me at all, (1) applied to me to some degree, or some of the time, (2) applied to me a considerable degree or a good part of time, (3) applied to me very much or most of the time. Each scale contained seven items, with associated scores ranging from 0 to 21. Items in the measure include: “I found it difficult to work up the initiative to do things” (depression), “I felt I was close to panic” (anxiety) and “I found it hard to wind down” (stress). Due to the strong intercorrelations between depression, anxiety and stress (see Table 2 ), the composite DASS score was used to better capture the totality of the mental health experience. Cronbach’s alpha for the full scale was 0.93.

Table 2. Correlations and descriptive statistics for variables of interest.

Belongingness

The General Belongingness Scale (GBS; Malone et al., 2012 ) was used to measure experiences of belongingness. The GBS contains two subscales: Inclusion and Rejection. Each subscale contains six items and participants responded to each item using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Sample items include: “I feel accepted by others” (Inclusion) and “When I am with other people, I feel like a stranger” (Rejection). Inclusion and Rejection are potentially orthogonal; it is possible for a respondent to be high (or low) on both, reflecting the simultaneous experience of being included in some circumstances and rejected in others. Cronbach’s alphas were 0.92 for the Inclusion subscale and.89 for the Rejection subscale.

The Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS; Salovey et al., 1995 ) was used to measure three forms of emotional intelligence: attention to emotions (Attention), emotional clarity (Clarity) and repair of emotions (Repair). The TMMS includes 30 items, 13 for Attention, 11 for Clarity, and 6 for Repair. Participants were asked to use a five-point Likert scale (strongly disagree to strongly agree) to indicate their agreement with each item. Example items include: “I pay a lot of attention to how I feel” (Attention), “Sometimes I can’t tell what my feelings are” (Clarity), and “I try to think good thoughts no matter how badly I feel” (Repair). Cronbach’s alphas for the subscales were: 0.87 for Attention, 0.86 for Clarity, and 0.81 for Repair.

Statistical Procedures

Three parallel mediation models were independently estimated using the PROCESS macro ( Hayes, 2017 ), using pre-defined Model 4. Consistent with the original conceptualization of the TMMS as consisting of independent subscales (Attention, Clarity, and Repair), and with more recent factor analyses that found low levels of cross-loading amongst empirically observed factors ( Palmer et al., 2003 ), the models were estimated separately in order to illustrate the independent contributions of each subscale. Models were estimated both with and without demographic covariates. Covariates tested were gender identification, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, and race/ethnicity, all dummy coded to allow for their inclusion in ordinary least squares regression modeling. The resulting models including covariates did not differ in significance, sign, or approximate coefficient value from the models that did not include covariates. For ease of interpretation the models represented do not show the covariates.

Bivariate correlations were estimated for variables of interest and are shown in Table 2 . Note that statistically significant (and meaningfully large) correlations were observed amongst most of the variables, with only the relationships between Attention and Stress having a p > 0.05, and only the relationships between Stress and Anxiety and the DASS Full Scale having an estimated p > 0.01. The correlations between the DASS Full Scale and the DASS subscales are presented for completeness, but should be interpreted with caution, since the full scale consists of the sum of the subscales, and thus the measures are not independent.

Tables 3 – 6 show differences in the variables of interest by gender ( Table 3 ), socioeconomic status ( Table 4 ), sexual orientation ( Table 5 ), and race/ethnicity ( Table 6 ). Significance was calculated using ANOVAs, and is marked with subscripts on all three tables at the p < 0.05 level.

Table 3. Gender differences in Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS), Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS) and General Belongingness Scale (GBS).

Table 4. Socioeconomic differences in Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS), Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS), and General Belongingness Scale (GBS).

Table 5. Sexual orientation differences in Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS), Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS), and General Belongingness Scale (GBS).

Table 6. Racial/ethnic differences in Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS), Trait Meta Mood Scale (TMMS), and General Belongingness Scale (GBS).

Tables 7 – 9 show the results of a series of parallel mediation models conducted with PROCESS ( Hayes, 2017 ). These models tested whether the relationship between each of the three TMMS subscales (Attention, Clarity, and Repair) and the DASS Full Scale measure of mental health symptoms was mediated by either or both of the GBS scales (Inclusion and Rejection). Thus, Model 1 (see Figure 1 for an illustration and Table 7 for details) tests whether the relationship between Attention and the DASS Full Scale is mediated by Inclusion, Rejection or both; Table 8 and Figure 2 show the same model, but with Clarity; and Table 9 and Figure 3 show the same model, but with Repair. Both the unstandardized and fully standardized coefficients are presented for the total effect of each indirect path, for each model. As per Hayes (2017) , the fully standardized coefficients are reasonable measures of effect size, although some debate persists about how best to present effect sizes for more complex mediation models. The standardized coefficients for each indirect path represent the predicted change in DASS Full Scale (as measured in standard deviations) associated with a one standard deviation change in TMMS Attention, Clarity, or Repair (respectively).

Table 7. Parallel mediation model of TMMS Attention predicting DASS Full scale, mediated by GBS Inclusion and Rejection.

Table 8. Parallel mediation model of TMMS Clarity predicting DASS Full scale, mediated by GBS Inclusion and Rejection.

Table 9. Parallel mediation model of TMMS Repair predicting DASS Full scale, mediated by GBS Inclusion and Rejection.

Figure 1. GBS Inclusion and Rejection partially mediate the relationship between TMMS Attention and DASS Full scale. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

Figure 2. GBS Inclusion and Rejection partially mediate the relationship between TMMS Clarity and DASS Full scale. *p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

Figure 3. GBS Inclusion and Rejection partially mediate the relationship between TMMS Repair and DASS Full scale. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

All three models accounted for a significant portion of the variance in the outcome measure; see Tables 7–9 and Figures 1–3 for coefficients and model fit information. The 95% CI for the indirect path between TMMS Repair and DASS Full Scale through GBS Inclusion included zero, which suggests that the strength of that pathway is not of meaningful or statistically significant size. Note that all models reflect partial mediation, and that a protective indirect effect of Attention (through Inclusion and Rejection) is partially suppressed by a deleterious direct effect of Attention of mental health burden. Note that the size of this sample may reduce the interpretability of NHST measures of significance, and that the size and sign of the coefficients are more meaningful.

This study sought to elucidate the association between EQ and adaptive functioning in college students. Specifically, the models tested whether sense of belongingness mediates the association between EQ and adaptation. We hypothesized that students with stronger EQ abilities would report higher levels of belongingness which, in turn, would be associated with better mental health. Conversely, we also expected that students with lower levels of EQ would be more likely to experience rejection which, in turn, would be linked to higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress.

These results broadly supported our hypothesis: students with more EQ (as evidenced by higher scores on any or all of the subscales) experienced higher levels of belongingness (more inclusion and less rejection) which, in turn, was associated with lower overall mental health problems. The exception was the indirect pathway between TMMS Repair and DASS Full Scale through GBS Inclusion, which was not of meaningful size. While inclusion was found to be meaningful in predicting mental health, it was the experience of rejection that was the stronger predictor of mental health outcomes. Specifically, students with lower levels of EQ are experiencing higher levels of rejection, and it is rejection which has the most significant impact on the DASS full scale mental health outcome. These results implicitly support the modeling of inclusion and rejection as orthogonal scales, as per the GBS ( Malone et al., 2012 ). The effects of rejection on depression in adolescent populations is well established (for a review see Platt et al., 2013 ). Our findings extend the existing research by demonstrating that among emerging adults, the experience of rejection is associated with higher levels of mental health problems. The experience of being included does have a protective effect, but, since high levels of inclusion and rejection can be experienced by the same person, working to improve inclusion is unlikely to be sufficient to reduce mental health burdens: the reduction of experience of rejection is likely to have a larger impact.

Implications

These findings have implications for applied work. Results from our mediation analyses suggested a strong link between perceived rejection and mental health problems. Such results tentatively suggest that intervention efforts could target students who are experiencing feelings of rejection or isolation within their college community. Once identified, these students could be targeted with additional supports, such as short-term counseling, to support well-being. Taking a preventative approach, campus initiatives that support regular and healthy student interactions should continue to receive funding such that they can be maximally effective. A focus on increasing students’ sense of belonging should also seek to lower experiences of rejection. Given that each of the scales of EQ was independently related to sense of belongingness, targeting and strengthening emotional intelligence would also be a potential avenue for prevention and intervention efforts. However, further research is needed to further elucidate the association between EQ, belongingness, and mental health in college samples. Such research should address both the differences in impact between the EQ subscales and explore the extent to which Attention, Clarity, and Repair may vary in their malleability. If, as these results suggest, they are each independently linked to important mental health outcomes, then a targeted intervention would be most effective if it targeted the aspect of EQ most susceptible to intentional change.

Limitations

Our results should be interpreted in the context of the study’s limitations. First, the study was based on student self-report, which has inherent and well-documented limitations. A second weakness relates to the representativeness of our sample; participants were recruited from two small, competitive liberal arts colleges thereby potentially limiting generalizability of study findings. Similarly, there might be systematic differences between those students who decided to complete the survey and those who chose not to participate. Lastly, data was collected at one timepoint, which limits our ability to make strong inferences about causality. Future research should recruit samples that are more representative of the overall college student population and consider using multi-informant assessments (e.g., friends, parents) to corroborate the self-report data. Longitudinal data collection could also help establish the causal relationship between the three study variables. These limitations notwithstanding, our findings expand what is known about college student well-being by suggesting that EQ and a sense of belongingness are related to mental health symptoms of college students.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated for this study will not be made publicly available in order to maintain confidentiality of the study participants. Requests to access the datasets should be directed to the corresponding author.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Middlebury College Institutional Review Board. The patients/participants provided their electronic informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

RM and MS contributed conception, design, and database organization. RM, MS, and VP contributed equally to analyses, draft of the manuscript as well as revisions, and approved the submitted version.

Research reported in this publication was supported by an Institutional Development Award (IDeA) from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health under grant number P20GM103449. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of NIGMS or NIH. Additional support was provided by the Middlebury College research leave program.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords : mental health, college students, emotional intelligence, belonging, depression, anxiety, stress, rejection

Citation: Moeller RW, Seehuus M and Peisch V (2020) Emotional Intelligence, Belongingness, and Mental Health in College Students. Front. Psychol. 11:93. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00093

Received: 22 September 2019; Accepted: 13 January 2020; Published: 31 January 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Moeller, Seehuus and Peisch. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Robert W. Moeller, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

The Effect of Students Emotional Intelligence on Academic Performance Proposal

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Literature review, methodology / plan of study.

This research proposal will investigate the effect of emotional intelligence (EI) on academic performance. Many psychologist researchers acknowledge the fact that emotions are core to learning and that teachers should understand their role during the learning experience. EI is imperative in academic performance yet it is not part of the school curriculum.

The findings of the study will be used to assist students to see the importance of controlling their emotions and teachers to realize the need of integrating the components of EI into the curriculum and implementing them. The objective of the study will be to find out the effect of students emotional intelligence on academic performance.

An emotional intelligence bar and academic performance checklist will be used to collect data from students of both public and private schools. The emotional intelligence bar and the checklist will be compared to determine the correlation between emotional intelligence and academic performance.

Background to the study

Many psychologist researchers acknowledge the fact that emotions are core to learning and that teachers should understand their role during the learning experience. An emotion is the outward expression of a person as he tries to interact with the environment on matters affecting his life while intelligence is the ability of a person to think logically (Bell, 2010).

Intelligence is not usually related to emotions and it is mostly used in schools to measure performance. According to Van Rooy & Viswesvaran (2004), there is a positive correlation between academic performance and emotions. They recommended that teachers should integrate the component of EI into the curriculum so that students can have high academic performance.

Parker et al., (2004) explained that EI is the ability of a person to control his emotions and guide his thoughts and actions. When a person is emotionally intelligent, he has the skills of detecting, utilizing, comprehending and controlling emotions. Additionally, Parker et al., (2004) stated that EI has five components that include self-awareness, self-motivation, management, empathy and relating well with others.

The aim of the teacher is to ensure that students excel in academic performance. In the past, people believed that success depend on intelligent quotient (IQ). Recently, several theories have emerged and they include multiple and emotional intelligence. Therefore, academic performance depends on intelligence and handling of emotions.

The statement problem

EI is imperative in academic performance yet it is not part of the school curriculum. Van Rooy & Viswesvaran (2004) stated that many students have difficulties copping with schoolwork under strong emotional challenges like long walk to school, boring teachers and poor learning environment like overcrowded class. It is therefore important to measure the effect of students’ emotional intelligence on academic performance.

The significance of the study

The findings of the study will be used to assist students to see the importance of controlling their emotions and teachers to realize the need of integrating the components of EI into the curriculum and implementing them.

Research questions

• Do student who perform well have high levels of EI?
• Do students with low performance have low levels of EI?

The objective

To find out the effect of students emotional intelligence on academic performance

• Independent. Emotional intelligence
• Dependent. Academic performance

Null: Students with high emotional intelligence will not have a higher succeeding rate on academic performance

Alternative: Students with high emotional intelligence will have a higher succeeding rate on academic performance

The evolution of emotional intelligence

Many psychologists have attempted to explore the link between academic performance and personality but with little success. Austin et al., (2005) concluded that a positive correlation exist between academic performance and creativity which encompass a person’s personality as well as motivation.

Austin et al., (2005) was able to demonstrate the significance of personality in academic performance but could not associate it with motivation.

Parker et al., (2005) conducted another study and they could associate personality with academic performance. According to Parker et al., (2005), personality included emotional stability of a person, sociability, independence in decision-making and reflective capacity.

They concluded that IQ and personality could be used to predict academic performance of a student. Besides, the aforementioned constituents of personality are similar to components of EI. Gardener introduced the theory of multiple intelligence and it opened ways to emotional intelligence (Van Rooy & Viswesvaran, 2004).

EI has five components, which have significant effects on academic performance. They include self-awareness, self-motivation, management, empathy and relating well with others.

The link between emotional intelligence and academic performance

Dysfunction personality, which is an element of EI, is attributed to low academic performance. A student with dysfunction personality lack self-esteem, motivation, self-control and is always anxious (Parker et al., 2005). The aforementioned student is said to be of low EI and has low academic performance.

Cote & Miners (2006) conducted a study about emotional intelligence and they realized that it moderated the association between performance in academics and logic ability. They found out that students with high academic performance had high coping mechanisms and ability to manage and adapt to stressful conditions.

According to Van Rooy & Viswesvaran (2004), emotional intelligence is related to academic performance because academic is self-directed and it need self-management. Thus, students with high levels of emotional intelligent perform better academically than their counterparts with low intelligence.

The link between the different components of emotional intelligence and academic performance

Self-awareness.

Self-awareness enables a student to know his weakness and strength, thus, building self-confidence. In a research done, Parker et al., (2004) found out that among students with high IQ, those with self-awareness had high academic performance than the rest.

Therefore, self-awareness is elemental to learning. Students need to understand the learning process. Those with self-awareness have an intrinsic motivation and will have high performance.

Emotional management

Self-control on cognition is an imperative aspect of high academic performance (Parker et al., 2005). Self-control enable a student to reduce any difficulty that he face, control an adverse action, achieve the set objectives, thus, increase in performance.

Austin et al., (2005) stated that all students become frustrated when they fail and they can only succeed if they are able to control their negative emotions. In another study, Austin et al., (2005) stated that students who were able to control their impulse had high academic performance and excellent social skills. Teachers can achieve better performance by targeting emotional management.

Parker et al., (2004) explored the relationship between empathy and high academic performance and found out that students with ability of identifying with emotions of others performed well in class. Besides, those with low levels of empathy performed poorly at class.

In another research, Cote & Miners (2006) analyzed the academic performance of students with the same IQ but with different levels of empathy. He found that student with high levels of empathy had high academic performance. This is because they had a high academic motivation therefore, good academic performance.

Self-motivation

Motivation is the desire that control ones interest and it allows an individual to participate in the learning activities (Parker et al., 2005). A student who has self-motivation will study as well as understand the learning goals thus, excelling in academics.

In a study done, Van Rooy & Viswesvaran (2004) concluded that a positive correlation exist between academic achievement and self-motivation. A student with self-motivation can control his behavior and concentrate on academic works because of his ability to interact with the environment and other people.

Interpersonal skills

Academic performance depends on the ability of a student to socialize and control his emotions. Parker et al., (2005) stated that academic performance is associated with ones aspirations and abilities of interacting with the environment.

The learning environment can remove a behavior that leads to success, thus, interpersonal skill is mandatory for high academic performance. According to Cote & Miners (2006), interpersonal skills like tolerance and following teachers instruction is significant for academic achievement. Therefore, students with interpersonal skills show good performance.

Research design

The study will be a cross sectional descriptive study. The study instruments will be a bar on emotional intelligence that will be used to determine the level of emotional intelligence of the students and a checklist for analyzing the academic performance.

Study population

The study will be carried out on consenting students from both public and private schools.

• Inclusion criteria. Any consenting student who attends public or private school will be included in the study.
• Exclusion criteria. Any non-consenting student will be excluded in the study.

Sampling method

Systematic random sampling will be used. The first student to be included in the study will be determined by simple random sampling.

The sampling interval width will be determined by the formula:

K = N / n (Bell, 2010)

K will be the sampling width interval

N will be the total number of students in school per day.

n will be the size of the sample to be analyzed per day.

Sample size determination

The sample size will be calculated by the formula; √n = (t 0.01 x q) ÷0.5

By Bell (2010)

n will be the sample size

t 0.01 will be value of t at 99% confidence interval which was 2.576

q will be obtained from previously comparable studies.

Data collection procedures

The method of data collection will be a cross sectional analysis of students interview.

The data collection instruments will be a bar on emotional intelligence and checklists for analysis of academic performance.

Data collection

First, the selected student will be interviewed using a bar on emotional intelligence. This is a bar that was developed to measure the level of emotional intelligence and it has fifty questions. Secondly, the student will fill his academic performance on a checklist.

The average performance will be calculated. Thereafter, the score on emotional intelligence test and performance checklist will be compared to determine if there is a relationship between emotional intelligence and academic performance.

Data management and analysis

Field editing of the collected data will be done manually at the end of data collection process on that specific day. Central editing, coding, classification and tabulation of the data will be done at the end of data collection process using the excel computer program. The data will be analyzed using the same program and presented in forms of tables.

Design problems

Some students who qualify to be included in the study may refuse to participate. Others may drop out in the middle of the study. Some student may not tell the truth and this will be beyond my control. This is called Hawthorne effect and it usually interferes with the validity and reliability of the research.

Expected findings

Based on other research findings, I expect to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis, which states that students with high emotional intelligence will have a higher succeeding rate on academic performance.

Ethical considerations

A written authority to carry out research will be obtained from the specific schools whose students will be included in the study. The relevance and usefulness of the research will be explained. Information will be collected from the participants after their expressed willingness and informed consent has been given.

They will be made aware of the type of information wanted, the purpose it will be put on, how they will be expected to participate in the study and how the study will be expected to directly or indirectly affect them. The consent will be voluntary without pressure of any kind.

No harm will be caused to any participant in the study. No bias will be involved in the study. Appropriate research methodology will be used, this means that a representative sample will be selected, a valid instrument will be used and correct conclusions will be drawn. The findings will be reported in a way that will not serve my own or someone else’s interest. The information obtained will be used for the good of the participants.

Austin, E. J., Evans, P., Goldwater, R., & Potter, V. (2005). A preliminary study of emotional intelligence, empathy and exam performance in first year medical students. Personality and Individual Differences, 39 (8), 1395–1405.

Bell, J. (2010). Doing Your Research Project . Columbia: McGraw-Hill International.

Cote, S., & Miners, C. T. H. (2006). Emotional intelligence, cognitive intelligence, and job performance. Administrative Science Quarterly, 51 (1), 1–28.

Parker, J. D. A., Creque, R. E., Barnhart, D. L., Harris, J. I., Majeski, S. A., Wood, L. M., Bond, B. J., et al. (2005). Academic achievement in high school: does emotional intelligence matter? Personality and Individual Differences, 37 (7), 1321–1330.

Parker, J. D. A., Summerfeldt, L. J., Hogan, M. J., & Majeski, S. A. (2004). Emotional intelligence and academic success: Examining the transition from high school to university. Personality and individual differences, 36 (1), 163–172.

Van Rooy, D. L., & Viswesvaran, C. (2004). Emotional intelligence: A meta-analytic investigation of predictive validity and nomological net. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65 (1), 71–95.

Appendix A: Budget

Appendix B: Respondent Consent Form

I hereby certify that i have been informed of the nature of this study and i give my consent to offer any information which is required of me.

Signature of Respondent: _______________________

Date__________________________

Signature of Researcher: _______________________

Date: _________________________

Appendix C: Emotional Intelligence Bar

Please tick in the appropriate column

Appendix D: Performance Checklist

Please fill in your academic performance

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How to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence

An overview of the importance of Emotional Intelligence for your own success and the success of your organization.

Harvard DCE Professional & Executive Development

Today’s in-demand skills are increasingly technical in nature. However, there’s a corresponding need for the uniquely human ability to work with and through others to accomplish important goals.

Enter emotional intelligence (EI), a set of skills that help us recognize, understand, and manage our own emotions as well as recognize, understand and influence the emotions of others.

We recently spoke with Margaret Andrews , instructor of Emotional Intelligence in Leadership , about how people can build EI for better interpersonal relations. Andrews is the former associate dean at Harvard University’s Division of Continuing Education and executive director at the MIT Sloan School of Management.

“Emotional intelligence is critical in building and maintaining relationships and influencing others — key skills that help people throughout their career and wherever they sit in an organizational structure,” says Andrews.

Additionally, research suggests that people with a high emotional quotient (EQ) are more innovative and have higher job satisfaction than those with lower EQs.

Let’s dive into what exactly EI entails, and how you can improve on this essential component of successful relationships.

What Are the Components of Emotional Intelligence?

Emotional intelligence is a set of skills and behaviors. While some people will be naturally more adept at certain aspects, EI can be learned, developed, and enhanced.

The four main components of EI are self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness, and social skills:

Self-Awareness

Self-awareness is the ability to identify and understand your own emotions and the impact we have on others. It’s the cornerstone of emotional intelligence and the other components of EI depend on this self-awareness.

“It all starts with self-awareness, which is foundation of EI, and it builds from there. If you’re aware of your own emotions and the behaviors they trigger, you can begin to manage these emotions and behaviors,” says Andrews.

Our emotions impact our mood, behaviors, performance, and interactions with other people. “We are all having emotions all the time,” says Andrews, “the question is whether you are aware of these emotions and the impact they have on your behavior — and other people.”

According to Tasha Eurich, an organizational psychologist, researcher, and author of Insight , people who are self-aware tend to be more confident and more creative. They also make better decisions, build stronger relationships, and communicate more effectively.

Self-Regulation

Self-awareness opens the door to self-regulation, which is the ability to manage these emotions and behaviors. Once we’re aware of our emotions, we can begin to manage them and keep the disruptive emotions and impulses under control.

“People with strong self-regulation can pause and take a deep breath in tense and stressful situations, explains Andrews, “which helps them remain calm and think before they speak or act.”

These people tend toward a positive outlook and are adaptable to a variety of situations and circumstances. “On the flip side,” she says, “those that cannot contain their negative emotions and impulses often set off a chain reaction of negative emotions in others.”

“There’s an old adage that people join organizations and leave managers,” says Andrews, “and it’s true. So, companies — or managers — that have high turnover rates should take a look in the mirror.”

Social Awareness

Social awareness is our ability to understand the emotions of others and a key component of this is empathy.

Jamil Zaki, a Stanford professor and author of The War for Kindness , describes empathy as having three components — identifying what others feel, sharing this emotion, and wishing to improve their experience.

“It’s not about how you would feel in their situation, but rather, how they actually feel,” says Andrews.

People with strong social awareness tend toward kindness. However, this doesn’t mean they cannot give others difficult feedback — in fact, they may be better at delivering this ‘tough love’ because they understand the other person and want to help them improve.

Social Skills

“Social skills are what separate a great manager from a good one,” says Andrews.

These skills, which include influence, conflict management, teamwork, and the ability to inspire others, make it possible to build and maintain healthy relationships in all parts of your life.

People with strong social skills can make an enormous difference on a team and in organizations because they understand others and act on this knowledge to move people toward a common goal.

To improve your emotional intelligence, you need to start at the beginning, with self-awareness. However, gauging your self-awareness is innately difficult because, as Andrews puts it, “you don’t know what you don’t know.”

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Research Reveals Barriers to Self-Awareness

Without an objective sense of who you are and what drives you, it’s nearly impossible to be emotionally intelligent. Andrews cites a study by Tasha Eurich which found that 95 percent of participants gave themselves high marks in self-awareness.

However, using more empirical measures of self-awareness, the study found that only 10-15 percent of the cohort was truly self-aware.

That’s a pretty big gap, and one that suggests most of us aren’t very self-aware. What’s worse, research also shows that managers and CEOs may be the least self-aware of all. This is not despite their authority, but quite possibly because of it.

Eurich wrote in the Harvard Business Review that the more power someone obtains, the more likely they are to be overconfident about how well they know themselves. After all, those at the top of the chain have fewer people giving them feedback.

Often, when managers do receive feedback from employees, it isn’t as honest as it might be because subordinates are afraid of incurring negative consequences. Managers are insulated from criticism, and as a result, self-awareness sinks.

Receiving honest, constructive feedback is key to becoming self-aware. Andrews notes that a 360-degree emotional intelligence assessment can be a very effective way to gain insight into your EI-components and the impact you have on others.

“Many people shrug off differences in how they rate themselves versus how others rate them on EI competencies by saying that they’re too hard on themselves or that others don’t really understand their intent,” says Andrews, “but really it shows a lack of self-awareness.”

What Are the Signs of Emotional Intelligence?

Emotional intelligence is a set of skills and behaviors that can be learned and developed. Here are some telltale signs of people with low EQ and those with high EQ.

People with low EQ:

• Often feels misunderstood
• Get upset easily
• Become overwhelmed by emotions
• Have problems being assertive

People with high EQ:

• Understand the links between their emotions and how they behave
• Remain calm and composed during stressful situations
• Are able to influence others toward a common goal
• Handle difficult people with tact and diplomacy

Three Steps Toward Improved Emotional Intelligence

Developing emotional intelligence is an ongoing process. The journey differs from person to person. Nonetheless, according to Andrews, the following actions may lead you to better self-awareness, empathy, and social skills.

1. Recognize your emotions and name them

What emotions are you feeling right now? Can you name them? When in a stressful situation, what emotions typically arise? How would you like to respond in these situations? Can you stop to pause and reconsider your response? Taking a moment to name your feelings and temper your reactivity is an integral step toward EI.

2. Ask for feedback

Audit your self-perception by asking managers, colleagues, friends, or family how they would rate your emotional intelligence. For example, ask them about how you respond to difficult situations, how adaptable or empathetic you are, and/or how well you handle conflict. It may not always be what you want to hear, but it will often be what you need to hear.

3. Read literature

Studies show that reading literature with complex characters can improve empathy . Reading stories from other people’s perspectives helps us gain insight into their thoughts, motivations, and actions and may help enhance your social awareness.

How to Establish a Culture of Emotional Intelligence

Building E.I. in yourself is one thing, but influencing others to adopt a more empathetic mindset can be a challenge. To create a culture of high EQ, managers and supervisors must model emotionally intelligent behavior.

“If you want to change how your organization does in EI, you can set norms for how people communicate and how they disagree,” says Andrews.

In addition, you need to recognize and celebrate those that exhibit emotional intelligence.;

“Start making heroes of people who help other people,” says Andrews. “It’s not just the person who got to the top of the mountain first — it’s all the people who helped them. If you want to encourage good team behavior, recognize it, and call it out for what it is.”

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The Importance of Emotional Intelligence (Incl. Quotes)

Can you manage those feelings without allowing them to swamp you?

Can you motivate yourself to get jobs done? Do you sense the emotions of others and respond effectively?

If you answered yes to these questions, it is likely that you have developed some or all of the skills that form the basis of emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence ( EI ) forms the juncture at which cognition and emotion meet, it facilitates our capacity for resilience, motivation, empathy, reasoning, stress management, communication, and our ability to read and navigate a plethora of social situations and conflicts. EI matters and if cultivated affords one the opportunity to realize a more fulfilled and happy life.

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will not only enhance your ability to understand and work with your emotions but will also give you the tools to foster the emotional intelligence of your clients, students or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is the importance of emotional intelligence, five categories of emotional intelligence (ei/eq), value and benefits of emotional intelligence.

• Self Management, Self Regulation, and EQ

Resilience and EQ

Does emotional intelligence matter more than iq, is there a link between ei and job performance, how about emotional intelligence and motivation, using emotional intelligence to deal with stress, linking ei and decision-making, can emotional intelligence and success be related, goals and ei, how eq affects communication, why emotional intelligence matters for happiness.

• 6 Youtube Videos and TED Talks on Emotional Intelligence

21 Quotes on the Value of Emotional Intelligence

A take-home message.

The term ‘ Emotional Intelligence ’, first coined by psychologists Mayer and Salovey (1990), refers to one’s capacity to perceive, process and regulate emotional information accurately and effectively, both within oneself and in others and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions and to influence those of others.

Emotional intelligence can lead us on the path to a fulfilled and happy life by providing a framework through which to apply standards of intelligence to emotional responses and understand that these responses may be logically consistent or inconsistent with particular beliefs about emotion.

As the workplace evolves, so too does the body of research supporting that individuals (from interns to managers) with higher EI are better equipped to work cohesively within teams, deal with change more effectively, and manage stress – thus enabling them to more efficiently pursue business objectives.

Goleman (1995) recognized five distinct categories of skills which form the key characteristics of EI and proposed that, unlike one’s intelligence quotient (IQ), these categorical skills can be learned where absent and improved upon where present.

Thus, EI, unlike its relatively fixed cousin, IQ, is instead a dynamic aspect of one’s psyche and includes behavioral traits that, when worked upon, can yield significant benefits, from personal happiness and wellbeing to elevated success in a professional context.

Self-awareness is the first step toward introspective self-evaluation and enables one to identify behavioral and emotional aspects of our psychological makeup which we can then target for change.

Emotional self-awareness is also about recognizing what motivates you and, in turn, what brings you fulfillment.

• Self-regulation: the ability to manage one’s negative or disruptive emotions, and to adapt to changes in circumstance. Those who are skilled in self-regulation excel in managing conflict, adapt well to change and are more likely to take responsibility.
• Motivation: the ability to self-motivate, with a focus on achieving internal or self-gratification as opposed to external praise or reward. Individuals who are able to motivate themselves in this way have a tendency to be more committed and goal focused.
• Empathy: the ability to recognize and understand how others are feeling and consider those feelings before responding in social situations. Empathy also allows an individual to understand the dynamics that influence relationships, both personal and in the workplace.
• Social skills: the ability to manage the emotions of others through emotional understanding and using this to build rapport and connect with people through skills such as active listening, verbal and nonverbal communication.
• Self-awareness: the ability to recognize and understand one’s own emotions and their impact on others.

Emotional intelligence has been shown to play a meaningful role in academic success, mental and physical health, as well as attainment in professional domains; the findings of Bar-On (1997) suggested that people with higher EI performed better than those with lower EI in life.

In the modern, agile workplace, there is an ever-increasing emphasis from employers on the importance of EI over academic qualifications.

The importance of EI should not go unappreciated; the ability to understand and manage your emotions is the first step in realizing your true potential. How can we achieve meaningful progress if we don’t recognize and acknowledge the point from where we’re starting? When checking directions on your sat-nav, a destination is useless unless we know the origin.

Whether it be connecting with others and improving interpersonal communication, achieving success in the workplace or social relationships, dealing with stress and improving motivation or refining decision-making skills – emotional intelligence plays a central role in realizing success in both personal and professional life.

The value and benefits of emotional intelligence are vast in terms of personal and professional success. It is a core competency in many vocations, can support the advancement towards academic and professional success, improve relationships, and boost communication skills, the list goes on.

Bar-On (1997) goes so far as to suggest that people with higher EI tend to perform better than those with lower EI in life overall, regardless of IQ. There has been much discussion regarding the benefits of teaching EI in schools , with an emphasis on the idea that emotionally intelligent children grow up to become emotionally intelligent adults.

Proficiency in EI is becoming a vital prerequisite in prolonged or intense areas of ‘emotional work’ such as nursing, social work, the service industry, and management roles. High EI improves the physical and psychological health of people and encourages academic and business performance (Bar-On & Parker, 2000).

Emotional intelligence is an integral part of forming and developing meaningful human relationships. Schutte et al (2001) found that, over a series of studies, there were significant links between high EI and more successful interpersonal relations.

Those participants who exhibited higher levels of EI also showed a greater propensity for empathic perspective taking, cooperation with others, developing affectionate and more satisfying relationships as well as greater social skills in general.

So far, we have focused on the social and psychological benefits of EI, it is important to note that self-awareness – the ability to manage emotions and stress – and the ability to solve personal, as well as interpersonal problems, are also significantly related to physical health.

Chronic stress and the prolonged negative effects which accompany it such as anger, depression, and anxiety can precipitate the onset and progression of hypertension, heart problems, and diabetes; increase susceptibility to viruses, and infections; delay healing of wounds and injuries; and exacerbate conditions such as arthritis and atherosclerosis (Bar-On, 2006, Black & Garbutt, 2002).

The value of EI is immense; developing emotional intelligence encourages many positive traits, from resilience to communication, motivation to stress management, all of which can be seen as conducive to effectively achieving personal, physical and occupational health, and success.

Undoubtedly you know how valuable it is to develop your emotional intelligence abilities, but have you ever wondered exactly why?

Research shows there are many benefits for those with high levels of emotional intelligence, including greater resilience, social skills and connection.

But how do you reach a stage where you can reap these benefits? What barriers stand in your way? How can you help your clients, friends, colleagues, students and even your children develop excellent EI skills?

For answers to all these questions and more, check out our Emotional Intelligence Masterclass© .

Self-Management, Self-Regulation, and EQ

While it’s commonly accepted that our emotions are driven by impulses over which we have little-to-no control, we do have the capacity for self-management and  self-regulation ; the ability to manage – if not control – the resultant emotions and our reactions thereto.

Consider the calm and rational pilot despite the aircraft’s landing gear being jammed or the surgeon who carries on with their duties despite losing a patient.

This form of self-regulation builds on the basis of self-awareness and is an integral part of becoming emotionally intelligent by exercising the capacity to liberate ourselves from impulse-driven reaction (Goleman, 1995).

Self-management builds on this further and allows an individual to use knowledge about their emotions to better manage them in order to self-motivate and to create positive social interactions.

Leaders with an aptitude for self-regulation are far less likely to be aggressively confrontational and make snap decisions. Self-regulation and self-management do not pertain to the absence of anger; rather it’s about remaining in control of your emotions and not allowing your actions to be emotion-driven.

In instances of negative emotions such as anger, EI can help identify what you are feeling and determine the cause of the emotion through reflection and self-analysis allowing one to respond in a rational manner.

Self-regulation is critical in relation to other facets of EI and can be developed from early childhood, adolescence and throughout adulthood. Mastering self-management allows us the opportunity to open the door to the other beneficial aspects of EI while in the absence of self-regulation other competencies, such as effective communication and conflict management, are challenging.

The good news is that it’s never too late to embark on self-management and regulation training; the potential benefits are numerous and should not be underestimated.

The skills enabled through the development of self-regulation can aid success for (but by no means limited to) counselors, psychotherapists, small business owners, managers, and executives.

Those with stronger skills in this area are less likely to become angry or exhibit stress while being more likely to respond calmly to negative environments, harness personal needs in order to achieve goals and remain motivated.

Emotional intelligence is undoubtedly a valuable tool to utilize in the face of adversity; it has the potential to enhance not only leadership abilities and teamwork effectiveness but also personal resilience.

Focusing on the impact of EI on one’s resilience, that is, one’s ability to cope with stressful conditions, research suggests that those who display higher levels of emotional intelligence are less likely to succumb to the negative impacts of stressors.

In the context of a leadership role, one might expect increased responsibility to coincide with elevated potential stressors, highlighting the importance of strong EI for those in leadership or management positions.

An investigation into the relationship between emotional intelligence and the stress process found that participants who displayed higher levels of EI were less likely to be negatively impacted by the presence of stressors.

Participants completed an ability-based test of EI before rating the subjectively perceived threat level posed by two stressors, they then self-reported their emotional reaction to said stressors and were also subjected to physiological stress-response tests in order to assess their response.

In summary, the findings suggested that “ EI facets were related to lower threat appraisals, more modest declines in positive affect, less negative affect and challenge physiological responses to stress… This study provides predictive validity that EI facilitates stress resilience, ” (Schneider, Lyons & Khazon, 2013, pp 909).

Further research suggested a link between higher emotional intelligence, resilience and the propensity for depressive behaviors. In an examination of medical professionals – an occupation with a relatively high ‘burnout’ rate – Olson & Matan (2015) found a positive correlation between EI and resilience as well as a negative correlation between resilience, mindfulness, and self-compassion with the ‘burnout’ rate.

In a nutshell, those with higher levels of emotional intelligence also displayed greater resilience and were less likely to ‘burnout’ or succumb to depression.

These results build on previous research which found EI scores were positively correlated with psychological wellbeing while being negatively correlated with depression and burnout. Given the dynamic nature of EI, the study highlighted the potential ability to reduce one’s susceptibility to depression by way of interventions to increase EI (Lin, Liebert, Tran, Lau, & Salles 2016).

Interestingly, EI is strongly correlated with individual advancement and performance, with evidence suggesting a significant link between one’s resilience and one’s motivation to achieve (Magnano, Craparo & Paolillo, 2016).

Furthermore, it is suggested that resilience plays a mediational role between EI and self-motivated achievement. In other words, emotional intelligence is a prerequisite for resilience, and resilience can lead to greater motivation. Resilience has an underlying perseverance component that motivates endurance in the face of obstacles (Luthans, Avey & Avolio, 2010).

When psychologists began to discuss intelligence, the focus was very much on cognitive aspects relating to memory and problem-solving.

While there had been references to intelligence as having “non-intellective”, as well as “intellective” elements such as affective, personal, and social factors (Wechsler, 1943), historically, the concepts of emotion and intelligence, have been regarded as being mutually exclusive. How can one be intelligent about the emotional aspects of life when emotions can hinder individuals from achieving their goals? (Lloyd, 1979).

In reality, high IQ is no guarantee of success. How successful we are in life is determined by both emotional intelligence and by IQ, though intellect works best when it’s accompanied by high emotional intelligence.

Goleman (1995, 2011) suggests that it is not simply a case of IQ versus EI, instead, both have considerable value. Where IQ tells us the level of cognitive complexity a person can achieve and may to some degree predetermine levels of academic achievement, EI tells us which individuals will make the best leaders within top management positions, for example.

IQ has limited connections to both work and life success. Snarey & Vaillant (1985) suggested it is actually less of a predictor of how well we will do in life than our ability to handle frustration, control emotions, and get along with other people – characteristics not only accounted for but also learnable under current EI theory .

Today, standards of intelligence are still commonly applied to cognitive performance. The misconception that IQ alone is the predictor of success is still very real.

In reality, IQ contributes to around 20% of the factors that determine life success – we all know someone (or perhaps are that person) who has a high IQ yet struggles to do ‘well’. So what accounts for the other 80%? Outwith factors such as social class and plain old luck, Goleman (1995) argued that life success is influenced more by an individual’s ability to engage the 5 aspects of EI detailed above.

While there is much discussion regarding the capability of individuals to improve IQ scores, EI can be developed and refined over time with the condition – just like any skill – that it is given the necessary focus and effort to do so. Many would argue that the ability to connect with and understand others is a more powerful skill to possess than cognitive intellect alone.

In the words of American civil rights activist, Maya Angelou:

“I’ve learned that people will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel.”

The increasing awareness of emotional intelligence in management-focused literature and leadership training suggests the link between emotional intelligence and job performance not only exists but has value in myriad areas.

The workplace represents a distinct social community, separate from our personal lives, in which there is a growing appreciation that higher EI allows a person to understand themselves and others better, communicate more effectively, and cope with challenging situations.

Utilizing and developing emotional intelligence in the workplace can significantly improve the personal and social capabilities of individuals within that workplace.

EI is about managing emotions in order to improve job performance and, in turn, helping people stay calm and to think logically in order to establish good relationships and achieve goals. There is an undeniable relationship between EI and the way senior executives manage their employees – managers with higher emotional intelligence have the tools at their disposal to not only manage stress but to also recognize and address stress in others.

If we think of emotional intelligence in terms of managing stress and building relationships, the link between emotional intelligence skills and job performance is clear, with stress management positively impacting job commitment and satisfaction.

It is also important to mention that EI does not only apply at management level, likewise, employees lower down the business hierarchy with sophisticated emotional intelligence skills have the desire and ability to establish and maintain high-quality relationships in the workplace (Lopes, Salovey, & Straus, 2003).

Additionally, individuals with high EI are better equipped to effectively manage conflicts and, in turn, sustain relationships within the workplace when compared to those with low to moderate levels of EI.

Increasingly, organizations are recognizing the value of employees who exhibit the skills to cope with change and respond accordingly. EI is an important factor in job performance both on an individual level and a group level. In fact, as an individual moves up an organizational hierarchy, the positive effect of emotional intelligence on coping with situations and doing tasks in effective ways increases (Moghadam, Tehrani & Amin, 2011).

Emotional intelligence matters for motivation, and motivation matters for success. Whether it’s in relation to work, personal goals or health, the emotionally intelligent individual understands the deeper meaning of their aspirations and the self-motivation skills required to achieve them.

Goleman (1995) identified four elements that make up motivation: our personal drive to improve, our commitment to the goals we set for ourselves, our readiness to act on opportunities that present themselves to us and our resilience.

Magnano et al (2016) assert that motivation is the basic psychological process we use to stimulate ourselves into action to achieve a desired outcome. Whether it’s picking up the remote to change the TV channel or dedicating hundreds of hours to delivering a project, without motivation we’d be unable to act.

Motivation arouses, energizes, directs and sustains behavior and performance. Intrinsic motivation, that is, motivation that comes from within, pushes us to achieve our full potential. An Emotionally Intelligent individual not only possesses the skills for self-motivation but also the skills required to motivate others, a useful talent to have especially in management positions.

While self-motivation is central to achieving one’s goals, emotionally intelligent leaders within a business can also impact employee motivation. The capacity to recognize the emotions and, in turn, the concerns of others is an invaluable skill to have at your disposal in terms of realizing the most effective ways to motivate teams and individuals.

In a recent study, the EI levels of first-year medical undergraduates were found to be positively related to self-motivation to study medicine and satisfaction with choosing to study medicine (Edussuriya, Marambe, Tennakoon, Rathnayake, Premaratne, Ubhayasiri, & Wickramasinghe, 2018).

A study of senior managers with high EI employed in public sector organizations found that EI augments positive work attitudes, altruistic behavior, and work outcomes. It seems, unsurprisingly, that happy employees are motivated employees.

The ability to better cope with stress and anxiety, for example, is also a useful EI tool in terms of motivation – if one can recognize the emotions that may have a negative impact on motivation, they can be addressed and managed effectively (Carmeli, 2003).

We all endure stressful days, it’s completely normal and completely manageable if you have the right skills at your disposal. An individual with high Emotional Intelligence has sufficient self-awareness to recognize negative feelings and respond accordingly to prevent escalation. Uncontrolled and misunderstood emotions can exacerbate our vulnerability to other mental health issues, like stress, anxiety, and depression.

The skills associated with emotional intelligence can effectively help individuals deal with negative emotional states like stress and promote more positive emotions in its place. Failure to address and manage stress can lead to a further deterioration of one’s mental state and impact our physical health in turn.

Research into the social, psychological and medical components of stress emphasizes the importance of dealing with negative emotions to effectively cope with stress and in turn, reduce the potential for negative psychological and physical health outcomes.

Ganster & Schaubroeck (1991) consider our working and professional environment as the primary source of the stress, going on to suggest the ability to effectively recognize and deal with emotions and emotional information in the workplace is a vital tool in preventing negative stress and coping with occupational stress.

Emotional intelligence allows us to effectively cope with stress. Furthermore, emotionally intelligent people also have the ability to initially evaluate situations as less stressful.

While this has the obvious effect of lessening the adverse impact thereof, it also results in greater life satisfaction and happiness. Conversely, a deficit in EI and self‐regulation can lead to lower subjective wellbeing and a relatively exaggerated response to stressors.

The intelligent use of emotions is a fundamental mechanism in psychological adaptation and wellbeing. Individuals with higher EI have been found to report lower levels of stress and higher levels of happiness, indicating that the ability to regulate perceived stress directly impacts satisfaction (Ruiz‐Aranda, Extremera & Pineda‐Galán, 2014).

The role of emotional intelligence in perceiving occupational stress and preventing employees of human services from negative health outcomes is essential (Oginska-Bulk, 2005).

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Emotional Intelligence is closely related to personal and professional development, it impacts on more than how we manage our behavior and navigate social complexities, it also affects how we make decisions.

Having an authentic understanding of the emotions we feel and why we are feeling them can have a huge impact on our decision-making abilities, if we can’t look at our emotions objectively how can we avoid making misguided decisions based on them?

Superior emotional intelligence is an important element in the prevention of decision making based on emotional biases, whereas lower EI can create anxiety and lead to poor decisions. It’s not about removing emotions completely from the decision-making process, rather it’s about recognizing the emotions that are unrelated to the problem and not allowing them to be influential to the final result.

Negative emotions can impede problem-solving and decision making both in the workplace and personal circumstances. The ability to recognize emotions that are superfluous to forming a rational decision and having the capacity to effectively disregard said emotions, negating their impact on the final outcome, holds obvious benefits for decision-making processes.

Through a series of questions and observations with a focus on improving EI awareness and using EI skills to enhance the decision-making process, Hess & Bacigalupo (2011) found that organizations and individuals benefitted from the practical application of EI in decision-making scenarios.

The observations suggest EI training is an effective strategy to introduce when developing decision-making skills and aids in understanding the potential consequences of bad decision making.

Understanding the causes and consequences of emotions allows an individual to both manage the feeling and make an objective decision. Imagine you have a disagreement with your partner and go to work angry and a little stressed out, later that day you dismiss a proposal from a colleague without really paying attention to what they’re suggesting – you’re just not in the mood.

This form of emotional interference can be detrimental to the decision-making process, those with more developed EI can identify and manage this kind of emotional interference and avoid emotionally-driven decisions.

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Much like happiness, ask someone to define success and you will probably get more than one answer. Does your career make you successful? Your intelligence? How much money you have? Finding contentment and happiness? Depending on who you ask, it can be anything!

What is clear is that no matter your definition of success, emotional intelligence can play a vital role in achieving it.

As addressed, it isn’t always the most intelligent people who achieve the greatest success. IQ alone is not enough to excel in life. You can be the most intelligent person in the room, but if you don’t have EI do you have the skills to quieten negative thoughts or the mental fortitude to manage stress? Goleman (1995) described EI as being powerful and, at times, more powerful than IQ in predicting success in life.

It’s your Emotional Intelligence that really helps you achieve your goals and attain greater levels of success, developing EI can greatly influence our success by contributing to increased morale, motivation and greater co-operation (Strickland, 2000).

In the workplace, managers who consistently outperform their peers not only have technical knowledge and experience, but more importantly, they utilize the strategies associated with EI to manage conflict, reduce stress and as a result, improve their success.

There is growing evidence that the range of abilities that constitute what is now commonly known as ’emotional intelligence’ play a key role in determining success – both in one’s personal life and in the workplace – with real-life applications extending to parenting, relationships, businesses, medical professionals, service workers and so many more.

Emotional intelligence enables one to manage emotions in anxiety-provoking situations, such as taking exams at school or university and also has positive associations with success in personal relationships and social functioning.

Success within social relationships can be achieved by using EI competencies to detect others’ emotional states, adopt others’ perspectives, enhance communication, and regulate behavior.

If we think of goals as an aim or desired result, we can see how emotional intelligence skills can help one to achieve personal goals and when exercised correctly by leaders and managers, can also help to drive change and progress in the workplace.

The facets of EI are interwoven, to achieve self-actualization, we must first achieve motivation, in order to achieve motivation we must also be happy in what we are doing. Without happiness, it is a challenge to reach the levels of motivation required to achieve our goals. In essence, if we are not motivated how can we expect to achieve our goals?

There is a wealth of management literature emphasizing the importance of utilizing EI in relation to success and performance, with a focus on how individuals with high EI perform better in all aspects of a management role.

The average level of Emotional Intelligence of team members is reflected by the team process effectiveness and in team goal focus, conversely teams with lower EI skills performed at a lower level of goal achievement. (Jordana, Ashkanasyb, Härtelb, & Hooperb, 2007)

In order to produce our best and achieve our goals, we need positive self-regard, heightened emotional self-awareness, effective problem solving and decision-making skills. We must understand clearly what our goals are, and be motivated to accomplish all we can.

Our ability to be aware of and understand our own emotions can aid our awareness and understanding of the feelings of others.

This sensitivity, or lack thereof, impacts our communication capabilities in both personal and work life.

If we consider communication in the workplace, and more specifically, conflict resolution in the workplace, individuals with higher emotional intelligence are more likely to approach conflict resolution in a collaborative manner, working together with others in order to effectively reach a mutually acceptable outcome.

Relationships in the workplace are affected by how we manage our own emotions and our understanding of the emotions of those around us.

The ability to identify, manage, and understand emotions help us communicate without resorting to confrontation. A person with high EI is better equipped to manage conflict and build meaningful relationships given their elevated capacity to understand, and therefore address, the needs of those with whom they engage. (Lopez, 2005).

Emotional intelligence has unquestionably received greater attention in recent years as a driver of effective communication within teams, including the growing area of virtual teams (also known as remote or geographically dispersed teams). If we examine EQ as a predictor of virtual team success, the results support that not only is EQ a driver of team viability, but also positively impacts the quality of communication (De Mio, 2002).

The process of successful communication and, in terms of conflict, successful negotiation are closely linked to high levels of EQ. Where those with low levels of EQ may react defensively in stressful situations and escalate conflict, individuals with higher emotional intelligence have the skills available at their disposal to communicate effectively without resorting to confrontation or escalating tension.

Happiness seems like a simple enough concept, but have you ever tried to define it? Try now – what is happiness? It is more difficult than it seems because it means something different to each of us. While it is true that happiness means distinctly different things to different people, what is clear is that emotional intelligence really does matter for happiness irrespective of your interpretation.

EI facilitators such as happiness contribute to our self-actualization and self-actualization, in turn, contributes to our happiness in a positive feedback loop. Happiness, according to Wechsler (1943), is the key factor that has a positive impact on intelligent behavior.

Studies examining the link between EI and a range of interpersonal relations found that participants with higher EQ scores had higher scores for empathic perspective taking, self-monitoring and social skills, cooperation with partners, relationship satisfaction, and more affectionate relationships. (Schutte, Malouff, Bobik, Coston, Greeson, Jedlicka, Rhodes, & Wendorf, 2001).

By developing the skills for EI one can reduce stress, which consequently has a positive impact on wellbeing and happiness. In addition to its motivational value, happiness monitors one’s immediate wellbeing and interjects positive mood in the way individuals cope with daily demands, challenges, and pressures.

It is this positivity that encourages the emotional energy required to increase one’s motivational level to get things done, in short, it helps individuals to achieve what they want to achieve and tells them how well they are doing (Bar-On, 2001).

Research conducted by Furnham (2003) indicated that a large amount of the variance found in happiness and wellbeing to be determined by people’s emotion-related self-perceptions and dispositions such as the ability to regulate emotions, relationship skills, and social competence.

While these EI skills are not the sole contributor to levels of happiness, it is important to recognize their impact, with over 50% of the total variances in happiness being attributed to emotional intelligence competencies.

From Aristotle to Freud, the emphasis on the optimization of happiness has been thoroughly discussed. To augment happiness one is often required to use more sophisticated behavioral patterns such as self-regulation to subdue instant pleasure motivations.

Contemporary psychological research continues to recognize the need for this form of optimization. Mischel (1974) explicitly taught children how to delay immediate pleasures for greater long-term gain. The ability to delay gratification is important in many aspects of cognitive development given the capacity for such delays encourages an increase in cognitive competence and social maturity.

17 Exercises To Develop Emotional Intelligence

These 17 Emotional Intelligence Exercises [PDF] will help others strengthen their relationships, lower stress, and enhance their wellbeing through improved EQ.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

6 YouTube Videos and TED Talks on Emotional Intelligence

We recommend watching the following videos for more insight into Emotional Intelligence.

The Power of Emotional Intelligence – Travis Bradberry

You aren’t at the mercy of your emotions – your brain creates them – Lisa Feldman Barrett

6 Steps to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence – Ramona Hacker

Learning Human Values Via Emotional Intelligence – Ruby Bakshi Khurdi

Your Forensic Mirror: Applying Emotional Intelligence To Achieve Success – Paula Clarke

The People Currency: Practicing Emotional Intelligence – Jason Bridges

See also: 15 Most Valuable Emotional Intelligence TED Talks on YouTube .

“Emotional intelligence is a way of recognizing, understanding, and choosing how we think, feel, and act. It shapes our interactions with others and our understanding of ourselves. It defines how and what we learn; it allows us to set priorities; it determines the majority of our daily actions. Research suggests it is responsible for as much as 80 percent of the “success” in our lives.”

Joshua Freedman

“If your emotional abilities aren’t in hand, if you don’t have self-awareness, if you are not able to manage your distressing emotions, if you can’t have empathy and have effective relationships, then no matter how smart you are, you are not going to get very far.”

Daniel Goleman

Maya Angelou

“Anybody can become angry, that is easy; but to be angry with the right person, and to the right degree, and at the right time, and for the right purpose, and in the right way, that is not within everybody’s power, that is not easy.”

“Emotional intelligent people use self-awareness to their advantage to assess a situation, get perspective, listen without judgment, process, and hold back from reacting head on. At times, it means the decision to sit on your decision. By thinking over your situation rationally, without drama, you’ll eventually arrive at other, more sane conclusions.”

Marcel Schwantes

“Never stop because you are afraid – you are never so likely to be wrong.”

Fridtjof Nansen

“We are dangerous when we are not conscious of our responsibility for how we behave, think, and feel.”

Marshall B. Rosenberg

“What really matters for success, character, happiness and life long achievements is a definite set of emotional skills – your EQ — not just purely cognitive abilities that are measured by conventional IQ tests.”

“Whatever is begun in anger, ends in shame.”

Benjamin Franklin

“If you are interested in emotions, learning about them will satisfy your curiosity. If you depend upon emotional knowledge in your job, learning more about emotions would likely help.”

“Do not judge me by my successes, judge me by how many times I fell down and got back up again.”

Nelson Mandela

“When dealing with people, remember you are not dealing with creatures of logic, but with creatures of emotion.”

Dale Carnegie

“It is very important to understand that emotional intelligence is not the opposite of intelligence, it is not the triumph of heart over head – it is the unique intersection of both.”

David Caruso

“Until you make the unconscious conscious, it will direct your life and you will call it fate.”

“It takes something more than intelligence to act intelligently.”

Fyodor Dostoyevsky

“No doubt emotional intelligence is more rare than book smarts, but my experience says it is actually more important in the making of a leader. You just can’t ignore it.”

“Emotional intelligence is what humans are good at and that’s not a sideshow. That’s the cutting edge of human intelligence.”

Ray Kurzweil

“Emotional intelligence is the ability to sense, understand, and effectively apply the power and acumen of emotions as a source of human energy, information, connection, and influence.”

Robert K. Cooper

“The strength of character and emotional intelligence to face your failures and learn from them are at the core of success.”

Robert Kiyosaki

“Surround yourself with amazingly intelligent men and women. The people I work with not only are smarter than I am, possessing both intellectual and emotional intelligence, but also share my determination to succeed. I will not make an important decision without them.”

George Steinbrenner

“What I’ve come to realize is that emotional intelligence was the only way I knew how to lead, and is, in my option, the only way to inspire real change.”

Kevin Allen

Find more emotional intelligence quotes here .

Emotional Intelligence is important, the value and benefits of developing your EQ are extensive and in many areas massively under-utilised. Emotional intelligence is the gateway to living a more fulfilled and happy life, and here’s why:

• Emotional intelligence allows you to understand and manage your emotions in order to self-motivate and to create positive social interactions; it’s the first step in realizing your true potential.
• The value and benefits of EI are vast in terms of personal, academic, and professional success.
• Individuals with higher levels of emotional intelligence are less likely to succumb to the negative impacts of stressors, while effectively help individuals deal with negative emotions and promote more positive emotions in its place.
• Intellect works best when it’s accompanied by high emotional intelligence.
• Utilizing and developing emotional intelligence in the workplace can greatly improve both job performance and the social capabilities of individuals within that workplace.
• Emotional Intelligence is a useful skill to prevent making decisions based on emotional biases.
• The process of successful communication and negotiation are closely linked to high levels of EQ.
• Key EI facilitators such as happiness contribute to our self-actualization.

Thanks for reading! I hope you have enjoyed this journey into the world of emotional intelligence and the important role it plays in achieving personal, physical and occupational success.

For further reading:

• 13 Emotional Intelligence Activities & Exercises
• 26 Best Emotional Intelligence Books (Reviews + Summaries)
• The Emotion Wheel: What is It and How to Use it? [+PDF]

We hope you found this article useful. Don’t forget to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free .

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this was very insightful. It will help me make positive change in my institution both to employees and clients. thanks. chao.

Personal awareness can help one develop emotional intelligence which can be developed overtime

This is great because it is a skill that can be developed over time and the results is towards success and more meaningful personal awareness of oneself life in general and the life of an entrepreneur especially

Now i know that helping others develop their own EI is part of my own EI growth as well. i plan to put this into action more intentionally to increase overall productivity.

I think it’s important to remember that emotional intelligence is a skill that can be developed and improved over time. By practicing mindfulness, improving communication skills, and working on self-awareness, individuals can become more emotionally intelligent and ultimately, more successful in all aspects of their lives. Thank You!

The article is powerful, it offers 360 degree of EQ with practical examples.

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3 Emotional Intelligence Exercises (PDF)

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

Mia Belle Frothingham

Author, Researcher, Science Communicator

BA with minors in Psychology and Biology, MRes University of Edinburgh

Mia Belle Frothingham is a Harvard University graduate with a Bachelor of Arts in Sciences with minors in biology and psychology

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to perceive, understand, and manage one’s own emotions and relationships. It involves being aware of emotions in oneself and others and using this awareness to guide thinking and behavior. Emotionally intelligent individuals can motivate themselves, read social cues, and build strong relationships

Some researchers propose that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others argue it is an inborn characteristic.

The ability to express and manage emotions is essential, but so is the ability to understand, diagnose, and react to the emotions of others. Imagine a world in which one could not understand when a friend felt sad or a classmate was angry.

Why is Emotional Intelligence Critical?

Emotional Intelligence is the “ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior” (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).

Having a higher level of emotional intelligence allows one to empathize with others, communicate effectively, and be both self and socially aware. How people respond to themselves and others impacts all types of environments.

Living in this world signifies interacting with many diverse kinds of individuals and constant change with life-changing surprises.

Being emotionally intelligent is key to how one reacts to what life throws. It is furthermore a fundamental element of compassion and comprehending the deeper reasons behind other people’s actions.

It is not the most intelligent people who are the most prosperous or the most fulfilled in life. Many people are academically genius and yet are socially incompetent and unsuccessful in their careers or their intimate relationships.

Intellectual ability or intelligence quotient (IQ) is not enough on its own to achieve success in life. Undoubtedly, IQ can help one get into university, but your Emotional Intelligence (EI) will help one manage stress and emotions when facing final exams.

IQ and EI exist in tandem and are most influential when they build off one another.

Emotional intelligence is also valuable for leaders who set the tone of their organization. If leaders lack emotional intelligence , it could have more far-reaching consequences, resulting in lower worker engagement and a higher turnover rate.

While one might excel at one’s job technically, if one cannot effectively communicate with one’s team or collaborate with others, those specialized skills will get neglected.

By mastering emotional intelligence, one can positively impact anywhere and continue to advance one’s position and career in life. EI is vital when dealing with stressful situations like confrontation, change, and obstacles.

Emotional intelligence helps one build stronger relationships, succeed at work or school, and achieve one’s career and personal goals, as well as reduce group stress, defuse conflict, and enhance job satisfaction.

It can also help connect with one’s inner feelings, turn purpose into action, and make informed decisions about what matters most to oneself.

During these times, it is essential to remember to practice kindness, and being in touch with our emotions can help us do just that.

Examples of Emotional Intelligence

How does one become emotionally intelligent? Below we will discuss what one can do to learn to improve the skills that are behind emotional intelligence (EI).

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and to reason and problem-solve based on them (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999).

By working on and improving these skills, one can become more emotionally intelligent and, therefore, more successful!

Emotional Awareness and Understanding

Self-awareness, or the ability to recognize and comprehend one’s own emotions, is a vital emotional intelligence skill. Beyond acknowledging one’s feelings, however, is being conscious of the effect of one’s actions, moods, and emotions on other people.

According to research by Tasha Eurich, an organizational psychologist, 95% of individuals believe they are self-aware. Still, only 10 to 15 percent genuinely are, which can cause problems for the people one interacts with.

Being with people who are not self-aware can be frustrating and lead to increased stress and decreased encouragement.

To become self-aware, one must be capable of monitoring one’s emotions while recognizing different emotional reactions and correctly identifying each distinct emotion.

Self-aware individuals also can recognize the connections between the things they feel and how they act.

These individuals also acknowledge their strengths and weaknesses, are open to new data and experiences, and learn from their exchanges with others.

Furthermore, people who maintain self-awareness have a fine sense of humor, are confident in themselves and their capabilities, and know how others perceive them.

Here are some tips on improving one’s self-awareness:

Ask for constructive feedback from others.

Keep a journal of one’s thoughts and feelings.

Practice mindfulness – try meditating.

Pay careful attention to one’s thoughts and emotions.

Pursue one’s passions and do what makes one happy.

Learn new skills and set goals for oneself.

Reflect on one’s experiences and be grateful.

Use positive self-talk daily.

Work on building a growth mindset.

Emotional Self Regulation (Managing Emotions)

In addition to being aware of one’s own emotions and the impact one has on others, emotional intelligence requires one to regulate and manage one’s emotions .

This does not mean taking emotions out of sight and essentially “locking” them away, hence hiding one’s true feelings. It just means waiting for the right time and place to express them. Self-regulation is all about communicating one’s emotions appropriately in context. A reaction tends to be involuntary.

The more in tune one is with one’s emotional intelligence, the easier one can transition from an instant reaction to a well-thought-out response. It is crucial to remember to pause, breathe, compose oneself, and do what it takes to manage one’s emotions.

This could mean anything to oneself, like taking a walk or talking to a friend, so that one can more appropriately and intentionally respond to tension and adversity.

Those proficient in self-regulation tend to be flexible and acclimate well to change. They are also suitable for handling conflict and diffusing uncomfortable or difficult situations.

People with healthy self-regulation skills also tend to have heightened conscientiousness. They reflect on how they influence others and take accountability for their actions.

Here are some tips on improving one’s self-regulation:

Look at challenges as opportunities.

Be mindful of thoughts and feelings.

Build distress and anxiety tolerance skills.

Work on accepting reflections and emotions.

Find ways to manage difficult emotions.

Practice communication and social skills.

Recognize that one has a choice in how one responds.

Use cognitive reframing to change emotional responses and thought patterns.

Social Empathy (Perceiving Emotions)

Empathy , or the capability to comprehend how other people are feeling, is crucial to perfecting emotional intelligence.

However, it involves more than just being able to identify the emotional states of others. It also affects one’s responses to people based on this knowledge.

How does one respond when one senses someone is feeling sad or hopeless? One might treat them with extra care and consideration, or one might make a push to lift their mood.

Being empathetic also allows one to understand the authority dynamics that frequently influence social relationships, especially in the workplace.

This is essential for guiding one’s daily interactions with various people. In fact, it is found that empathy ranks as the number one leadership skill.

Leaders proficient in empathy perform more than 40% higher in coaching, engaging others, and decision-making. In a different study, researchers found that leaders who show more empathy toward their co-workers and constructive criticism are viewed as better performers by their supervisors.

Those competent in this element can recognize who maintains power in different relationships. They also understand how these forces impact feelings and behaviors. Because of this, they can accurately analyze different situations that hinge on such power dynamics.

Here are some tips on improving social empathy:

Be willing to share emotions.

Listen to other people.

Practice meditation.

Engage in a purpose like a community project.

Meet and talk to new people.

Try to imagine yourself in someone else’s place.

Social Skills (Using Emotions)

The ability to interact well with others is another vital aspect of emotional intelligence. Solid social skills allow people to build meaningful relationships with others and develop a more robust understanding of themselves and others.

Proper emotional understanding involves more than just understanding one’s own emotions and those of others. One also needs to put this information to work in one’s daily interactions and communications.

In the workplace or professional settings, managers benefit by being able to build relationships and connections with employees.

Workers benefit from developing a solid rapport with leaders and co-workers. Some prefer to avoid conflict, but it is crucial to address issues as they arise correctly.

Research shows that every unaddressed conflict can waste almost eight hours of company time on unproductive activities, damaging resources and morale. Essential social skills include active listening , verbal communication, nonverbal communication, leadership , and persuasiveness.

Here are some tips on improving social skills:

Ask open-ended questions.

Find icebreakers that will help start conversations.

Practice good eye contact.

Practice active listening with the entire body.

Notice other people’s social skills.

Show interest in others and ask them personal questions.

Watch one’s body language and that of others.

In The Workplace

Emotional intelligence includes showing genuine compassion, empathizing with the needs of individuals, and encouraging the ongoing personal growth of individuals.

When a leader takes into account the emotions of their followers, they then learn how to best engage with them.

1. Lending a Compassionate Ear to a Frustrated Co-Worker

Employees will inevitably get upset, have bad moods, argue, and just generally have bad days. In practice, compassion, understanding, and awareness are definite signs of emotional intelligence.

Awareness of and reacting to other people’s emotional states shows an understanding that all humans experience intense emotions and says that a person’s feelings matter.

2. Listening to Others Respectfully

Ever been to a conference when it seems like everyone is speaking over each other, trying to get the last word?

This is not only an indication of egos taking over and a lack of consideration for others; these are also indications of there being a lack of emotional intelligence.

When individuals are allowed to speak, and others listen without persistent interruptions, it is a good sign of EI. It shows reciprocal respect between parties and is more likely to lead to a productive conclusion in meetings.

3. Being Flexible

Flexibility is a critical term in organizations today. Building flexibility into how people function can be the difference between keeping the best workers and drifting out the door.

Emotionally intelligent leaders comprehend the changing needs of others and are ready to work with them rather than attempting to impose rigid restrictions on how people go about their work.

They do not expect everyone to work the hours they do, hold the same priorities, or live by precisely the same values.

In Healthcare

1. being patient with hurting individuals.

When in healthcare, it is expected that doctors and nurses will have to manage people in pain. Emotional intelligence not only allows for better patient care but also for better self-care.

For instance, if a patient is lashing out, and one can see that they are in pain, one will be far less likely to take their combativeness personally and treat them better.

2. Acting as the Effective Leader

In healthcare, there is a necessity to have influential leaders, a trusting environment with a helpful team, critical thinking, and quality patient and family-centered care.

A higher emotional intelligence will allow healthcare professionals to respond and react better to patients. Studies have shown a correlation between emotional intelligence and positive patient outcomes.

3. Responding Better to Stressful Situations

Multiple occasions in healthcare involve an urgent situation involving a life or death scenario. Doctors and nurses must check their own emotions.

Being in healthcare is a highly emotional career, and being aware of your feelings when they come up is key to effective self-care.

Interacting with patients can cause overwhelming joy or deep sadness, and these fluctuations can be utterly exhausting.

The ability to deal with these feelings, take breaks, and ask for help when you need it is another example of good emotional intelligence that nurses should practice.

Tips for Improving EI

Be more self-aware.

Awareness of one’s emotions and emotional responses to others can significantly improve one’s emotional intelligence. Knowing when one is feeling anxious or angry can help process and communicate those feelings in a way that promotes healthy results.

Recognize how others feel

Emotional intelligence could start with self-reflection, but measuring how others perceive one’s behavior and communication is essential. Adjusting one’s message based on how one is being received is an integral part of being emotionally intelligent.

Practice active listening

People communicate verbally and nonverbally, so listening and monitoring for potentially positive and negative reactions is essential. Taking the time to hear others also demonstrates a level of respect that can form the basis for healthy relationships.

Communicate clearly

Solid communication skills are critical for emotional intelligence. Knowing what to express or write and when to offer information is crucial for building strong relationships.

For instance, as a manager in a work environment, communicating expectations and goals is required to keep everyone on the same page.

Stay positive

A positive attitude is incredibly infectious. Emotionally intelligent people comprehend the power of positive words, encouraging emails, and friendly gestures. When one can also remain positive in a stressful situation, one can help others stay calm. It can also encourage further problem-solving and collaboration.

Thinking about how others might be feeling is an essential quality of emotional intelligence. It means you can empathize with feelings that one may not be feeling oneself and respond in a way that is respectful and relaxing to others.

Be open-minded

Emotionally intelligent people are comfortable to approach because they are good listeners and can consider and understand other viewpoints. They are also receptive to learning new things and embracing novel ideas.

Listen to feedback

It is essential to be the type of person who can hear feedback, whether it is positive on a recent presentation or more critical advice on how you should commission tasks more efficiently.

Being receptive to feedback means taking responsibility for one’s actions and being willing to improve how one communicates with others.

Stay calm under pressure

It is essential to approach stressful situations with a calm and positive attitude. Pressures can quickly escalate, primarily when people are operating under deadlines, so keeping steady and concentrating on finding a solution will help everyone complete their goals.

History of Emotional Intelligence

In the 1930s, psychologist Edward Thorndike explained the concept of “social intelligence” as the ability to get along with other individuals.

During the 1940s, psychologist David Wechsler suggested that different practical elements of intelligence could play a critical role in how successful people are in life.

In the 1950s, the school of thought was known as humanistic psychology, and scholars such as Abraham Maslow concentrated attention on how people could build emotional strength.

Another critical concept to arise in the development of emotional intelligence was the concept of multiple intelligences . This idea was put forth in the mid-1970s by Howard Gardner, presenting the idea that intelligence was more than just a single, broad capacity.

Emotional intelligence did not come into our vernacular until around 1990. The term “emotional intelligence” was first utilized in 1985 as it was presented in a doctoral dissertation by Wayne Payne.

In 1987, there was an article written by Keith Beasley and published in Mensa Magazine that used the term emotional quotient or EQ.

Then in 1990, psychologists John Mayer and Peter Salovey published their milestone article, Emotional Intelligence , in the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality .

They described emotional intelligence as the capability to monitor one’s and others’ feelings and emotions, discriminate among them, and use this knowledge to guide one’s thinking and actions.

Salovey and Mayer also initiated a research study to develop accurate measures of emotional intelligence and explore its significance. For example, they found in one investigation that when a group of people saw an upsetting film, those who ranked high on emotional clarity, or the ability to recognize and label a mood that is being experienced, recovered more quickly.

In a different study, people who scored higher in the ability to perceive accurately, understand and appraise others’ emotions were sufficiently capable of responding flexibly to changes in their social environments and building supportive social networks.

But despite it being a relatively new term, attraction to the concept has grown tremendously. In 1995, the concept of emotional intelligence was popularized after the publication of Daniel Goleman’s book  Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is emotional intelligence important in the workplace.

Researchers have indicated that emotional intelligence influences how excellently employees interact with their colleagues, and EI is also considered to play a role in how employees manage stress and conflict.

It also affects overall performance on the job. Other studies have connected emotional intelligence with job satisfaction.

Studies have shown that workers with higher scores on measures of EI also tend to be ranked higher on criteria of interpersonal functioning, leadership abilities, and stress management.

While standard intelligence was associated with leadership success, it alone was not enough. People who are prosperous at work are not just brilliant; they also have a high EI.

But emotional intelligence is not simply for CEOs and senior executives.

It is a quality that is essential at every level of a person’s career, from university students looking for internships to seasoned workers hoping to take on a leadership role.

Emotional intelligence is critical to success if one wants to succeed in the workplace and move up the career ladder.

Can emotional intelligence be taught?

As it turns out, the question whether emotional intelligence can be learned is not a straightforward one to answer.

Some psychologists and researchers claim that emotional intelligence is a skill that is not quickly learned or improved. Other psychologists and researchers, though, believe it can be improved with practice.

One key to improving EI is sustained practice – especially in high-stakes situations. Referring back to the above tips, one could read them and say those guidelines are pretty straightforward.

But, the challenging task is to do these practices in real-time and consistently. It takes practice to develop these skills. Then as you acquire them, you have to rehearse them under stress.

Can emotional intelligence be measured?

Several different assessments have arisen to gauge levels of emotional intelligence. These trials typically fall into one of two types: self-report tests and ability tests.

Self-report tests are the most abundant because they are the quickest to administer and score. Respondents respond to questions or statements on such tests by rating their behaviors.

For example, on a comment such as “I sense that I understand how others are feeling,” a test-taker might describe the statement as strongly agree, somewhat agree, somewhat disagree, or strongly disagree.

On the other hand, ability tests involve people responding to situations and assessing their skills. These tests often require people to demonstrate their abilities, which a third party rates.

If one is taking an emotional intelligence trial issued by a mental health professional, here are two measures that could be used: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) and the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI).

What is the dark side of emotional intelligence?

The dark side of emotional intelligence is using one’s understanding of emotions manipulatively, to deceive, control, or exploit others.

High emotional intelligence can mask hidden agendas, enabling insincere charm or feigned empathy, potentially leading to deceitful or self-serving actions.

Boyatzis, R. E., & Goleman, D. (2011). Emotional and social competency inventory (ESCI): A user guide for accredited practitioners.  Retrieved December ,  17 , 2019.

Eurich, T. (2018). What self-awareness really is (and how to cultivate it).  Harvard Business Review , 1-9.

Gardner, H. E. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century . Hachette UK.

Goleman, D. (1996).  Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ . Bloomsbury Publishing.

Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence.  Intelligence, 27 (4), 267-298.

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence.  Intelligence, 17 (4), 433-442.

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (2007).  Mayer-Salovery-Caruso emotional intelligence test . Toronto: Multi-Health Systems Incorporated.

Payne, W. L. (1985). A study of emotion: developing emotional intelligence; self-integration; relating to fear, pain and desire.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence .  Imagination, cognition and personality ,  9 (3), 185-211.

Thorndike, R. L., & Stein, S. (1937). An evaluation of the attempts to measure social intelligence.  Psychological Bulletin ,  34 (5), 275.

Wechsler, D., & Kodama, H. (1949).  Wechsler intelligence scale for children  (Vol. 1). New York: Psychological corporation.

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How College Students Can Improve Their Emotional Intelligence

June 30th, 2022 by JWU

Having high emotional intelligence (EI), also known as emotional quotient or EQ, can help college students better manage their emotions and the emotions of others. It can also help them find more success in the classroom and prepare for a successful career. A high EQ can help you in many ways, not only at school. With a high EQ, it will be easier for you to build stronger relationships, be less likely to make decisions that you may regret out of anger or frustration, and be better able to build and work with a team on school projects and, ultimately, in the business world. So, what is emotional intelligence and how do you build your EQ?

What is Emotional Intelligence?

Emotional intelligence refers to how well a person can identify, control, and evaluate emotions, both in themselves and in others. Some researchers think these skills are genetic, but most believe they can be learned or at least strengthened. Virtually all agree it takes both a high emotional quotient (EQ) as well as a high IQ to be successful in life.

According to Margaret Andrews, a former associate dean at Harvard University’s Division of Continuing Education and a current instructor in Harvard’s Emotional Intelligence in Leadership Program, ‘Emotional intelligence is critical in building and maintaining relationships and influencing others—key skills that help people throughout their career and wherever they sit in an organizational structure,’

Four Components of Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence can be broken down into four key components:

• Self-awareness
• Self-management
• Social awareness
• Relationship management

1. Self-Awareness

Self-awareness refers to how well a person understands their own emotions. Self-awareness is the cornerstone of EI, and the other three components all depend on how well a person masters self-awareness. This trait involves being cognizant of how your emotions affect others. Many believe that self-aware individuals are more creative and confident, and that they make better decisions.

2. Self-Management

Self-management builds on self-awareness. Good self-management means that, since you are aware of your emotions, you can control and manage them and the behaviors that result. One good example of this is stepping back and taking a deep breath when something angers you rather than immediately lashing out verbally or physically. Angry decisions and interpersonal communications are rarely compatible.

3. Social Awareness

The key component in social awareness is empathy. Someone with good social awareness is able to relate to what others are feeling and act accordingly. This differs from putting yourself in someone else’s shoes. Social awareness is about what the other person is feeling, not what you would feel in their place. People with strong social awareness skills tend to be kind and well-respected.

4. Relationship Management

Relationship management, also referred to as social skills, is often what differentiates a good manager from a mediocre one. These skills include influence, conflict management, teamwork, and the ability to inspire others. They are not only beneficial for creating strong working relationships, but they can help with every relationship in a person’s life, including family dynamics, romantic relationships, and project teams at school.

Benefits of Emotional Intelligence

Having higher job satisfaction and being happier in life are just two of the many benefits of cultivating a high EQ. According to “ Psych Central ,” some of the other benefits in the workplace include:

The ability to meet and adjust to deadlines

People with a high EQ understand deadlines and can work well within those parameters without undue stress.

Accepting criticism and learning from it

No one likes criticism; however, a person with a high EQ doesn’t take criticism personally. Instead, they use criticism as a learning opportunity and a way to build their EQ.

Getting along in the workplace

You need to be able to understand and work with a variety of co-workers, including those from different backgrounds and with different opinions. In the workplace as well as at school, you’ll find people from different cultures and who grew up with different circumstances. It’s important to be able to work with them just as you would someone who grew up next door to you.

Being open to change in the workplace

Too often workers fear change and cling to the old ways of doing things. People with high EQs embrace change and look forward to new ways to improve.

How to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence

We side with the opinion that a person’s emotional intelligence can be improved and strengthened with time and effort. Some of the ways to improve your emotional intelligence include:

1. Practice Self-Awareness

As we mentioned above, good self-awareness is essential to a high EQ. Some ways to increase your self-awareness include practicing mindfulness, which is concentrating on the present and avoiding unnecessary worry about the future. You can also ask trusted friends and family to give you feedback on how empathetic, flexible, cooperative, and adaptable you are. Use that feedback to grow and improve your EI.

2. Empathize with Others

Being able to understand what others are feeling is also important to cultivating a high EQ. You can increase your ability to do this by reading novels or articles, watching movies, and even appreciating art. The key here is to get you to feel something; it can be anger, grief, joy, or any other emotion.

3. Stay Positive

Being positive not only makes you more pleasant to be around, but also helps your brain function better. Positive affirmations may sound like a self-help fad, but spending 3-5 minutes each day reciting your goals or something positive about you and your life can help reduce stress and increase learning functions. Affirmations also help banish negative thoughts and help you have a cheerier outlook on life.

4. Listen to Feedback

It can be challenging to receive feedback, especially if some of it is constructive criticism. Instead of becoming defensive and making excuses when someone is giving you feedback, use those moments to grow and reflect on what you might do differently the next time you are in a similar situation. Receiving feedback is the ultimate test of your listening skills. Even if you can’t process the information right then, practice listening and make a note of what they tell you for further reflection later.

5. Understand Your Motivations

Sometimes we act impulsively without fully realizing why. A person with a high EQ strives to understand the motivation behind his or her actions before making a move. This not only prevents making bad, impulsive decisions, but helps the person become more self-aware. It’s not always easy.

Entire books have been written about how to understand your motivations . However, a good start is to make sure you are acting on fact and not just perception. We all bring our past experiences and beliefs into the decision-making process. A good manager makes sure that they aren’t letting those things unduly influence their decisions.

6. Keep Negative Emotions in Check

People with high EQs rarely react in anger or frustration. Instead, they measure their responses and only act when they have their emotions under control and when they feel they can express their feelings constructively. It’s also helpful in keeping negative emotions and thoughts at bay to practice meditation, reflection, or prayer and to actively concentrate on affirmations or good thoughts when you feel yourself feeling angry.

Networking gives you the opportunity to talk with more people, and the more people you encounter, the more you’ll be able to practice empathy and relationship building. You can find networking events on your school’s bulletin boards, online via networking sites like LinkedIn, and through your school’s alumni organization. The contacts you make at these events can also help you down the road in your business career, by giving you leads to new customers and new suppliers and sharing leads on new career opportunities. According to Inc.com , being social and interacting with others is one of the best ways to boost your emotional intelligence.

Earning your degree from Johnson & Wales University

Johnson & Wales University, founded in 1914, offers a variety of undergraduate and advanced business degrees . This includes Bachelor of Science (BS) and Bachelor of Science in Business Administration (BSBA) degree programs in 15 specialties. If you want to pursue a career in psychology and help people with their emotional intelligence, the university also offers a Bachelor of Science in Psychology.

Johnson & Wales has campuses in Charlotte, NC and Providence, RI. Some Johnson & Wales degree programs are offered online, offering students the advantage of being able to complete classwork and listen to lectures on their own schedule.

Johnson & Wales University has a current enrollment of around 8,000 undergraduate, graduate, and online students. The university is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education. Johnson & Wales offers a variety of financial aid packages to help make earning your degree more affordable.

If you’re interested in topics like emotional intelligence, a career in psychology could be for you! Earn your bachelor’s degree in psychology online from Johnson & Wales University. For more information about completing your degree online or on-campus, complete the Request Info form, call 855-JWU-1881, or email [email protected] .

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Why Emotional Intelligence Is Important in Leadership

• 03 Apr 2019

The technical skills that helped secure your first promotion might not guarantee your next. If you aspire to be in a leadership role, there’s an emotional element you must consider. It’s what helps you successfully coach teams, manage stress, deliver feedback, and collaborate with others.

It’s called emotional intelligence, and it's one of the most sought-after interpersonal skills in the workplace. In fact, 71 percent of employers value emotional intelligence more than technical skills when evaluating candidates.

Access your free e-book today.

What Is Emotional Intelligence?

Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and manage your emotions, as well as recognize and influence the emotions of those around you. The term was first coined in 1990 by researchers John Mayer and Peter Salovey but was later popularized by psychologist Daniel Goleman.

More than a decade ago, Goleman highlighted the importance of emotional intelligence in leadership, telling the Harvard Business Review , “The most effective leaders are all alike in one crucial way: They all have a high degree of what has come to be known as emotional intelligence. It’s not that IQ and technical skills are irrelevant. They do matter, but...they are the entry-level requirements for executive positions.”

Check out our video on emotional intelligence below, and subscribe to our YouTube channel for more explainer content!

Over the years, emotional intelligence—also known as EQ—has evolved into a must-have skill. Research by EQ provider TalentSmart shows that it's the strongest predictor of performance, further illustrating why emotional intelligence is important. Employees with high emotional intelligence are more likely to stay calm under pressure , resolve conflict effectively, and respond to co-workers with empathy.

How to Identify a Lack of Emotional Intelligence

A lack of emotional intelligence skills often results in workplace conflicts and misunderstandings. This dynamic often stems from an inability to recognize or comprehend emotions.

One of the most common indicators of low emotional intelligence is difficulty managing and expressing emotions. You might struggle with acknowledging colleagues' concerns appropriately or wrestle with active listening.

Consider the relationships you have with your co-workers. Ask yourself:

• Are your conversations strained?
• Do you repeatedly blame others when projects don’t go as planned?
• Are you prone to outbursts?

These are all signs of a lack of emotional intelligence.

It's important to cultivate social skills by understanding and practicing empathy and the core components of emotional intelligence.

The Four Components of Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence is typically broken down into four core competencies:

• Self-awareness
• Self-management
• Social awareness
• Relationship management

To develop your emotional intelligence , it’s important to understand what each element entails. Here's a deeper dive into the four categories.

1. Self-Awareness

Self-awareness is at the core of everything. It describes your ability to not only understand your strengths and weaknesses, but to recognize your emotions and their effect on you and your team’s performance.

According to research by organizational psychologist Tasha Eurich , 95 percent of people think they’re self-aware, but only 10 to 15 percent actually are, and that can pose problems for your employees. Working with colleagues who aren’t self-aware can cut a team’s success in half and, according to Eurich’s research, lead to increased stress and decreased motivation.

To bring out the best in others, you first need to bring out the best in yourself, which is where self-awareness comes into play. One easy way to assess your self-awareness is by completing 360-degree feedback, in which you evaluate your performance and then match it up against the opinions of your boss, peers, and direct reports. Through this process, you’ll gain insights into your own behavior and discover how you’re perceived in the organization.

2. Self-Management

Self-management refers to the ability to manage your emotions, particularly in stressful situations, and maintain a positive outlook despite setbacks. Leaders who lack self-management tend to react and have a harder time keeping their impulses in check.

A reaction tends to be automatic. The more in tune you are with your emotional intelligence, however, the easier you can make the transition from reaction to response. It's important to pause, breathe, collect yourself, and do whatever it takes to manage your emotions—whether that means taking a walk or calling a friend—so that you can more appropriately and intentionally respond to stress and adversity.

Related : 4 Tips for Growing Your Professional Network

3. Social Awareness

While it’s important to understand and manage your emotions, you also need to know how to read a room. Social awareness describes your ability to recognize others’ emotions and the dynamics in play within your organization.

Leaders who excel in social awareness practice empathy. They strive to understand their colleagues’ feelings and perspectives, which enables them to communicate and collaborate more effectively with their peers.

Global leadership development firm DDI ranks empathy as the number one leadership skill , reporting that leaders who master empathy perform more than 40 percent higher in coaching, engaging others, and decision-making. In a separate study by the Center for Creative Leadership , researchers found that managers who show more empathy toward their direct reports are viewed as better performers by their bosses.

By communicating with empathy, you can better support your team, all while improving your individual performance.

4. Relationship Management

Relationship management refers to your ability to influence, coach, and mentor others, and resolve conflict effectively.

Some prefer to avoid conflict, but it’s important to properly address issues as they arise. Research shows that every unaddressed conflict can waste about eight hours of company time in gossip and other unproductive activities, putting a drain on resources and morale.

If you want to keep your team happy, you need to have those tough conversations. In a survey by the Society for Human Resource Management , 72 percent of employees ranked “respectful treatment of all employees at all levels” as the top factor in job satisfaction.

How to Strengthen Your Emotional Intelligence

As a leader, strengthening your emotional intelligence requires strong self-awareness. There are several ways you can develop self-awareness, including:

• Journaling : Record and reflect daily on how your emotions influenced your decision-making, interactions, and meetings—whether positive or negative—so you know what to repeat or avoid in the future.
• Undergo a 360-degree assessment : Actively seek feedback from your manager, colleagues, and peers while also undergoing an individual self-assessment. Comparing the results will surface any blindspots or leadership gaps.
• Practice active listening : Put away distractions, focus on what the speaker is saying, and show you’re engaged by paraphrasing and using non-verbal cues like nodding.
• Pay attention to your emotions : If you start feeling a particularly strong emotion, reflect on why you’re feeling that way and what prompted the strong emotional response. This will help you become more aware of your emotions and better understand your colleagues’ feelings and perspectives.
• Take an online course or training : Dive deeper into emotional intelligence through a flexible online program, such as HBS Online’s Leadership Principles course, which provides a 360-degree assessment to help you better understand your strengths and weaknesses.

These foundational steps in self-awareness and empathy are essential for building a robust emotional intelligence framework. They set the stage for a deeper exploration of the four core competencies crucial for effective leadership.

How Emotional Intelligence Can Make Leaders More Effective

Leaders set the tone of their organizations. If they lack emotional intelligence, it could have more far-reaching consequences, resulting in lower employee engagement and a higher turnover rate.

While you might excel at your job technically, if you can’t effectively communicate with your team or collaborate with others, those technical skills will get overlooked.

Emotional intelligence can enhance your ability to manage interpersonal relationships, which is crucial for fostering positive team dynamics, empathy, and effective collaboration. By mastering emotional intelligence, you can continue to advance your career and organization .

Do you want to enhance your leadership skills ? Download our free leadership e-book and explore our online course Leadership Principles to discover how you can become a more effective leader and unleash the potential in yourself and others.

This post was updated on June 11, 2024. It was originally published on April 3, 2019.

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Home — Essay Samples — Psychology — Emotional Intelligence — A Literature Review on Emotional Intelligence

A Literature Review on Emotional Intelligence

• Categories: Emotional Intelligence

About this sample

Words: 2490 |

13 min read

Published: Mar 28, 2019

Words: 2490 | Pages: 5 | 13 min read

Intelligence

• all human beings have all these intelligences
• no two individuals have exactly the same combination of these intelligences.

Emotional Intelligence

• Emotional intelligence (EI) has been defined as the “the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships”. - Goleman (1998).
• “Emotional Intelligence is the ability to sense, understand, and effectively apply the power and acumen of emotions as a source of human energy, information, connection and influence”. - Cooper and Sawaf (1997).
• The concept of Emotional-Social intelligence is “a cross section of interrelated emotional and social competencies, skills and facilitators that determine how effectively we understand and express ourselves, understand other and relate with them, and cope with daily demands”. - Bar-On (2005).

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Emotional Intelligence, Essay Example

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Introduction

A relatively new field in psychology, emotional intelligence (EI) first emerged in the early 1990’s (Fukuda, et al., 2011). EI is generally put into four categories which are self-evaluation, evaluation of others emotions, regulation of emotion and use of emotion . Different levels of emotional intelligence may affect leadership, high achievement and family life among people of different genders, ages and cultural backgrounds (Margavio, Margavio, Hignite, & Moses). The society will greatly benefit from research advancements in the field of EI because EI plays a major role in the financial and personal success of high achievers and leaders.

Gender and cultural background have proven to be effective measures of EI and require further research. There is a need to establish an effective measurement of EI with applicability across cultures and other demographic groups because this will help us better understand the relationship between EI and different demographics.

Benefits of Emotional Intelligence Training

EI training of employees by businesses would lead to happier, more productive, and more efficient workers. Today work ethic, perseverance and single-mindedness are seen as key elements of success in life and business but EI is rarely included in the list of characteristics essential to success. Research shows that EI boosts chances of success and its absence may hinder future prospects.

High achievers often show resistance to EI. Sean McCann gives the example of Kevin, who is in late 30s and have been successful in everything from athletics and academia to business. But interviews show Kevin resists emotional awareness of self and others because he perceives emotional weaknesses as a personal failure (McCann, April 2009).

Many high performers believe emotional factors should not shape decision-making as well as their professional lives and adopt hostile and single-minded behavior. This behavior may yield short-term successes but ultimately leads to isolation from peers and negatively affects one’s long term prospects. Kevin, McCann responded well to EI counseling and became more self-confident and happier.

EI also helps predict transformational leadership (Lopez-Zafra, Garcia-Ratamero, & Martos, 2012). Transformational leadership improves subordinates’ morale through use of different motivational techniques. Transformation leadership requires understand others’ emotions and being able to effectively respond to them.

Higher EI also decreases the amount of work-family interference (Cheung & So-kum Tang, 2012). Workers who cannot express their emotions at work tend to release negative emotions at home and it often leads to emotional dissonance. EI training will help workers effectively deal with emotions at workplace and reduce work-family interference. Studies show EI can be cultivated from a young age in school children (Mavroveli & Sanchez-Ruiz, 2011) as well as in middle of life (McCann, April 2009).

Cheung, F. Y., & So-kum Tang, C. (2012). The Effect of Emotional Dissonance and Emotional Intelligence on Work–Family Interference. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 44 (1) , pp. 50-58.

Fukuda, E., Saklofske, D., Tamaoka, K., Fung, T., Miyaoka, Y., & Kiyama, S. (2011). Factor Structure of Japanese Versions of Two Emotional Intelligence Scales. International Journal of Testing .

Lopez-Zafra, E., Garcia-Ratamero, R., & Martos, M. (2012). The relationship between transformational leadership and emotional intelligence from a gendered approach. The Psychological Record , pp. 97-114.

Margavio, T., Margavio, G., Hignite, M., & Moses, D. (n.d.). An Analysis of Chinese Business Students’ Performance on a Test of Emotional Intelligence. College Student Journal .

Mavroveli, S., & Sanchez-Ruiz, M. (2011). Trait emotional intelligence influences on academic achievement and school behaviour. British Journal of Educational Psychology , pp. 112-134.

McCann, S. (April 2009). Performance Psychology in Action: Casebook for Working With Athletes, Performing Artists, Business Leaders, and Professionals in High-Risk Occupations. American Psychological Association.

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Emotional Intelligence Essay | Essay on Emotional Intelligence for Students and Children in English

February 13, 2024 by Prasanna

Emotional Intelligence Essay:  Emotional intelligence is the capability and the ability to understand and manage your own emotions in a positive manner. It is a positive way to release stress and communicate effectively. It helps to make relations stronger.

It is as important as intellectual ability. It helps to connect with feelings and turns intentions into actions. It is a helping hand in achieving personal goals.

You can also find more  Essay Writing  articles on events, persons, sports, technology and many more.

Long and Short Essays on Emotional Intelligence for Students and Kids in English

We are providing the students with essay samples on a long essay of 500 words and a short essay of 150 words on the topic of Emotional Intelligence Essay for reference.

Long Essay on Emotional Intelligence 500 Words in English

Long Essay on Emotional Intelligence is usually given to classes 7, 8, 9, and 10.

Emotional intelligence is one of the essential components of leadership and an inbuilt ability of an individual to perceive the emotions and feelings of other people. It is also known as emotional quotient or EQ. It is defined as the capability of individuals to identify their own emotions. To discern between different feelings and to use the appropriate emotional guide to label each feeling and emotion in the correct way forms a part of emotional intelligence.

Empathy is an emotion that is somewhat related to emotional intelligence because it relates to an individual who connects their personal experiences with those of others. Emotional intelligence is commonly divided into four attributes which include self attributes in which a person can control his impulsive feelings and behaviour and manage his or her emotions in healthy ways. The second attribute is self-awareness, where the person gets to recognize his emotions and the thoughts that affect his behaviour.

The third attribute of emotional intelligence is social awareness. The person has empathy and can understand emotions, needs and concerns of other people. The person who has empathy can pick up on emotional cues and is able to recognize the power of dynamics in a group. The last attribute is the aspect of relationship management. This attribute helps to develop and maintain good relationships and to communicate early and manage a conflict.

Emotional intelligence has its affects. High emotional intelligence helps to navigate the social complexities of the workplace or place of education and helps to motivate others and excel in a career. Emotional intelligence helps to manage emotions. If the emotions are not handled properly, then the stress will not be handled ideally. Being in proper tune with emotions, a social purpose can be served. It helps to connect to people all around the world.

The skills that make up emotional intelligence can be learned at any time. There lies a difference between learning emotional intelligence and applying it in your daily life activities. In order to permanently change behaviour to stand up to pressure, one needs to learn how to overcome stress to be emotionally aware.

Self-awareness is an essential feature of emotional intelligence. It helps an individual to know their own strengths and use them wisely. In today’s scenario, emotional intelligence is one of the most significant aspects to reach the goal and succeed in life. Emotional intelligence leads to general happiness.

Having emotional intelligence leads to a satisfied and peaceful mind. It also leads to rationality in behaviour. With this aspect, a person can see the situation under which the behaviour takes place in the right perspective. With such a perspective, the person can establish the right relationship. Studies say that people with high EI have more excellent mental health, better job performance, leadership skills and better personality traits.

High emotional intelligence helps to deal with low self-esteem and helps a person to upgrade his life and have a better living scenario.

Short Essay on Emotional Intelligence 150 Words in English

Short Essay on Emotional Intelligence is usually given to classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.

Emotional intelligence or emotional quotient is an aspect or an ability to manage emotions in a positive way. It also defines the capability of managing the emotion of others. Emotional intelligence generally includes three skills which are, emotional awareness, the ability to harness a person or others’ emotions and regulating them.

There is no validated psychometric test or scale for emotional intelligence. A highly emotional intelligent individual is both highly conscious of his or her own emotional states, like negativity, frustration or sadness and being able to manage those aspects and emotions.

It is a crucial component of leadership. It is considered to be one of the most vital indicators of workplace performance. Studies have shown that 90% of top performers possess high emotional intelligence. There are online courses and training that an individual can undertake to boost the emotional intelligence and perform better in life and reach their desired goal.

10 Lines on Emotional Intelligence Essay in English

1. Building emotional intelligence helps an individual to coach teams effectively at a workplace. 2. Writing down thoughts of your entire day, be it negative or positive will help to spot behavioural patterns of an individual. 3. Daniel Goleman’s work on emotional intelligence points out five areas of intelligence. 4. A person with high emotional intelligence can express himself openly and respectfully without the fear of offending his co-workers. 5. High emotional intelligence can navigate complex and challenging decision making with the ideal emotional response. 6. Emotional intelligence impacts every aspect of a career to be successful. 7. Psychologists Peter Salovey and John D. Mayer coined the term “emotional intelligence” in the year 1990. 8. It is a critical factor in leadership effectiveness. 9. Emotional intelligence takes diligence and practice to incorporate into interactions on a daily basis. 10. It helps to identify a person’s triggers.

FAQ’s on Emotional Intelligence Essay

Question 1. What are the four types of emotional intelligence?

Answer: The four types of emotional intelligence are social awareness, self-awareness, self-management and relationship management.

Question 2. How is Emotional Intelligence different from Regular Intelligence?

Answer: Emotional intelligence is the ability to express and control emotions. Regular intelligence is used to define academic abilities.

Question 3.  Does emotional intelligence matter in the workplace?

Answer: Yes, emotional intelligence matters in the workplace.

Question 4.  Why do we take up the topic of emotions in the context of business?

Answer: Emotions drive behaviour, thus by engaging with the emotions of your team, you are more likely to be successful in your interaction.

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Emotional Intelligence Measures: A Systematic Review

Lluna maría bru-luna.

1 Department of Basic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Speech Therapy, Universitat de València, 46010 Valencia, Spain; [email protected]

Manuel Martí-Vilar

César merino-soto.

2 Psychology Research Institute, Universidad de San Martín de Porres, Lima 15102, Peru

José L. Cervera-Santiago

3 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal, San Miguel 15088, Peru; ep.ude.vfnu@arevrecj

Associated Data

Not applicable.

Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, express, understand, and manage emotions. Current research indicates that it may protect against the emotional burden experienced in certain professions. This article aims to provide an updated systematic review of existing instruments to assess EI in professionals, focusing on the description of their characteristics as well as their psychometric properties (reliability and validity). A literature search was conducted in Web of Science (WoS). A total of 2761 items met the eligibility criteria, from which a total of 40 different instruments were extracted and analysed. Most were based on three main models (i.e., skill-based, trait-based, and mixed), which differ in the way they conceptualize and measure EI. All have been shown to have advantages and disadvantages inherent to the type of tool. The instruments reported in the largest number of studies are Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i), Schutte Self Report-Inventory (SSRI), Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test 2.0 (MSCEIT 2.0), Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS), Wong and Law’s Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS), and Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue). The main measure of the estimated reliability has been internal consistency, and the construction of EI measures was predominantly based on linear modelling or classical test theory. The study has limitations: we only searched a single database, the impossibility of estimating inter-rater reliability, and non-compliance with some items required by PRISMA.

1. Introduction

1.1. emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence (EI) was first described and conceptualized by Salovey and Mayer [ 1 ] as an ability-based construct analogous to general intelligence. They argued that individuals with a high level of EI had certain skills related to the evaluation and regulation of emotions and that consequently they were able to regulate emotions in themselves and in others in order to achieve a variety of adaptive outcomes. This construct has received increasing attention from both the scientific community and the general public due to its theoretical and practical implications for daily life. The same authors defined EI as “the ability to carry out accurate reasoning about emotions and the ability to use emotions and emotional knowledge to enhance thought” [ 2 ] (p. 511). This definition suggests that EI is far from being conceptualized as a one-dimensional attribute and that a multidimensional operationalization would be theoretically coherent.

1.2. Conceptualizations of Emotional Intelligence

However, over the past three decades, different ways of conceptualizing EI have emerged, which are mainly summarized in three models: ability, trait, and mixed. These models have influenced the construction of measuring instruments. In the ability model, developed by Mayer and Salovey, EI is seen as a form of innate intelligence made up of several capacities that influence how people understand and manage their own emotions and those of others. These emotion processing skills are: (1) perception, evaluation and expression of emotions, (2) emotional facilitation of thought, (3) understanding and analysis of emotions, and (4) reflective regulation of emotions [ 3 , 4 ]. Consistent with this conceptualization, the measures were designed as performance tests. Subsequently, the model proposed by Petrides and Furnham [ 5 ], the trait model, was developed. This model defines EI as a trait; that is, as a persistent behaviour pattern over time (as opposed to skill, which increases with time and training), and it is associated with dispositional tendencies, personality traits or self-efficacy beliefs. It is composed of fifteen personality dimensions, grouped under four factors: well-being, self-control, emotionality and sociability [ 6 ]. The last of the three main models of conceptualization of EI is the mixed one. It is made up of two large branches that consider this construct a mixture of traits, competencies and abilities. According to the first one, developed by Bar-On [ 7 ], EI is a set of non-cognitive abilities and competences that influence the ability to be successful in coping with environmental demands and pressures, and it is composed of five key components: intrapersonal skills, interpersonal skills, adaptation skills, stress management skills and general mood. The second one, proposed by Goleman [ 8 ], also conceptualizes EI as a mixed model that shares certain aspects with the Bar-On model. It is made up of the following elements: recognition of one’s own emotions, management of emotions, self-motivation, recognition of emotions in others, and management of relationships. These emotional and social competencies would contribute to managerial performance and leadership.

1.3. Importance of Emotional Intelligence

To date, the importance that academics attach to the study of EI has been recognized by the literature in many areas, such as the workplace. For example, in professions where working with people is needed, burnout syndrome is common. It is a syndrome that is expressed by an increase in emotional exhaustion and indifference, as well as by a decrease in professional effectiveness [ 9 ]. To date, numerous studies have shown that EI can help change employee attitudes and behaviours in jobs involving emotional demands by increasing job satisfaction and reducing job stress [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ]. Likewise, on the one hand, it has been found that certain psychological variables, including EI and social competence, are related to less psychological distress. On the other hand, the acquisition of emotional and social skills can serve to develop resilience, which is a protective variable against psychological distress [ 14 ].

1.4. Types of Measures

With the challenge of choosing the conceptual model of EI also appears the challenge of choosing the appropriate measures to estimate it. For this reason, part of the work developed in the field of EI has focused on the creation of objective instruments to evaluate aspects associated with this construct. Most of them have been created around the main conceptualization models described in the previous paragraphs. Ability-based tools indicate people’s ability to understand emotions and how they work. These types of tests require participants to solve problems that are related to emotions and that contain answers deemed correct or incorrect (e.g., participants see several faces and respond by indicating the degree to which a specific emotion is present in the face). These instruments are maximal capacity tests and, unlike trait tests, they are not designed to predict typical behaviour. Ability EI instruments are usually employed in situations where a good theoretical understanding of emotions is required [ 15 ].

Trait-based instruments are generally composed of self-reported measures and are often developed as scales where there are no correct or incorrect answers, but the individual responds by choosing the item which relates more or less to their behaviour (e.g., “Understanding the needs and desires of others is not a problem for me”). They tend to measure typical behaviour, so they tend to provide a good prediction of actual behaviours in various situations [ 5 ]. Trait EI is a good predictor of effective coping styles when facing everyday stressors, both in adults and children, so these instruments are often used in situations characterized by stressors such as educational and employment contexts [ 15 ].

Questionnaires based on the EI mixed conceptualization often measure a combination of traits, social skills, competencies, and personality measures through self-reported modality (e.g., “When I am angry with others, I can tell them”). Some measures typically take 360-degree forms of assessment too (i.e., a self-report along with reports from supervisors, colleagues and subordinates). They are generally used in work environments, since they are often designed to predict and improve workplace performance and are often focused on emotional competencies that correlate with professional success. Despite the different ways of conceptualizing EI, there are some conceptual similarities between most instruments: they are hierarchical (i.e., they produce a total EI score along with scores on the different dimensions) and they have several conceptual overlaps that often include emotional perception, emotional regulation, and adaptive use of emotions [ 15 ].

1.5. Relevance of the Study

The proliferation of EI measures has received a lot of attention. However, this has not been the case in studies that synthesize their psychometric qualities, as well as those that describe their strengths and limitations. Therefore, there is a lack of studies that collect, with a wide review coverage, the instruments developed in recent years. The few reviews that can be found [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ] are limited to describing both the most popular measures (e.g., Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test [MSCEIT], Emotional Quotient Inventory [EQ-i], Trait Meta-Mood Scale [TMMS], Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire [TEIQue], or Schutte Self-Report Inventory [SSRI]) and those validated only in English, producing an apparent “Tower of Babel” effect (i.e., the over-representation of studies in one language and the under-representation in others) [ 20 ]. This is a problem that is not only more common than is believed, but it is also persistent [ 21 ]. This effect produces a barrier for the complete knowledge of current EI measures, the breadth of their uses in different contexts, and their incorporation into substantive studies relevant to multicultural understanding. In summary, it reduces the commonality of efforts made in different contexts to identify common and communicable objectives [ 22 ], specifically around the study of EI.

Therefore, a systematic review allows us to establish a knowledge base that contributes by (a) guiding and developing research efforts, (b) assisting in professional practice when choosing the most appropriate model in possible practical scenarios, and (c) facilitating the design of subsequent systematic evaluative reviews and meta-analysis of relevant psychometric parameters (e.g., factorial loads, reliability coefficients, correlations, etc.). For this reason, the aim of this article is to provide an updated systematic review of the existing instruments that allow the evaluation of EI in professionals, focusing on the description of its characteristics, as well as on its psychometric properties (reliability and validity). This systematic review is characterized by having a wide coverage (i.e., studies published in languages other than English) and having as a framework a consensus of description and taxonomy of valid evidence (i.e., “Standards”) [ 23 ].

2. Materials and Methods

This work contains a systematic review of the scientific literature published to date that includes measurements of EI. For its preparation, the guidelines proposed in the PRISMA statement [ 24 ] ( Table A1 ) carrying out systematic reviews have been followed. Regarding the evaluation of the quality of the articles, since our study does not analyse the studies that employ the EI instruments but the instruments themselves, the assessment of the internal or external validity of the studies is not applicable to this research. However, an internationally proposed guide to the study of the validity of instruments, called “Standards”, has also been used [ 23 ]. It presents guidelines for the study of the composition, use, and interpretation of what a test aims to measure and proposes five sources of validity of evidence: content, response processes, internal structure, relationship with other variables and the consequences of testing. Likewise, a recently proposed registration protocol [ 25 ] for carrying out systematic reviews has also been followed based on the five validity sources of the “Standards”.

2.1. Information Sources

The bibliographic search was carried out in three phases: an initial search to obtain an overview of the current situation, a system that applies inclusion–exclusion criteria, and a manual search to evaluate the results obtained. The search was conducted in February 2021 in the Web of Science (WoS) database, including all articles published from 1900 to 2020 (inclusive). This database was selected to perform the search because (a) it is among the databases that allows for a more efficient and adequate search coverage [ 26 ]; (b) it provides a better quality of indexing and of bibliographic records in terms of accuracy, control and granularity of information compared to other databases [ 27 ]; (c) the results are highly correlated with those of other search engines (e.g., Embase, MEDLINE and Google Scholar) [ 26 ]; (d) it is controlled by a human team specialising in the selection of its content (i.e., it is not fully automated) [ 28 ]; and (e) it has experienced a constant increase in scientific publications [ 29 ].

2.2. Eligibility Criteria

Although no protocol was written or registered prior to the research, the inclusion and exclusion criteria for articles and instruments were previously defined. The search was conducted according to these criteria.

2.2.1. Inclusion Criteria

The inclusion criteria for the studies are made up of the following points: (a) published in peer-reviewed journals, (b) presented as full articles or short communications, (c) containing empirical and quantifiable results on psychometric properties (i.e., not only narrative descriptions), (d) containing cross-sectional or longitudinal designs, (e) written in any language (in order to collect as many instruments as possible, as well as to reduce the “Tower of Babel” effect) [ 20 ], and (f) published from 1900 to 2020 (to maximize the identification of EI measures).

As for the inclusion criteria of the instruments, they are made up of the following points: (a) instruments that measure EI, (b) articles that are the first creation study of the instrument, (c) instruments aimed at people over 18 years, (d) instruments that can be applied in the workplace.

2.2.2. Exclusion Criteria

On the other hand, research that presented at least one of the following exclusion criteria was discarded: (a) contains synthesis studies (i.e., systematic reviews or meta-analyses), instrument manuals or narrative articles of instrument characteristics, (b) contains only qualitative research designs, (c) published after 2020.

Instruments that presented at least one of the following exclusion criteria were discarded: (a) instruments that were validations of the original one, (b) instruments aimed at people under 18, (c) instruments to be used in areas specifically different from the workplace.

2.3. Search Strategy

All available methods to obtain empirical answers have been included so as to maximize the coverage of the results. The following terms were included: test, measure, questionnaire, scale and instrument. The combinations of terms used were: “emotional intelligence AND test”, “emotional intelligence AND measure”, “emotional intelligence AND questionnaire”, “emotional intelligence AND scale”, and “emotional intelligence AND instrument”. Only those article-type studies were selected.

In the selection process, the title, abstract and keywords of the studies identified in the search were reviewed with the aforementioned criteria. This was carried out by only one of the authors.

2.4. Data Collection

The data to be extracted from each of the instruments were also defined in advance, ensuring that the information was extracted in a uniform manner. The selected documents were then recorded in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet to check for duplicate records.

Thus, the name of the instrument and its acronym, the language and country in which it was created, and its structural characteristics (i.e., type of measurement, number of items, dimensions and items of which they were composed, and theoretical model) were extracted together with relevant psychometric information (i.e., reliability and validity). This procedure was also carried out by the same author. Articles that used different versions of the original EI instrument were accepted, but the analysis was made only on their originals. Instruments whose original manuscript were inaccessible were discarded ( n = 10), but they are presented at the end of the results. All those articles that were duplicated or that had used measures aimed at people under 18 or for contexts specifically different from the professional area (e.g., school contexts, sports contexts, etc.) were eliminated. The search process and the number of selected and excluded results can be seen in Figure 1 . Regarding the ethical standards, no ethical approval or participant consent is required for this type of research (i.e., systematic review).

Flowchart according to PRISMA.

A total of 40 instruments were found ( Table 1 shows a synthesis of all of them). Below, a brief description of each one is presented, following which a division according to the theoretical model they use (i.e., ability-based model, trait-based model, mixed approach model, and others that do not correspond to any of them), and the psychometric properties of each one are explained.

Main characteristics of the included instruments.

TMMS: Trait Meta-Mood Scale, LOT: Life Orientation Test, CES-D: Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale; SSRI: Schutte Self-Report Inventory, BFP: Big Five Personality, TAS: Toronto Alexithymia Scale, ZDS: Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale, BIS: Barratt Impulsiveness Scale; MEIS: Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale; MSCEIT: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, MSCEIT 2.0: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Revised Version, MSCEIT-YV: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Youth Version, MSCEIT-TC: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Chinese Version; PIEMO: Profile of Emotional Intelligence; WLEIS: Wong and Law’s Emotional Intelligence Scale, EQ-i: Emotional Quotient Inventory; WEIP-3: Workgroup Emotional Intelligence Profile-3, WEIP-S: Workgroup Emotional Intelligence Profile-Short Version, IRI: Interpersonal Reactivity Index, JABRI: Job Associate-Bisociate Review Index; MEIA: Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment, JPI-R: Jackson Personality Inventory-Revised, MEIA-W: Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment-Workplace, MEIA-W-R: Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment-Workplace-Revised; EmIn: Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire; IIESS-R: Sojo and Steinkopf Emotional Intelligence Inventory-Revised Version; SREIS: Self-Rated Emotional Intelligence Scale; EISDI: Emotional Intelligence Self-Description Inventory; GEIS: Greek Emotional Intelligence Scale, SSI: Social Skills Inventory, EES: Emotion Empathy Scale, SWLS: Satisfaction with Life Scale, PANAS: Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, ASSET: An Organisational Stress Screening Tool; STEM: Situational Test of Emotion Management; OCEANIC-20: Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Index Condensed 20-item version, STEM-B: Situational Test of Emotion Management-Brief Version; STEU: Situational Test of Emotional Understanding, STEU-B: Situational Test of Emotional Understanding-Brief Version; ESCQ: Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire; AVEI: Audiovisual Test of Emotional Intelligence; GERT: Geneva Emotion Recognition Test, GERT-S: Geneva Emotion Recognition Test-Short Version, GECo: Geneva Emotional Competence Test; TIE: Test of Emotional Intelligence, SIE-T: Emotional Intelligence Scale-Faces, NEO-FFI: NEO Five-Factor Inventory; EIQ-SP: Self-Perception of Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire; TEIFA: Three-Branch Emotional Intelligence Forced-Choice Assessment; TEIRA: Three-Brach Emotional Intelligence Rating Scale Assessment; NEAT: North Dakota Emotional Abilities Test, DANVA 2-AF: Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy-Adult Faces; IIEP: Perceived Emotional Intelligence Inventory; MEIT: Mobile Emotional Intelligence Test; RAVEN: Raven’s Progressive Matrices; EIT: Emotional Intelligence Test; EQ-i: S: Emotional Quotient Inventory Short Version, EQ-i: 2.0: Emotional Quotient Inventory Revised Version, EQ-i: 360°: Emotional Quotient Inventory-360-degree version; EQ-i: YV: Emotional Quotient Inventory-Youth Version, EQ-i: YVS: Emotional Quotient Inventory Youth Short Version; ECI 2.0: Emotional Competence Inventory 2.0, ECI-U: Emotional Competence Inventory University Version; EIQ: Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire; 16PF: Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, OPQ: Occupational Personality Questionnaire, BTR: Belbin Team Roles; EIA: Emotional Intelligence Appraisal; EIS: Emotional Intelligence Scale; USMEQ-I: USM Emotional Quotient Inventory; TEIQue: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, TEIQue-SF: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Short Form, TEIQue-360°: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-360-degree version, TEIQue-AF: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Adolescent Form, TEIQue-CF: Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Child Form; REIS: Rotterdam Emotional Intelligence Scale, PEC: Profile of Emotional Competence.

3.1. Ability-Based Measures

The first category includes those instruments based on the ability-based model, mainly on that of Mayer and Salovey [ 4 ]. The first instrument created under this conceptualization is the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS) [ 30 ], a self-report scale designed to assess people’s beliefs about their own emotional abilities. It measures three key aspects of perceived EI: attention to feelings, emotional clarity and repair of emotions. It presents a very good reliability [ 80 ] and convergent validity with various instruments, although the authors recommend the use of a later version of 30 items. It also presents a widely used 24-item version [ 31 ] that has been validated in many countries.

Three years later, the Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence (SSRI) test was developed [ 33 ]. This questionnaire is answered through a five-point Likert scale and is composed of one factor that is divided into three categories: appraisal and expression of emotion in the self and others, regulation of emotion in the self and others and utilization of emotions in solving problems. It shows excellent internal consistency. It presents negative correlations with instruments that measure alexithymia, depression and impulsivity among others, which confirms its convergent validity. There is a modified version [ 34 ] and an abbreviated version [ 35 ], and it has been translated into many languages.

The Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS) [ 37 ] is another tool developed by the authors that originally defined and conceptualized EI. The MEIS is a scale made up of 12 different tasks that contains 402 items and it has been translated into several languages. However, it has strong limitations such as its length and the low internal consistency offered by some of the tasks (e.g., “blends” and “progressions”; α = 0.49 and 0.51, respectively). These authors developed, years later, the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) [ 38 ]. The items developed for the MEIS served as the starting point for the MSCEIT. This measure is composed of a five-point Likert scale and multiple response items with correct and incorrect options, which comprise eight tasks. Each of the four dimensions is assessed through two tasks. It presents an adequate internal consistency. It currently has a revised version by the same authors, and another validated in a young population. In addition, it has been translated into many languages. This instrument has detractors. Its convergent validity has been questioned since no correlation has been found between the emotional perception scale of MSCEIT and other emotional perception tests [ 81 ]. As can be seen in Table 1 , the MSCEIT has two different approaches to construct the score (consensus score and expert score). In the case of EI, it is difficult to classify an answer as correct or incorrect, so if a person responds in a different way to the experts or the average, it might mean that they have low emotional capacity or present a different way of thinking [ 81 ].

In the same year, three more instruments based on this conceptualization were developed in different countries. The first one, the Profile of Emotional Intelligence (PIEMO) [ 40 ] is an inventory developed in Mexico. Their items consist of a statement that represents a paradigmatic behaviour trait of EI with true and false answers. It is composed of eight independent dimensions that together constitute a profile. Its internal consistency is excellent and its validity has been tested by a confirmatory factor analysis and expert consultations on the items.

The second instrument is Wong and Law’s Emotional Intelligence Scale (WLEIS) [ 41 ]. It was developed in China to measure EI in a brief way in leadership and management studies. It has an adequate internal consistency and has positive correlations with the TMMS and the EQ-i. Subsequent studies have shown its predictive validity in relation to life satisfaction, happiness or psychological well-being, and its criteria’s validity with respect to personal well-being. Measurement equivalence of scores in different ethnic and gender groups has also been tested [ 82 ]. It has been translated into a multitude of languages and it is currently one of the most widely used instruments.

The third instrument is the Workgroup Emotional Intelligence Profile-3 (WEIP-3) [ 43 ]. It is a scale designed in Australia as a self-report to measure the EI of people in work teams. It has very good internal consistency and presents correlations with several instruments that prove its convergent validity. The authors made a particularly interesting finding in their study. Teams that scored lower in the WEIP-3 performed at lower levels in their work than those with high EI. This instrument has a short version and has been translated into different languages.

The Multidimensional Emotional Intelligence Assessment (MEIA) [ 45 ] was developed in the USA. The authors state that the test takes only 20 min. It has very good internal consistency. Its validity has been tested in different ways. Content validity was tested by independent experts who considered each element as representative of its target scale. Convergent validity was tested by significant correlations between the scores and personality tests. Finally, the lack of correlation between the MEIA and theoretically unrelated personality tests proved the divergent validity. It has a version for the work context.

The Sojo and Steinkopf Emotional Intelligence Inventory—Revised version (IIESS-R) [ 47 ] was developed in Venezuela to measure the three dimensions that compose it. It presents 34 phrases that describe the reactions of people with high EI, as well as contrary behaviours. It has excellent internal consistency and its content has been validated through expert judgment. It shows correlations with some scales of similar instruments and its internal structure has been tested by exploratory analysis and PCA.

In the original article of the Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EmIn), created for the Russian population [ 46 ], its author proposes his own model of ability-based EI that differs in some aspects from that proposed by Mayer and Salovey. Accordingly, he designed a questionnaire to measure the participants’ beliefs about their emotional abilities under this model. It is composed of two dimensions answered using a 4-point Likert scale. Their scales have a good internal consistency, but their validity has not been tested beyond the factor analysis of its internal structure. Years later, this same author developed the Videotest of Emotion Recognition [ 59 ], an instrument that uses videos as stimuli. It was also designed in Russia to obtain precision indexes in the recognition of the types of emotions, as well as the sensitivity and intensity of the observed emotions. It has 15 scales that measure through a single item each of the emotions recorded by the instrument. Its internal consistency is good. It is correlated with MSCEIT and EmIn, which proves its convergent validity.

Another instrument based on the Mayer and Salovey model is the Self-Rated Emotional Intelligence Scale (SREIS) [ 49 ]. It was developed throughout three studies that used the MSCEIT as a comparison. The first one did not show a very high correlation between the scores of both tools. In the second one, only men’s MSCEIT scores correlated with perceived social competence after personality measures remained constant. Finally, in the third only MSCEIT predicted social competence, but only for males again. Internal consistency was also not consistent throughout the three studies, as the α yielded values were 0.84, 0.77, and 0.66, respectively. Its internal structure was tested by a confirmatory factor analysis and the content of each item was validated by the judgment of students familiar with the Mayer and Salovey model. It has been translated into several languages.

The Emotional Intelligence Self-Description Inventory (EISDI) [ 49 ] is also a short instrument, consisting of four dimensions designed to assess EI in the workplace. It has an excellent internal consistency. It presents correlations with instruments such as the WLEIS and the SREIS and a discriminant validity with the Big Five Personality. The same year, the Greek Emotional Intelligence Scale (GEIS) [ 51 ] was developed in Greek to assess four basic dimensions of EI. Its internal consistency is very good, as well as its test–retest value. Its internal structure was verified by a PCA, and its convergent and divergent validity were tested by a series of studies with 12 different instruments.

MacCann and Roberts [ 51 ] developed two instruments to assess EI according to the ability-based model: the Situational Test of Emotion Management (STEM) and the Situational Test of Emotional Understanding (STEU). Both are made up of three dimensions and a similar number of items. The first one measures the management of emotions such as anger, sadness and fear, and it can be administered in two formats: multiple choice response and rate-the-extent (i.e., test takers rate the appropriateness, strength, or extent of each alternative, rather than selecting the correct alternative). The STEU presents a series of situations about context-reduced, personal-life context, and workplace-context, which provoke a main emotion that is the correct answer to be chosen by the participant among other incorrect ones. Both instruments have similar internal consistency for the multiple response format, while for the rate-the-extent format it is much higher. Both present criteria and convergent validity and have an abbreviated version.

The Emotional Skills and Competence Questionnaire (ESCQ) [ 53 ] is an instrument developed in Croatia that measures EI through three basic dimensions using a five-point Likert scale. The subscales have a reliability that varies between good an excellent, and they correlate with other EI and personality instruments. The ESCQ has been translated into several languages.

The Audiovisual Test of Emotional Intelligence (AVEI) [ 55 ] is an Israeli instrument aimed at educational settings related to care-centred professions. Their items are developed from primary and secondary emotions, both positive and negative. Each one consists of short videos generated by researchers with training in psychology and visual arts. People should choose the correct answer among 10 alternatives and it takes between 12 and 18 min to be completed. It requires computers equipped with audio. The internal consistency was calculated using ICC coefficients. It has content validations through expert consultations on the items and criteria since it correlates with measures traditionally related to EI.

The Geneva Emotion Recognition Test (GERT) [ 57 ] is a German test composed of 14 scales. The stimuli are, as in the AVEI, short image and audio videos recorded by five men and five women of different ages. Thus, people must choose which of the 14 emotions is being expressed by the actors, with the responses labelled as correct or incorrect. The reliability of the test is considered excellent, and the ecological and construct validity of the instrument has been tested.

The Test of Emotional Intelligence (TIE) [ 58 ] is developed in Poland. It consists of the same four dimensions as the MSCEIT. After providing participants with different emotional problems, they should indicate which emotion is most likely to occur or choose the most appropriate action. The score is based on expert judgment. It has a very good internal consistency. It has convergent validity since it correlates with the SSEIT and has construct since women scored higher than men.

The Self-Perception of Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ-SP) [ 60 ] is an instrument designed in Portugal and composed of the four dimensions belonging to the Mayer and Salovey’s ability-based model. Their scales have good internal consistency and are correlated with each other.

The Three-Branch Emotional Intelligence Rating Scale Assessment (TEIRA) [ 61 ] and the Three-Branch Emotional Intelligence Forced-Choice Assessment (TEIFA) [ 61 ] were developed in 2015. The first is made up of three scales and is answered by a six-point Likert scale. It presents internal consistency between good and excellent and convergent validity with STEU-B and STEM-B. On the other hand, TEIFA presents a format of forced choice in order to avoid the problem of social desirability in the rating scales. In this format, participants must choose among several positive statements and therefore they cannot simply rate themselves highly on everything (e.g., “Which one is more like you: I know why my emotions change or I manage my emotions well”). It consists of the same items and dimensions as the TEIRA. The study does not report the reliability of TEIFA, as the reliability of the forced-choice tests is artificially high. It presents convergent validity with the SSRI.

A year later, the North Dakota Emotional Abilities Test (NEAT) [ 62 ] was developed in the USA to assess the ability to perceive, understand and control emotions in the workplace. It contains items that describe scenarios of work environments, in which the person must rate the extent of certain emotions that the protagonist would experience in a certain situation. The internal consistency of its scales varies between good and excellent and its internal structure has been tested by a confirmatory factor analysis. In addition, the predictive validity of the instrument has also been tested.

The Inventory of Perceived Emotional Intelligence (IIEP) [ 63 ] was developed in Argentina. It measures different components of intrapersonal and interpersonal EI. This inventory is answered using a five-point Likert scale and it has reliable dimensions. Its content validity has been tested through consultations with judges to evaluate the items.

The last of the instruments in this category is the Emotional Intelligence Test (EIT) [ 65 ]. It was developed in Russia and has four dimensions that assess EI in the workplace. It has excellent internal consistency and convergent validity tested by correlations with the MSCEIT 2.0. No information regarding the items that compose it has been found.

3.2. Measures Based on the Mixed Model

The second category includes those instruments based on the mixed EI model, mainly the Bar-On model [ 7 ] and the Goleman model [ 8 ]. The first instrument of this model is the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) [ 7 ]. Its author was the first to define EI as a mixed concept between ability and personality trait. It is a self-report measure of behaviour that provides an estimate of EI and social intelligence. Their items are composed of short sentences that are answered using a five-point Likert scale. It takes about 30 min to complete, so other shorter versions have been developed, as well as a 360-degree version and a version for young people. It has been translated into more than 30 languages. It has an internal consistency between good and very good and its construct validity has been tested by correlations with other variables.

Emotional Competence Inventory 2.0 (ECI 2.0) [ 67 ], also called ESCI, is a widely used instrument. It was developed in the USA by another of the authors who conceptualized the mixed model of EI. It was designed in a 360-degree version to assess the emotional competencies of individuals and organizations. The internal consistency of others’ ratings is good, while that of oneself is questionable, and it shows positive correlations with constructs related to the work environment. It has a version for university students and has been translated into several languages.

The Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ) [ 68 ] is another tool designed to measure EI in the workplace. It has face, content, construct, and predictive validity, although the internal consistency of its scales varies between good and not very acceptable. Years later, the Emotional Intelligence Inventory [ 69 ] was developed in India. It was also designed to measure EI using a mixed concept in the workplace. It is made up of 10 dimensions, which have an internal consistency between acceptable and excellent. It has correlations with several related scales and with the number of promotions achieved and success in employment, which is proof of its predictive validity.

The Emotional Intelligence Appraisal (EIA) [ 70 ] is a set of surveys that measures EI in the workplace using the four main components of the Goleman model. Their items have been evaluated by experts. It has an internal consistency between very good and excellent. It has three versions: an online self-report, an online multi-rater report (which is combined with responses from co-workers), and another one that has anonymous ratings from several people to get an EI score for the whole team. The Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) [ 71 ] is another tool based on the Goleman model. It is composed of three dimensions and it has excellent internal consistency. The content of the items has been validated by expert evaluations.

The USM Emotional Quotient Inventory (USMEQ-i) [ 72 ] is a tool developed in Malaysia. It consists of a total of seven dimensions composed of 46 items. Seven of these items make up the “faking index items”, that measure the tendency of respondents to manifest social desirability and have a very good internal consistency ( α = 0.83). The reliability of the total instrument yields excellent values.

The Indigenous Scale of Emotional Intelligence [ 73 ] is a Pakistani instrument developed in the Urdu language. The final items were selected from an initial set after passing through the judgment of four experts based on the fidelity to the construct: clarity, redundancy, reliability, and compression. It has excellent internal consistency. Additionally, it presents construct validity (as women obtain higher scores than men) and correlations with the EQ-i.

Years later, the Mobile Emotional Intelligence Test (MEIT) was developed [ 64 ]. It is a Spanish instrument used to measure EI online in work contexts. It is made up of seven tasks (perceptive tasks and identification tasks) to assess the emotional perception of both others and oneself, respectively, face task, in which the most appropriate photograph related to the demanded emotion must be chosen, three comprehension tasks (composition, deduction and retrospective), and story task, in which participants must choose the best action to manage feelings in a given story. It presents excellent internal consistency and convergent validity.

3.3. Trait-Based Measures

This category is composed of trait-based instruments. The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) [ 6 ] is the main instrument of this model. It is a tool widely used in many countries. It has excellent internal consistency and it shows significant correlations with the Big Five Personality. It has a short version, a 360-degree version, a version for children and another one for teenagers. It has been translated into many languages.

Years later, the Rotterdam Emotional Intelligence Scale (REIS) [ 75 ] was developed, the other instrument belonging to this category. It is a self-report instrument designed in Dutch. It has a very good internal consistency and it presents correlations with WEIS, TEIQue and PEC and its validity criterion has also been tested.

3.4. Measures Based on Other Models

Some instruments cannot be included within these categories since they have been conceptualized under different models. The first one is the Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory [ 76 ], previously known as SUEIT. It is based on an original model. It was specifically designed for use in the workplace, but it does not measure EI per se, but rather the frequency with which people display a variety of emotionally intelligent behaviours in the workplace. It presents very good reliability and convergent and predictive validity. In addition, it has two reduced versions.

The Profile of Emotional Competence (PEC) [ 77 ] is based on the model of Mikolajczak [ 83 ], which replicates the four dimensions proposed by Mayer and Salovey but separates the identification from the expression of the emotions and distinguishes the intrapersonal aspect from the interpersonal aspect of each dimension. It contains two main scales, and has excellent internal consistency and convergent, divergent and criterion validity. The original one was developed in French, but it has been translated into several languages.

The last of the instruments identified is the Group-level Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire [ 79 ]. It was designed in the USA to assess EI in work groups under Ghuman’s theoretical model [ 79 ]. This model conceives EI as a two-component construct: group relationship capability (GRC) and group emotional capability (GEC). All of them have very good internal consistency.

Regarding the framework of the Standards, differences were found among them, resulting in an unequal distribution throughout the articles. The percentages of each type of validity can be seen in Table 2 .

Number of studies and percentages for each validity test.

The instruments whose original sources could not be retrieved are cited in Table 3 . The main reasons were that they were articles from books to which the authors did not have access, unpublished documents or documents with restricted access.

Information of the non-accessible instruments.

4. Discussion

The main aim of this study is to offer an updated systematic review of EI instruments in order to provide researchers and professionals with a list of tools that can be applied in the professional field with their characteristics, psychometric properties and versions, as well as a brief description of the instrument. For this purpose, a systematic review of the scientific literature on EI has been carried out using the WoS database through a search of all articles published between 1900 and the present.

The number of instruments developed has been increasing in recent years. In the 1990s barely any instruments were developed and their production was limited to approximately one per year and to practically one country (i.e., the USA). This may be due to the recent conceptualisation of EI, as well as to the difficulty that researchers found in constructing emotion-centred questions with objective criteria [ 15 ]. However, over the years, the production of instruments to measure EI has been increasing and, in addition, it has been extended to other geographical areas. This may be due to the importance that EI has reached over the years in multiple areas (e.g., health, organizational, educational, etc.). With the passage of time, and the introduction of new technologies, multimedia platforms have begun to be used to present stimuli to participants. Recent research in EI has determined that emotions are expressed and perceived through visual and auditory signals (i.e., the tone of voice and the dynamic movements of the face and body) [ 94 ]. Thus, a meta-analysis revealed that video-based tests tend to have a higher criterion-related validity than text-based stimuli [ 95 ].

Regarding the results, a total of 40 instruments produced from 1995 to 2020 have been located. The instruments registered in a greater number of studies, and that have been most used over the years are EQ-i, SSRI, MSCEIT 2.0, TMMS, WLEIS, and TEIQue. These tools have the largest number of versions (e.g., reduced or for different ages or contexts) and are the ones that have been validated in more languages. The most recent instruments hardly have translations apart from their original version, and they have been tested on very few occasions. Most of the articles have not been developed for a specific context.

On the other hand, as can be seen in the results, most of the instruments are grouped under the three main conceptual models described in the introduction (ability, trait and mixed). These models are vertebrated around the construct of EI. However, they present differences in the way of conceptualizing it and, therefore, also of measuring it. For example, the ability-based concept of EI is measured by maximum performance tests while trait-based EI is measured by self-report questionnaires. This may, in itself, lead to different outcomes, even if the underlying model used is the same [ 96 , 97 ].

The ability model, introduced by Mayer and Salovey, is composed of other hierarchically ordered abilities, in which the understanding and management dimensions involve higher-order cognitive processes (strategic), and are based on perception and facilitation, which involve instantaneous processing of emotional information (experiential) [ 4 ]. This model has received wide recognition and has served as a basis for the development of other models. However, it has been questioned through factor analysis that does not support a hierarchical model with an underlying global EI factor. Furthermore, emotional thought facilitation (second dimension) did not arise as a separate factor and was found to be empirically redundant with the other branches [ 96 ].

Intelligence and personality researchers have questioned the very existence of ability EI, and they suggest that it is nothing more than intelligence. This fact is supported by the high correlations found between ability-based EI and the intellectual quotient [ 15 , 96 ]. On the other hand, there is the possibility of falsifying the results by responding strategically for the purpose of social desirability. However, one of the advantages of the ability model is that, through the maximum performance tests, it is not possible to adulterate them. This is because participants must choose the answer they think is correct to get the highest possible score. Another advantage is that these types of instruments tend to be more attractive because they are made up of tests in which it is required to resolve problems, solve puzzles, perform comprehension tasks or choose images [ 15 ].

The Petrides and Furnham model [ 5 ] emerged as an alternative to the ability-based model and is related to dispositional tendencies, personality traits, or self-efficacy beliefs that are measured by self-report tests. The tools based on this model are not exempt from criticism. These instruments present a number of disadvantages, the most frequently cited are being vulnerability to counterfeiting and social desirability [ 96 ]. The participant can obtain a high EI profile by responding in a strategically and socially desirable way, especially when they are examined in work contexts by supervisors or in job interviews. People are not always good judges of their emotional abilities [ 98 ], and may tend to unintentionally underestimate or overestimate their EI. Another criticism of self-report tools is their ecological validity (i.e., external validity that analyses the test environment and determines how much it influences the results) [ 96 ].

On the contrary, the fact that such tools do not present correct or incorrect answers can be advantageous in certain cases. High EI trait scores are not necessarily adaptive or low maladaptive. That is, self-report tools give rise to emotional profiles that simply fit better and are more advantageous in some contexts than in others [ 97 ]. On the other hand, trait-based tools have demonstrated good incremental validity over cognitive intelligence and personality compared to ability-based EI tests [ 99 ]. Furthermore, they tend to have very good psychometric properties, have no questionable theoretical basis, and are moderately and significantly correlate with a large set of outcome variables [ 15 ].

One aspect observed in this systematic review is that the main measure of the estimated reliability in the analysed studies has been internal consistency. However, this estimate is not interchangeable with other measurement error estimates. This coefficient gives a photographic picture of the measurement error and does not include variability over time. There are other reliability indicators (e.g., stability or test–retest) that are more relevant for social intervention purposes [ 100 ], and that according to the estimation design, can differentiate into trait variability or state variability, that is, respectively stability and dependability [ 101 ]. It has been found that the use of stability measures as a reliability parameter is not frequent. In methodological and substantive contexts, reproducibility is essential for the advancement of knowledge. For this reason, it is necessary to identify measures that can be used as parameters to compare the results of different studies [ 102 ]. On the other hand, the standard coefficient of internal consistency has been coefficient α [ 103 ]. This measure has been questioned in relation to its apparent misinformed use of its restrictions [ 104 , 105 , 106 ], of which Cronbach himself highlighted its limited applications [ 104 ]. Other reliability measures have been recommended (e.g., ω) [ 107 ], and the reliability estimation practice in the creation of EI measurements needs to be updated. Usually, ω estimation is integrated into the modelling-based estimation, where SEM or IRT methodology is required to corroborate the internal structure of the score [ 108 , 109 , 110 ] and extract the parameters used to calculate reliability (i.e., factorial loads).

Another methodological aspect to highlight is that predominantly, the construction of EI measures was based on linear modelling or classical test theory. In contrast, the least used approach was item response theory (IRT), which provides other descriptive and evaluative parameters of the quality of the score measurement, such as the information function or the characteristic curves of the options, among others.

On the other hand, it is striking that some of the articles found prove the construct validity of their instruments by obtaining higher EI scores by women than men [ 56 , 58 , 73 ]. This has also been seen in the scientific literature and in research such as that of Fischer et al. [ 111 ], in which it was found that women tend to score higher in EI tests or empathy tests than men, especially, but not only, if it is measured through self-report. Additionally, striking is the study by Molero et al. [ 112 ], in which significant differences were observed among the various EI components between men and women. However, this is not the case in all the articles analysed in this study, nor in all the most current scientific literature. This fact has led to the development of different hypotheses about how far, why, and under what circumstances women could outperform men. There are several theories that have emerged around it. There is one that claims that these differences could be related to different modes of emotional processing in the brain [ 113 , 114 ]. Another theory points to possible differences in emotional perception that suggest that women are more accurate than men in this process when facial manifestations of emotion are subtle, but not when stimuli are highly expressive [ 115 ]. Additionally, another one points out that the expression of emotions is consistent with sex, which may be influenced by contextual factors, including the immediate social context and broader cultural contexts [ 116 ]. However, other variables such as age or years of experience in the position should also be taken into account. For example, the study by Miguel-Torres et al. [ 117 ] showed a better ability to feel, express, and understand emotional states in younger nurses, while the ability to regulate emotions was greater in those who had worked for more years. For this reason, nowadays firm conclusions cannot be drawn and it must be taken into account that the differences found are generally small. Thus, more research is needed on the differences that may exist between men and women in the processes of perception, expression and emotional management before establishing possible social implications of these findings.

4.1. Limitations

This study is not without limitations. Some are inherent in this type of studies, such as publication bias (i.e., the non-publication of studies with results that do not show significant differences) that could have resulted in a loss of articles that have not been published and that used instruments other than those found. In addition, instruments that could not be accessed from their original manuscript could not be included in the systematic review. On the other hand, despite the advantages of WoS, the fact that the search was conducted in a single database may lead to some loss of literature. Furthermore, the systematic review was restricted to peer-reviewed publications and thus different studies may be presented in other information sources, such as books or grey literature. Articles that were in the press and those that may have been published in the course of the compilation of this study have not been collected either. Additionally, the entire process of searching for references was carried out by only one investigator, so an estimate of inter-judge reliability cannot be made, as well as data extraction. There are many aspects of the PRISMA statement that, due to the purpose of our research, our study does not include (visible as NA in Table A1 ). However, it is necessary to develop a protocol for recording the inclusion and exclusion criteria of the primary studies to prevent bias (e.g., bias in the selection process). There are also some methodological aspects to be improved, such as the lack of methods used to assess the risk of bias in the included studies, the preparation or synthesis of the data, or the certainty in the body of evidence of a result. In future research it is necessary to take into account and develop these aspects in order to improve the replicability and methodological validity of the study, and to facilitate the transparency of the research process. In contrast to the above, one of the strengths of this study was to minimize the presence of biases that could alter the results. To minimize language bias, articles submitted in any language were searched for and accepted to avoid over-presentation of studies in one language, and under-presentation in others [ 20 ]. In addition, this study takes into account and exposes five sources of evidence of validity of the instruments through the Standards: content, response processes, internal structure, relationship with other variables and the consequences of testing. Other aspects to be improved in the future include performing the same search in other databases such as EBSCO and Scopus to obtain possible articles not covered in WoS. A manual search for additional articles would also be useful, for example, in the references of other articles or in the grey literature.

4.2. Practical Implication

The relationship between EI and personal development has been of great interest in psychological research over time [ 8 ]. A good study of the instruments that measure constructs such as EI can be of great help both in the field of prevention and psychological intervention in social settings. The revision of EI instruments is intended to contribute to facilitating work in the general population in a way that the development of EI is promoted and antisocial behaviours are reduced. In addition, since it correlates with variables that serve as protectors against psychological distress, this work also contributes to improving, in some cases, the general level of health.

Through this systematic review, we can see the great effort that has been made by researchers not only to improve existing EI measurement instruments, but also in the construction of new instruments that help professionals in the educational, business and health fields, as well as the general population. However, given the rapid changes that society is experiencing, partly due to the effects of modernization and technology, there is a demand to go beyond measurement. For example, from educational and business institutions and from family and community organizations it is necessary to promote activities, support and commitment towards actions oriented to EI under the consideration that this construct can be improved at any age and that it increases with experience.

5. Conclusions

From the results obtained in this study, numerous instruments have been found that can be used to measure EI in professionals. Over the years, the production of instruments to measure EI has been increasing and, moreover, has spread to other geographical areas. The most recent instruments have hardly been translated beyond their original version and have been tested very rarely. In order for future research to benefit from these new instruments, a greater number of uses in larger samples and in other contexts would be desirable.

In addition, most of the instruments are grouped under the three main conceptual models described in the introduction (ability, trait and mixed). Each model has a number of advantages and disadvantages. In the ability model it is not possible to adulterate the results by strategic responses and they tend to be more attractive tests; however, factor analyses do not support a hierarchical model with an underlying global EI factor. The trait-based model, on the other hand, employs measures that have no right or wrong answers, so they result in emotional profiles that are more advantageous in some contexts than others, and they tend to have very good psychometric properties. However, they are susceptible to falsification and social desirability.

On the other hand, it is necessary to identify measures that can be used as parameters to compare the results of different studies. In addition, the standard coefficient of internal consistency has been the α coefficient, which has been questioned in relation to its apparent misinformed use of its restrictions. It would be advisable to use other reliability measures and to update the reliability estimation practice in the creation of EI measures.

Finally, some of the articles found test the construct validity of their instruments by obtaining higher EI scores from women than from men. Different hypotheses have been developed about to what extent, why and under what circumstances women would outperform men; differences may be related to different modes of emotional processing in the brain or possible differences in emotional perception or to the influence of contextual factors. However, it would be interesting to further investigate the differences that may exist between men and women or to take into account other factors such as age or number of years of experience before establishing possible practical implications.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the casual helpers for their aid with information processing and searching.

PRISMA 2020 checklist.

NA = Not applicable.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.M.B.-L. and M.M.-V.; methodology, L.M.B.-L.; validation, L.M.B.-L.; formal analysis, L.M.B.-L.; investigation, L.M.B.-L.; data curation, L.M.B.-L.; writing—original draft preparation, L.M.B.-L.; writing—review and editing, L.M.B.-L., M.M.-V., C.M.-S. and J.L.C.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

• Emotional Intelligence

Why You Need Emotional Intelligence to Succeed at School

Understanding and managing emotions gives students the edge..

Posted June 13, 2020 | Reviewed by Lybi Ma

Parents, teachers, and students all want to know what personal qualities will help students perform well in their studies. While teaching quality, resources, and other environmental factors help students achieve their best, students’ personal qualities can give them an edge over others.

Past research has found two personal qualities that are important for student success. The first quality is intelligence . Being smart enough to master algebra and coding is obviously important for success. The second quality is conscientiousness . Being organized enough to remember your homework and organize your notes is another clear advantage.

It isn’t hard to see why being smart and working hard would help students get better grades and higher test scores. Students’ IQ scores explain about 15 percent of the differences in achievement . Conscientiousness explains about 5 percent of such differences .

But research shows that emotional intelligence can also give students a critical edge.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions.

Some emotional intelligence tests use rating scales. For example, test-takers might rate their agreement with statements like “I am aware of the nonverbal messages other people send." Other emotional intelligence tests directly measure emotional abilities with skill-based tasks. For example, test takers would have to identify which emotion is expressed in a face.

Our new research paper showed that emotionally intelligent students get better exam results and better grades . This meta-analysis summarized 1,246 research findings on the link between emotional intelligence and academic performance. While these findings could not directly show a cause-and-effect relationship between emotion-related characteristics and performance, they do reveal notable associations between them. Overall, we found that differences in students’ emotional intelligence could account for about 4 percent of differences in achievement.

But some types of emotional intelligence were more strongly related to achievement than others. Skill-based tasks of emotional intelligence accounted for 6 percent of differences in academic performance whereas self-ratings of emotional abilities accounted for 1 percent of differences.

But also, some kinds of abilities seemed to be especially significant—including understanding emotions and managing emotions .

Students who can understand emotions can accurately label their own and others’ emotions. They know what causes emotions, how emotions change, and how emotions combine.

Students who can manage emotions know how to regulate their emotions in stressful situations. They know what to do to maintain good social relationships with others.

Emotion management ability accounted for 7 percent of differences in academic performance.

Emotion understanding skills accounted for 12 percent.

That is, measures of emotion understanding skills seem to account for student success to a greater extent than measures of conscientiousness (5 percent), and almost as much as IQ scores (15 percent).

Why would emotional intelligence be important for success in education?

There are three likely reasons why emotional intelligence relates to higher academic performance.

First, emotional intelligence helps students cope with emotions in the academic environment. Students can feel anxious about exams, feel disappointed with poor results, feel frustrated when they try hard but cannot achieve what they want, or feel bored when the subject matter is not interesting. Being able to regulate these emotions so they do not interfere with learning helps students achieve.

Second, emotional intelligence can help students maintain their relationships with teachers, students, and family. Maintaining close personal relationships means they can call on friends and teachers to help them when they struggle, can learn from others in group work, or can call on others for emotional support.

Third, humanities subjects (like literature or history) require some level of emotional and social knowledge. For example, the universal themes and character development in literature requires understanding human motivations and emotions.

What do emotionally intelligent students do differently that allows them to succeed at school?

Emotionally intelligent students know more about emotions, which makes studying arts or humanities subjects easier for them. But what they do differently is mainly how they regulate their emotions. There are three ways emotion regulation would be different for high emotional intelligence versus low emotional intelligence students.

First, emotionally intelligent students use better processes to regulate their emotions. We know that some processes are more effective than others . For example, concentrating on negative emotions (rumination) is linked to worse outcomes, whereas looking on the bright side (positive reappraisal) is linked to better outcomes. We know that emotionally intelligent people generally report using more of the better processes (like positive reappraisal) less of the worse processes (like rumination).

Second, emotionally intelligent students might pick strategies that are more appropriate or effective for the situation they are in. That is, they may be more sensitive to key details of the situation, and therefore be more flexible in their responses. We know that positive reappraisal is linked to well-being in uncontrollable situations (where nothing can be done about the stress) but not controllable situations (where perhaps it is better to change the situation than change the way you think about it). Perhaps emotionally intelligent people are more sensitive to whether situations are in their control or not, and pick their strategies accordingly.

Third, emotionally intelligent students might implement the strategies better. For example, when using ‘positive reappraisal’, an emotionally intelligent student might be able to think of a feasible positive spin or silver lining. In contrast, a low-EI student might only be able to think a vague or unrealistic positive view of things, which would be less effective for making them feel better.

How could this play out in a student's day?

Consider a hypothetical student Cooper, who is good at maths and science but has low emotional intelligence abilities. She has difficulty seeing when others are irritated, worried, or sad. She does not know how people’s emotions may cause future behavior. She does not know what to do to regulate her own feelings. A typical day of school for Cooper shows how her low emotional intelligence can interfere with a student's ability to achieve at school.

Cooper arrives at school. Her best friend Alice is staring at the ground with her arms folded. Her eyes are a little red and puffy. Cooper tells her about a cool TV show she watched last night. Alice does not seem interested so Cooper goes to talk to someone else. Because Cooper has poor ability to perceive Alice’s emotions, she has not noticed anything is wrong. Alice is upset that Cooper did not show any sympathy for her. Alice tells Cooper that she is not a good friend.

Cooper goes into class. The class is meant to analyze the motivations and emotions of the characters in the book they are reading. Cooper finds this very hard. She is not able to answer many of the questions. Alice sometimes helps Cooper with things like this, but she is mad at Cooper today and refuses to help. Alice rolls her eyes and says that the questions are easy.

Cooper feels ashamed that she can’t do the work other students seem to find easy. She is also upset that Alice is mad at her. She can’t seem to shake these feelings, and she is not able to concentrate on her math problems in the next class. Because of her low emotion management ability, Cooper cannot bounce back from her negative emotions.

This example shows how paying attention to building a student's emotional intelligence can help them learn, achieve, and succeed at school.

MacCann, C., Jiang, Y., Brown, L. E. R., Double, K. S., Bucich, M., & Minbashian, A. (2019, December 12). Emotional Intelligence Predicts Academic Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin. Advance online publication.

Poropat, A. E. (2009). A meta-analysis of the five-factor model of personality and academic performance. Psychological Bulletin, 135(2), 322-338.

Webb, T. L., Miles, E., & Sheeran, P. (2012). Dealing with feeling: a meta-analysis of the effectiveness of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 138(4), 775-338

Peña-Sarrionandia, A., Mikolajczak, M., & Gross, J. J. (2015). Integrating emotion regulation and emotional intelligence traditions: a meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 160.

Haines, S. J., Gleeson, J., Kuppens, P., Hollenstein, T., Ciarrochi, J., Labuschagne, I., ... & Koval, P. (2016). The wisdom to know the difference: Strategy-situation fit in emotion regulation in daily life is associated with well-being. Psychological Science, 27(12), 1651-1659.

Carolyn MacCann, Ph.D. , is an Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Sydney.

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Essays on Emotional Intelligence

Do you have an emotional intelligence essay to write? Once you analyze our emotional intelligence essay samples you will be equipped to take on any essay with no problem! But what is emotional intelligence? In some essays on emotional intelligence, it is defined as the ability to understand feelings of yourself and other people, as well as the ability to assess mood, temperament, and intentions while communicating with other people, regardless of whether they are old friends or strangers. An important part of emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize, understand, and control your own and other people’s emotions. Many emotional intelligence essays recognize how important emotional intelligence is for social situations, especially at work. If you need some insight on the matter, feel free to take a peek at the samples of intelligence essays below!

Review of Research Article: Sociocultural Context of Emotional Intelligence Development of 5-7 Year 0ld ChildrenUnderstanding Emotional Intelligence in ChildrenThis research article written by Silakova Marina Mikhailovna and Zakharova Larisa Mikhailovna discusses the sociocultural development of the emotional intelligence of children who are aged between five and seven years old. The...

According to Bradberry (2009), emotional intelligence is the skill and capacity to construe other people’s emotions, as well as being able to read and understand them appropriately. The sole purpose of emotional intelligence is to enable people to acknowledge their emotions and those of other individuals. Furthermore, the four main...

Organizational Leaders With a Secure Attachment Style and Emotional Intelligence Organizational leaders with a secure attachment style will have higher levels of emotional intelligence and transformational leadership skills. The reason behind this allegation is due to the manner in which these individuals conduct themselves amidst challenges that face their organizations. Emotional...

This is a good research topic since currently, there exists a debate between the skeptics and proponents of emotional intelligence (EI) with reference to its contribution to the effectiveness of leadership within the organizational setting (Matthews, Zeidner " Roberts, 2007). A majority of the literature available has not aimed at...

Emotional intelligence, commonly abbreviated as EQ, refers to the ability of an individual to recognize, comprehend and manage their own emotions and those of others. also, it includes the ability to understand the effect that their own emotions have towards others. Emotional Intelligence can be understood through tests and undertaking...

Words: 1820

Emotional Intelligence and Effective Communication Emotional intelligence and effective communication are key topics of concern to many organizations in the world (Jorfi et al. 82). The relation between the duo plays a vital role in the success and growth of organizations. Goleman defines emotional intelligence as the ability to recognize and...

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Communication and Organizational Change Communication is one of the factors that influence organizational change and has a significant contribution to the prosperity of projects carried out by a team of workers. There are numerous styles of communication that an organization can employ in its setup. Every method has its suitability and...

Words: 1048

The emotional building blocks that constitute the base of intelligence capability determine a person's level of emotional intelligence (Sallie-Dosunmu, 2016). Because they aim to ensure an increase in job happiness, emotional intelligence blocks substantially influence management's capacity to manage personnel. Emotional self-awareness, self-perception, leadership, self-actualization, and self-regard are the fundamental...

Words: 1400

A meta-analysis of job attitudes and emotional intelligence In the study, a meta-analysis of job attitudes and emotional intelligence is discussed. The title of the journal is the Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, which was released in 2006 by Humphrey, Miao, and Qian. Emotional Intelligence According to Humphrey et al. (2016) s...

Emotion Elicitation and Assessment in Films Emotion elicitation by the use of films is one of the concepts which stood out after reading Coan and Allen (2007). The authors found out that rage, criticism, laughter, complaining, surprise, belligerence, sorrow, scorn, fear, disgust, stonewalling, satire, validation, apprehension, superiority, threats, defensiveness, curiosity, and...

Emotional intelligence plays an important role in our lives, which basically means that our bodies are in a certain state at any given time, and we aim to either preserve or change that state. Feelings are a reflection of what is going on in our heads. Feelings are described by...

Words: 1740

Emotional Intelligence: My Personal Experience "If you can change your mind, you can change your life," American philosopher William James once said. A lack of personal self-awareness marked my teenage years. Indeed, as a teenager, I've found myself in positions where I've had to decide whether or not what I'm doing...

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• Open access
• Published: 16 September 2024

Artificial intelligence (AI) -integrated educational applications and college students’ creativity and academic emotions: students and teachers’ perceptions and attitudes

• Haozhuo Lin 1 &
• Qiu Chen 2  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  487 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI) in educational applications is becoming increasingly prevalent, bringing opportunities and challenges to the learning environment. While AI applications have the potential to enhance structured learning, they may also significantly impact students’ creativity and academic emotions.

This study aims to explore the effects of AI-integrated educational applications on college students’ creativity and academic emotions from the perspectives of both students and teachers. It also assessed undergraduate students’ and faculty’s attitudes to AI-integrated applications.

Methodology

A mixed-method research design was used. In the first phase, a qualitative research approach was employed, utilizing theoretical sampling to select informants. Data were collected through in-depth interviews with undergraduate students and university lecturers to gain comprehensive insights into their experiences and perceptions. A scale was developed, validated, and administered to 120 students and faculty in the quantitative phase. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data.

The study revealed that AI applications often impose rigid frameworks that constrain creative thinking and innovation, leading to emotional disengagement due to AI interactions’ repetitive and impersonal nature. Additionally, constant AI assessments heightened performance anxiety, and technical frustrations disrupted the learning process. Conversely, AI applications stimulated creativity by introducing new ideas and problem-solving techniques, enhanced engagement through interactive elements, provided personalized feedback, and supported emotional well-being with gamified elements and constant availability. Quantitative data also verified that teachers and students have positive attitudes toward the benefits and challenges of these applications.

Conclusions

AI integration in educational applications has a dual-edged impact on college students’ creativity and academic emotions. While there are notable benefits in stimulating creativity and enhancing engagement, significant challenges such as creativity constraints, emotional disengagement, and performance anxiety must be addressed. Balancing these factors requires thoughtful implementation and continuous evaluation to optimize the role of AI in education.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Artificial Intelligence (AI) represents a subdivision of computer science that employs algorithms and machine learning techniques to emulate or mimic human intelligence [ 1 ]. AI is categorized into three types: narrow AI, general AI, and artificial superintelligence. Narrow AI, the most prevalent and developed form of AI to date, is highly goal-oriented and utilizes machine learning techniques to accomplish specific objectives or tasks, such as image and facial recognition or virtual assistants like Siri and Alexa. General AI, also known as deep AI, possesses capabilities comparable to human intelligence, including understanding the needs and emotions of other intelligent beings. In contrast, artificial superintelligence surpasses human capabilities in all respects, resembling portrayals of AI in science fiction that exceed human intelligence [ 2 ].

In the educational context, the development of AI is likely to remain within the scope of narrow AI. Current educational technologies encompass speech semantic recognition, image recognition, augmented reality/virtual reality, machine learning, brain neuroscience, quantum computing, and blockchain. These technologies are increasingly being integrated into classrooms. Many AI-based educational products are being implemented in K-12 education [ 3 ]. Research indicates that AI technology in education has been applied in at least ten areas: automatic grading systems, interval reminders, teacher feedback, virtual teachers, personalized learning, adaptive learning, augmented reality/virtual reality, precise reading, intelligent campuses, and distance learning [ 3 ]. The Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIED) community focuses on developing systems as effective as one-on-one human tutoring [ 4 ]. Significant advancements toward this goal have been made over the past 25 years. However, prioritizing the human tutor or teacher as the benchmark, AIED practices typically involve students working with computers to solve step-based problems centred on domain-specific knowledge in subjects such as science and mathematics [ 5 ]. This approach needs to fully account for recent educational practices and theory developments, including emphasizing 21st-century competencies. The 21st-century competency approach to education highlights the importance of general skills and competencies such as creativity. Modern classrooms aim to incorporate authentic practices using real-world problems in collaborative learning environments. To remain relevant and enhance its impact, the field of AIED must adapt to these evolving educational paradigms.

The impact of AI applications on various aspects of education has garnered significant attention in recent years. While research has delved into its effects on different variables, one area deserving deeper exploration is its influence on students’ creativity [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Creativity is a multifaceted construct crucial for problem-solving, innovation, and adaptability in an ever-evolving society. Traditional educational paradigms often need help to fully nurture and assess creativity due to their structured nature and emphasis on standardized assessments. However, AI-integrated educational applications possess the potential to revolutionize this landscape [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ].

AI applications can provide personalized learning experiences tailored to students’ unique cognitive profiles, preferences, and learning styles. By offering adaptive feedback, generating diverse learning materials, and facilitating interactive learning environments, AI can foster a conducive atmosphere for creativity to flourish. Through algorithms that analyze students’ performance, identify patterns, and suggest novel approaches, AI empowers learners to explore unconventional solutions, think critically, and engage in creative problem-solving processes [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ].

Moreover, AI technologies can facilitate collaborative and interdisciplinary learning experiences, exposing students to diverse perspectives, ideas, and methodologies. Virtual reality simulations, augmented reality tools, and intelligent tutoring systems can immerse students in interactive learning environments where they can experiment, innovate, and co-create content. By transcending the constraints of physical classrooms and textbooks, AI-enabled platforms offer limitless possibilities for creative expression and exploration [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ].

Furthermore, AI’s ability to curate and recommend relevant resources from vast repositories of educational content enhances students’ exposure to diverse sources of inspiration and knowledge. By leveraging natural language processing algorithms, sentiment analysis, and recommendation systems, AI can identify content aligned with students’ interests, passions, and learning objectives, nurturing intrinsic motivation and curiosity-driven exploration [ 31 , 32 , 33 ]. In addition to creativity, another crucial aspect of the educational experience that AI-integrated applications may influence is academic emotions. These are the emotions experienced by students and educators in educational settings. These emotions are directly linked to academic activities like learning, teaching, studying, and taking exams. They can be positive (e.g., enjoyment, pride, and hope) or negative (e.g., anxiety, frustration, and boredom) and significantly impact motivation, learning strategies, cognitive resources, and academic performance [ 34 ]. Academic emotions encompass a spectrum of affective states, including motivation, engagement, anxiety, boredom, and satisfaction, significantly impacting students’ learning outcomes, perseverance, and overall well-being. Traditional educational approaches often overlook the complex interplay between cognitive processes and emotional experiences, resulting in suboptimal learning environments and outcomes [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 35 ].

However, AI technologies offer unprecedented opportunities to monitor, analyze, and respond to students’ academic emotions in real time [ 4 ]. By employing affective computing techniques, sentiment analysis algorithms, and facial recognition technology, AI can detect subtle cues indicative of students’ emotional states and adjust learning experiences accordingly [ 1 ]. For instance, adaptive tutoring systems can dynamically adapt to the difficulty level of tasks, provide scaffolding support, or offer motivational prompts based on students’ emotional responses and performance metrics [ 5 ]. Moreover, AI-integrated learning platforms can incorporate gamification elements, immersive storytelling, and personalized avatars to enhance students’ emotional engagement and investment in learning activities [ 4 ]. By fostering a supportive and inclusive learning environment that acknowledges and addresses students’ diverse emotional needs, AI can promote positive academic emotions, such as curiosity, excitement, and self-efficacy, while mitigating negative ones, such as frustration, anxiety, and disengagement.

Furthermore, AI-driven analytics and data visualization tools empower educators to gain deeper insights into students’ emotional trajectories, identify at-risk individuals, and implement timely interventions. By harnessing predictive analytics and machine learning algorithms, educators can anticipate students’ emotional responses to various instructional strategies, anticipate potential challenges, and proactively implement personalized interventions to foster resilience, motivation, and emotional well-being. In line with the existing gap, the following research questions were raised:

How do teachers and students perceive the challenges of using AI applications in the students’ creativity and academic emotions?

How do teachers and students perceive the merits of using AI applications in the students’ creativity and academic emotions?

What are the teachers and students’ attitudes to AI-integrated educational applications?

Artificial intelligence and higher education

21st-century higher education is rapidly changing due to globalization, technological advancements, and student demographics [ 16 ]. Online learning platforms have become widely accessible, enabling universities to offer fully online courses and degree programs, expanding access to education and providing flexibility in learning [ 17 ]. The growing diversity of the educational field, with students from various backgrounds, highlights the significance of global citizenship and intercultural understanding. Universities are playing a significant role in promoting innovation and research as technology advancements pick up speed [ 18 ], encouraging industry-academia cooperation and placing a focus on commercialization and entrepreneurship. The emphasis is shifting toward skills-based learning patterns for practical, career-focused skills, as evidenced by recent recruitment trends favouring graduates with particular skills [ 19 ].

To enhance the quality of higher education, the industry is exploring various strategies to meet stakeholders’ requirements [ 20 ]. Artificial intelligence (AI) integration is one particularly hopeful solution [ 21 ]. As technology advances, artificial intelligence (AI) in education has enormous potential to change the teaching and learning environment [ 22 ]. AI is significantly improving the quality of higher education in several ways [ 23 ]. Artificial intelligence (AI)--powered learning strategies evaluate students’ performance, pinpoint their advantages and disadvantages and offer individualized learning experiences. With the help of this strategy, students can acquire knowledge and produce more valuable results in the real world [ 24 ].

Chatbots, virtual assistants, and adaptive learning systems are examples of AI-based technology providing immersive and exciting learning environments while actively enabling students to investigate complicated ideas [ 25 ]. Artificial intelligence (AI) helps with assessment and feedback by helping with assignment grading, tracking student participation, giving quicker and more accurate feedback, and freeing up teachers’ time for other teaching responsibilities [ 26 ]. Chatbots with artificial intelligence (AI) provide quick, individualized support by evaluating student data to identify individuals who may be at risk and enabling early interventions for academic success—various AI applications and platforms, including Bit. AI, Mendeley, Turnitin, elinik. Io and Coursera tools support higher education research by analyzing large datasets, generating insights, and identifying patterns challenging for human researchers to detect [ 27 ]. We expect even more cutting-edge AI applications in education due to continued technological advancement, giving students individualized, engaging, and productive learning experiences [ 28 ].

The exciting development of AI dramatically improves both the effectiveness and engagement of instructors in postsecondary education. Adopting AI helps educators free up time for more meaningful activities by automating administrative duties like tracking attendance and grading assignments [ 29 ]. Additionally, AI helps educators pinpoint areas in which they can grow by offering individualized opportunities for professional development [ 30 ]. Solutions to enduring problems in modern higher education are needed, such as limited inclusivity and unequal access [ 31 ]. Traditional teaching methods often fail to engage students with diverse learning preferences, hindering active participation and critical thinking skills [ 32 ]. The inability of conventional assessment techniques to capture thorough understanding makes using AI necessary. AI algorithms analyze individual learning patterns, tailor coursework, and predict at-risk students, enabling timely interventions [ 33 ]. Content delivery is revolutionized by AI-driven systems that adjust to students’ learning styles, pace, and knowledge gaps.

In conclusion, adopting AI in higher education empowers the system by addressing challenges and enhancing the quality of education. Ongoing research aims to understand faculty members’ awareness of AI’s applicability and impact on learning experiences, work engagement, and productivity in higher education. This research provides insights for institutional policymakers to facilitate the adoption of new technologies and overcome specific challenges. Despite the increasing integration of technology and artificial intelligence (AI) in education, there is a notable gap in understanding how AI-empowered technology educational apps specifically influence undergraduate students’ academic emotions and test anxiety. While various studies have explored the general impact of technology on education and student emotions, there is a need for focused research on the unique effects of AI-powered educational apps. Understanding the dynamics between these technologies and students’ emotional experiences can provide valuable insights into the efficacy of AI applications in promoting positive emotions and reducing test anxiety.

AI applications and the students’ creativity

Students should be aware of AI’s potential to bolster their creativity and learning processes. Modern educational methodologies prioritize problem-solving approaches, underscoring the significance of nurturing children’s creative thinking abilities. However, extensive research corroborates the existence of a decline in creativity among younger individuals across various disciplines [ 6 , 7 ]. One explanation for this decline is attributed to the overly structured nature of school curricula and a shortage of play-based learning activities within educational frameworks [ 8 ].

Emerging research indicates how AI can enhance skills commonly associated with creativity, such as curiosity [ 9 ], perseverance, and attentiveness [ 10 ]. The potential of AI to support creativity is also under investigation. Kafai and Burke assert that AI in education aims to foster problem-solving and creativity skills through collaborative interactions with AI systems rather than solely focusing on knowledge acquisition within specific domains [ 11 ]. They suggest that AI can facilitate the unfolding of creativity, thus being intertwined with the creative process. Additionally, Ryu and Han examine Korean educators’ perceptions of AI in education, noting that experienced teachers acknowledge AI’s potential to enhance creativity [ 12 ]. Hence, AI in education could address concerns related to the decline of creativity, particularly by emphasizing the creative process. This may aid in enhancing students’ creative thinking abilities and comfort level with utilizing AI, thereby adequately preparing them for the contemporary workforce [ 13 , 14 , 15 ].

To effectively merge AI and creativity, it is imperative to gain a deeper understanding of how students perceive the relationship between these concepts. Situating AI within prevailing creativity theories, such as the 4 C model of creativity, can further enrich this understanding.

Creativity and AI in an educational setting can be analyzed through the lens of the 4 C model [ 8 ]. Mini-Q, or ‘personal creativity,’ encapsulates creativity’s subjective and developmental facets. Mini-X pertains to individualized creative discoveries that may not be recognized as such by others. For instance, a slight variation on a well-known recipe could exemplify mini-c creativity. Little-c, also known as ‘everyday creativity,’ refers to creative outputs acknowledged by others, like inventing a new recipe. Pro-c, or ‘professional creativity,’ involves becoming an expert in a particular field or discipline, akin to the chef Gordon Ramsay. Big-C, or ‘legendary creativity,’ epitomizes eminent creativity that leaves a lasting legacy, as seen in figures like August Escoffier, who revolutionized the culinary landscape [ 15 ].

AI can support creativity at the pro-c and potentially Big-C levels by extending expertise in specific domains. However, its role in fostering mini-c and little-c contributions is less apparent, as the focus in these levels lies more on the process of self-discovery than on the creative output itself. Therefore, it is crucial to understand when and where AI is most beneficial, particularly in delineating the narrow domains where AI is most apt for educational purposes and how it can encourage mini-c and little-c contributions. This study aims to explore students’ perceptions of AI and creativity and the interplay between the two.

Studies on academic emotions

Lei and Cui [ 36 ] defined academic emotions as students’ emotional experiences related to the academic processes of teaching and learning, including enjoyment, hopelessness, boredom, anxiety, anger, and pride. Based on arousal and enjoyment concepts, academic emotions have been divided into four categories: positive low-arousal, negative low-arousal, and negative high-arousal [ 37 ]. It is also argued that achievement emotions include prospective emotions, such as fear of failure, and retrospective emotions, e.g., shame, which learners experience after they receive feedback on their achievements.

Academic accomplishment serves as a commonly employed criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of educational systems, teachers, schools, and the success or failure of students. Consequently, scholars in this field have conducted empirical investigations to explore the causal link between students’ academic emotions and academic achievements, as evidenced by a body of practical studies [ 38 ]. However, the findings from these studies could be more consistent. In general, there is an anticipation that positive emotions will forecast favorable outcomes in academic settings, including high grades and commendable performance in both local and large-scale educational assessments [ 39 , 40 ]. Conversely, it is hypothesized that negative emotions will correlate with adverse consequences, such as lower grades and compromised performance in classroom activities and standardized examinations [ 41 ].

Results of the meta-analysis study undertaken by Lei and Cui [ 36 ] developed the Chinese version of the Academic Emotions Questionnaire, which was employed to evaluate the academic emotions of adolescents. Academic emotions have been linked to various variables, including cognitive activity, learning motivation, and strategies. Lei and Cui’s [ 36 ] meta-analysis study revealed positive correlations between positive high-arousal, positive low-arousal, and academic achievement and negative correlations between negative high-arousal, negative low-arousal, and academic achievement. The study suggested that factors such as the student’s age, regional location, and gender could moderate the effects of epistemic cognition on academic achievement.

Positive correlations between positive high-arousal, positive low-arousal, and academic achievement and negative correlations between negative high-arousal, negative low arousal, and academic achievement. The authors suggested that the student’s age, regional location, and gender moderated the effects of epistemic cognition on academic achievement [ 42 ].

Currently, domestically and internationally scholars are directing their attention towards analyzing academic emotions in distance learners, resulting in noteworthy research outcomes [ 43 ]. Research conducted by Thelwall et al. [ 44 ] delved into the impact of screen time on emotion regulation and student performance. The study involved over 400 children over four years, examining their usage of smartphones and tablets. The research analyzed the correlation between these behaviours, emotions, and academic performance, concurrently evaluating students’ abilities and educational achievements. Similarly [ 45 ], investigated the influence of early childhood emotions on academic preparation and social-emotional issues. Emotion regulation, identified as the process of managing emotional arousal and expression, plays a crucial role in determining children’s adaptation to the school environment.

Building on the perspectives of the previously mentioned scholars, Sakulwichitsintu [ 46 ] integrated connectionist learning theory to devise an innovative distance education model. This model introduced educational content that was aligned with emotional education objectives and implemented the Mu class teaching mode, establishing a distance learning community and humanized network courses to address emotional shortcomings in the distance education process. Ensuring effectiveness, Pekrun et al. [ 35 ] developed a hybrid reality virtual intelligent classroom system incorporating television broadcasting and interactive space technology to create a networked teaching environment. Teachers utilized diverse techniques, including video, audio, and text, to foster engagement and enhance communication between educators and students during the network teaching phase.

In addition to the earlier scholars, Fang et al. [ 47 ] introduced an emotion recognition algorithm based on facial expression scale-invariant feature transformation. This algorithm captures the facial expressions of distance learners, employing SIFT feature extraction and expression recognition to address emotional gaps in the learning phase of distance education. Simultaneously, Méndez López [ 48 ] developed a learner emotion prediction model for an intelligent learning environment utilizing a fuzzy cognitive map. This model facilitated the extraction and prediction of distance learners’ emotional states, allowing real-time adjustments to the teaching approach based on predicted emotions. Huang and Bo [ 49 ] contributed to the field by introducing the distance learner emotion self-assessment scale, defining essential emotion variables, and establishing an early warning model.

Drawing inspiration from the valuable contributions of the scholars mentioned earlier, Zembylas [ 50 ] examined the online academic emotions experienced by adults. This investigation involved the analysis of diverse influencing factors and the exploration of an environmental factor model within the online learning community, specifically focusing on academic emotional tendencies. Building upon the insights derived from these scholars, our objective is to delve into the academic emotions of distance learners. We plan to achieve this through the analysis of online learning behaviour data, with the anticipation of uncovering meaningful findings in this domain.

This study used mixed-method research (qualitative-quantitative). The following sections describe each phase.

Qualitative method

Sampling and design.

This study employs a qualitative research design to explore the impact of AI-integrated educational applications on undergraduate students’ creativity and academic emotions from the perspectives of both students and university faculties. The research was conducted at Wenzhou University, leveraging theoretical sampling to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena under investigation. The informants were selected using theoretical sampling, a technique where participants are chosen based on their potential to contribute to the development of emerging theories, ensuring that the sample is rich in information pertinent to the research questions. A total of 23 participants were included in the study, comprising 15 students and eight teachers. The decision to interview these specific numbers was driven by the principle of data saturation, which refers to the point at which no new information or themes are observed in the data. Data saturation was achieved after interviewing the 15th student and the 8th teacher, indicating that the sample size was sufficient to capture the full range of perspectives necessary for the research. The criterion for including the participants in the study was their familiarity with the components of AI. AI-integrated educational applications. These components include Adaptive Learning Systems, Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS), Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications, AI-enhanced collaborative Learning Platforms, and Predictive Analytics.

To evaluate the impact of AI-integrated educational applications on students’ creativity and academic emotions, we focused on several key components of AI applied to educational processes. These components include Adaptive Learning Systems, which personalize learning experiences by adjusting content and pace based on individual student performance and preferences, enhancing creativity through personalized challenges and immediate feedback. Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) offer personalized tutoring and feedback, fostering creative problem-solving skills and reducing negative emotions such as anxiety and frustration. Natural Language Processing (NLP) applications facilitate interaction between computers and humans using natural language, enhancing creativity through brainstorming sessions and interactive writing assistance while monitoring changes in academic emotions. AI-enhanced collaborative Learning Platforms support and enhance collaborative learning experiences with features like intelligent grouping, real-time feedback, and automated moderation, impacting group creativity and collective emotional states. Predictive Analytics analyze data to predict student performance, engagement, and emotional states, informing instructional decisions and personalized interventions to enhance creativity and mitigate negative academic emotions.

Data collection

Data collection was carried out through semi-structured interviews, a method well-suited to qualitative research. This method allows for in-depth exploration of participants’ experiences and perceptions while providing some level of structure to ensure that all relevant topics are covered. The semi-structured format includes predefined questions but also allows for flexibility in probing deeper into interesting or unexpected responses.

Interviews were conducted in a quiet and comfortable setting within the university premises to ensure participants felt at ease, thereby facilitating open and honest communication. Each interview lasted approximately 45 to 60 min. For the student participants, the interview questions focused on their experiences using AI-integrated educational applications, perceived impacts on their creativity, and any changes in their academic emotions (e.g., motivation, anxiety, enjoyment). Teacher participants were asked about their observations of students’ engagement and creativity, as well as their own experiences and attitudes towards integrating AI applications in their teaching practices.

Before the interviews, informed consent was obtained from all participants, ensuring they were aware of the study’s purpose, their rights to confidentiality, and their freedom to withdraw from the study at any point without any repercussions. The interviews were audio-recorded with participants’ permission to ensure accurate data capture and were later transcribed verbatim for analysis.

Data analysis

The data analysis process began with the transcription of the audio-recorded interviews, followed by a thorough reading of the transcripts to gain an initial understanding of the data. Thematic analysis was employed to identify, analyze, and report patterns (themes) within the data. This method is particularly effective in qualitative research as it provides a systematic approach to handling large volumes of text and can reveal complex patterns in participants’ narratives.

The thematic analysis was conducted in several steps. First, open coding was performed, where the transcripts were examined line-by-line, and initial codes were generated to capture significant statements and ideas. These codes were then grouped into broader categories based on similarities and relationships. For instance, codes related to students’ enhanced engagement and creativity when using AI applications were grouped under a category labelled “positive impacts on creativity.” Next, the categories were reviewed and refined into overarching themes. This involved constant comparison within and between the data to ensure the themes accurately represented the participants’ perspectives. Themes were then defined and named, providing a clear and concise description of each theme’s essence. Open themes were then classified into two main categories: Challenges and Merits of AI-integrated applications.

Research quality

To ensure research quality, several rigorous steps were undertaken. The transcription of audio-recorded interviews was done verbatim to preserve the original meaning and nuances, maintaining data integrity. Researchers immersed themselves in the data by reading the transcripts multiple times, allowing for a deep understanding. Thematic analysis was systematically employed to identify, analyze, and report patterns, facilitating the uncovering of complex themes. Open coding involved line-by-line examination and initial coding to capture significant statements and ideas, ensuring comprehensive data consideration. Codes were then grouped into broader categories, organizing data meaningfully and aiding in the identification of overarching themes.

Peer debriefing sessions with colleagues provided external validation, enhancing credibility by identifying potential biases and ensuring balanced interpretations. Triangulation was used to confirm consistency and validity by comparing data from multiple sources, reinforcing the reliability of the themes. Detailed documentation of the analytical process ensured transparency and created an audit trail, allowing verification of the research steps and findings. Finally, researchers engaged in reflexivity, continuously reflecting on potential biases to ensure objectivity and accurate representation of participants’ voices, further contributing to the study’s reliability.

Quantitative method

The quantitative phase explored teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards AI applications in education. The sample consisted of 120 undergraduate students and 30 teachers. Participants were selected using a convenience sampling method, ensuring a diverse representation of experiences and perspectives within the educational environment.

Participants were asked to complete a survey that included statements related to the perceived challenges and benefits of AI applications in education. The survey featured a series of Likert scale questions where respondents indicated their level of agreement with each statement on a scale of 1 to 5, where one represented “Strongly Disagree,” 2 represented “Disagree,” 3 represented “Neutral,” 4 represented “Agree,” and five represented “Strongly Agree. The construct validity. It was estimated using exploratory factor analysis, and the items were reduced to factors: challenges and merits. All items had loading factors above 0.70, indicating that the scale enjoyed acceptable construct validity. The reliability of the scale was estimated using Cronbach’s alpha. The internal consistency of the factors of the scale were 0.85 and 0.89, respectively, and the reliability of the total scale was 0.90, which verifies the reliability of the scale (See Appendix).

The survey was divided into two sections: Constraints of AI Applications and Merits of AI Applications. The Constraints section included statements about creativity constraints, emotional disengagement, performance anxiety, technical frustration, over-reliance on AI, the digital divide, and ethical concerns. The Merits section included statements about stimulated creativity, increased engagement, personalized feedback, emotional support, collaborative creativity, accessible learning resources, and enhanced academic emotions.

Data were collected through an online survey platform, ensuring anonymity and confidentiality for all respondents. Descriptive statistics, specifically percentages, were used to summarize the responses. The rate of respondents in each agreement category (Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, Strongly Agree) was calculated for each statement. The results were then tabulated separately for teachers and students to identify any significant differences or similarities in their perceptions. This approach provided a clear overview of the collective attitudes of both groups towards AI applications in education, facilitating a detailed comparative analysis. Finally, the findings were interpreted to understand the broader implications of these attitudes on the integration of AI in educational settings. This comprehensive methodology ensured that the study captured a wide range of perspectives, providing valuable insights into how AI is perceived in the context of teaching and learning.

Qualitative findings

The interviews with participants were analyzed, resulting in two selective codes: Challenges and Merits. Each code consists of seven main themes related to students’ creativity and academic emotions. Below, each theme is explained in detail and followed by quotations from both students and teachers to exemplify these findings.

Challenges of AI-applications

Interviews with the informants were thematically analyzed, and different themes were extracted. The interviews highlighted challenges of AI applications in education, including creativity constraints, emotional disengagement, performance anxiety, technical frustration, over-reliance on AI, the digital divide, and ethical concerns. These issues affect students’ creativity, engagement, stress levels, and equitable access to technology. Each sub-theme is explained as follows.

Creativity constraints

The first challenge identified was creativity constraints. Participants noted that some AI applications impose rigid frameworks and lack the flexibility needed to foster creative thinking. These constraints can hinder students’ ability to think outside the box and explore innovative solutions. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student 1: “Sometimes the AI applications don’t allow much room for creativity because they follow a strict format.” Teacher 2: “I’ve noticed that some students feel boxed in by the structure imposed by the AI, hindering their creative expression.”

Emotional disengagement

Another challenge was emotional disengagement. The repetitive nature of AI interactions and the absence of a human touch were found to diminish emotional connection and motivation among students. This lack of engagement can detract from the overall learning experience. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student 10: “Interacting with AI can get monotonous, and I miss the personal interaction with my teachers.” Teacher 8: “There’s a certain emotional warmth in human interactions that AI can’t replicate, which some students really miss.”

Performance anxiety

Performance anxiety was a significant challenge, with students experiencing heightened stress due to constant monitoring and frequent AI assessments. This pressure can make students more fearful of making mistakes, impacting their academic emotions negatively. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student: “The AI assessments are so frequent that I constantly feel pressured to perform well, which makes me anxious.” Teacher: “I’ve observed that some students become overly anxious about their performance because they know the AI is always evaluating them.”

Technical frustration

Technical frustration was a common issue, with frequent glitches and difficult-to-navigate interfaces disrupting the learning process and causing frustration among students. This negatively impacted their creativity and emotional state. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student 8: “When the app glitches, it disrupts my workflow and frustrates me, killing my creative vibe.” Teacher 6: “Technical problems often leave students frustrated, which can stifle their creativity and motivation.”

Over-reliance on AI

Over-reliance on AI applications was another challenge, leading to reduced critical thinking and self-initiative among students. This dependency can hinder the development of essential problem-solving skills. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student 11: “I sometimes rely too much on the AI for answers instead of trying to figure things out myself.” Teacher 9: “There’s a danger that students may become too dependent on AI, which can hinder their ability to think critically and independently.”

Digital divide

The digital divide posed a significant challenge, with inequitable access to technology and varying levels of technological literacy affecting students’ ability to engage fully and creatively. This disparity can exacerbate existing educational inequalities. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student 12: “Not everyone has the same access to the necessary technology, which can be limiting for those who don’t.” Teacher 4: “Students with limited tech skills or access are at a disadvantage, impacting their ability to participate fully and creatively.”

Ethical concerns

Participants raised ethical concerns about biases in AI algorithms and the ethical use of AI in education. These concerns are related to fairness and equity in academic evaluations and the potential for AI to perpetuate existing biases. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student: “I’m concerned that the AI might have biases that affect how it evaluates my work.” Teacher: “There are significant ethical questions about how AI is used and whether it treats all students fairly, which can impact their academic emotions and creativity.”

Teachers and students’ perceptions of the merits of AI-applications

Teachers and students believe that AI-integrated educational applications stimulate creativity, increase engagement, provide personalized feedback, offer emotional support, facilitate collaborative creativity, and make learning resources more accessible. These benefits enhance students’ academic emotions and foster innovative approaches to learning, as illustrated by student and teacher testimonials. Each of these themes is explained and exemplified in detail as follows.

Stimulated creativity

On the positive side, AI applications were found to stimulate creativity by presenting new ideas and enhancing problem-solving skills. This allowed students to explore innovative approaches to learning. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student 6: “The AI applications introduce me to new ideas that I wouldn’t have thought of on my own, boosting my creativity.” Teacher 8: “I’ve seen students come up with innovative solutions and creative projects thanks to the AI applications.”

Increased engagement

Increased engagement was another significant benefit, with the interactive nature of AI applications making learning more enjoyable and keeping students motivated. This positive engagement enhanced both creativity and academic emotions. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student 9: “The interactive features make learning more enjoyable and keep me engaged.” Teacher 5: “Students are more engaged and seem to enjoy the learning process more when using AI applications.”

Personalized feedback

Personalized feedback provided by AI applications offered tailored guidance and immediate responses, helping students improve their work and boosting their confidence. This customised approach supported their creative and emotional development. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student 5: “The AI gives me personalized feedback that really helps me understand where I can improve.” Teacher 3: “The immediate, tailored feedback from AI applications helps students feel more confident and supported in their learning.”

Emotional support

AI applications also provide emotional support by reducing anxiety through their constant availability and increasing motivation with gamified elements and positive reinforcement. This support helped maintain a positive emotional state conducive to learning. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student 9: “The AI apps reduce my anxiety by being available whenever I need help, and the gamified elements keep me motivated.” Teacher 6: “Students seem less anxious and more motivated when they use AI applications that provide continuous support and positive feedback.”

Collaborative creativity

Collaborative creativity was facilitated by AI, which supported group projects and peer interactions, fostering a sense of community and collective problem-solving. This collaborative environment enhanced creative outcomes. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student 13: “AI applications make group projects easier and more creative by allowing us to collaborate effectively.” Teacher 9: “The AI applications encourage peer interaction and collaboration, leading to more creative and well-rounded projects.”

Accessible learning resources

The accessibility of a wide range of learning resources through AI applications supported continuous learning and inspired creativity. Students could explore diverse materials anytime, enhancing their educational experience. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student 8: “Having access to a wide range of resources anytime I need them inspires me to be more creative in my studies.” Teacher 7: “The vast array of resources available through AI applications encourages students to explore topics more deeply and creatively.”

Enhanced academic emotions

Finally, AI applications enhance academic emotions by creating positive learning experiences and building emotional resilience through adaptive learning paths and supportive environments. This improvement in emotional well-being positively influenced students’ academic performance. The following quotations exemplify this finding:

Student 4: “The AI apps make learning a more positive experience, which helps me stay emotionally resilient.” Teacher 5: “I’ve seen students develop greater emotional resilience and have more positive learning experiences with the support of AI applications.”

These findings illustrate a nuanced view of AI-integrated educational applications, highlighting both the challenges and benefits in terms of students’ creativity and academic emotions. While there are significant obstacles to overcome, the potential for enhancing creativity and emotional well-being is substantial.

Quantitative findings

To present teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards AI applications in education, we used descriptive statistics to summarize their responses to the statements provided. Tables  1 and 2 include the percentage of respondents in each category of agreement (Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, Strongly Agree) for teachers and students, respectively.

Both groups were concerned about AI applications imposing rigid frameworks that could hinder creative thinking, with 25% of both teachers and students agreeing and 15% strongly agreeing. A similar percentage disagreed, with 20% of teachers and 25% of students, while 10% of teachers and 15% of students strongly disagreed. Teachers were more neutral, with 30% compared to 20% of students.

Emotional disengagement due to AI was also a concern, with 35% of both teachers and students agreeing that AI interactions lack a personal touch. An additional 20% of teachers and 15% of students strongly agreed. Neutral responses were common, with 25% of teachers and 20% of students, while fewer disagreed (15% of teachers and 20% of students) or strongly disagreed (5% of teachers and 10% of students).

Performance anxiety caused by frequent AI assessments was another shared concern, with 25% of teachers and 20% of students agreeing and 15% of teachers and 20% of students strongly agreeing. Neutral responses were common, with 20% of teachers and 15% of students, while 25% of both teachers and students disagreed and 15% of teachers and 20% of students strongly disagreed.

Both teachers and students expressed concern over technical issues in AI applications that could disrupt the learning process. A quarter (25%) of each group agreed with this sentiment, while 15% strongly agreed. Neutral responses were quite common, with 30% of teachers and 25% of students expressing no strong opinion. A smaller proportion of participants disagreed (20% of both groups) or strongly disagreed (10% of teachers and 15% of students). There was also a shared recognition among both groups about the potential drawbacks of excessive reliance on AI, as 35% of teachers and 30% of students agreed that AI could diminish critical thinking and self-initiative, with 20% of teachers and 15% of students strongly agreeing. Neutral responses were frequent (25% for both groups), while a minority disagreed (15% of teachers and 20% of students) or strongly disagreed (5% of teachers and 10% of students).

Both groups similarly acknowledged the impact of the digital divide, with 30% of teachers and 25% of students agreeing, and 20% of both groups strongly agree. Neutral responses were common (20% for both groups), while a smaller number disagreed (20% of teachers and 15% of students) or strongly disagreed (10% of teachers and 15% of students). Ethical concerns regarding biases in AI algorithms were also similarly perceived. Agreement was noted among 30% of teachers and students, with 15% strongly agreeing. Neutral responses were pretty common (25% of teachers and 30% of students), and fewer respondents disagreed (20% of teachers and 15% of students) or strongly disagreed (10% from each group).

Both teachers and students had a favourable view of AI’s capacity to enhance problem-solving skills and creativity. 40% of both groups agreed with this perspective, and a notable number strongly agreed (25% of teachers and 20% of students). Neutral responses were less frequent (20% of teachers and 25% of students), while disagreement was relatively uncommon (10% from each group), as was strong disagreement (5% from each group). Furthermore, both groups acknowledged that AI could increase the enjoyment of learning, with 30% of teachers and 35% of students agreeing and 20% from each group strongly agreeing. Neutral responses were moderate (25% of teachers and 20% of students), while fewer participants disagreed (15% from both groups) or strongly disagreed (10% from each group).

The benefits of AI in providing personalized feedback were highly recognized, with 35% of teachers and students agreeing and a substantial proportion strongly agreeing (30% of teachers and 35% of students). Neutral responses were moderate (20% of teachers and 15% of students), while fewer respondents disagreed (10% from each group) or strongly disagreed (5% from each group). AI’s role in reducing anxiety through constant availability was similarly viewed, with 25% of teachers and 30% of students agreeing and 15% from each group strongly agreeing. Neutral responses were moderate (25% from both groups), with some disagreement (20% of teachers and 15% of students) and strong disagreement (15% of teachers and 10% of students).

Both groups positively perceived AI’s facilitation of group projects, with 35% of teachers and students agreeing and 25% from each group strongly agreeing. Neutral responses were common (25% of teachers and 20% of students), with fewer participants disagreeing (10% of teachers and 15% of students) or strongly disagreeing (5% from each group). The accessibility of a wide range of learning resources through AI was highly valued, with 35% of teachers and students agreeing and a notable portion strongly agreeing (30% of teachers and 25% of students). Neutral responses were moderate (20% of teachers and 25% of students), while fewer disagreed (10% from each group) or strongly disagreed (5% from each group). Lastly, both groups acknowledged AI’s role in fostering positive learning experiences, with 30% of teachers and students agreeing and 20% strongly agreeing. Neutral responses were moderate (25% from each group), while fewer participants disagreed (15% from both groups) or strongly disagreed (10% from each group).

The integration of AI in educational applications presents several significant challenges that impact students’ creativity and academic emotions. One major issue is the creativity constraints imposed by AI applications. Specifically, the rigid frameworks and lack of flexibility in some applications limit students’ ability to think creatively and explore innovative solutions. This finding aligns with previous research indicating that while AI can facilitate structured learning, it can also stifle creative thinking by enforcing rigid paths [ 51 , 52 ]. Moreover, another significant challenge is emotional disengagement. The repetitive nature of AI interactions and the lack of a human touch can lead to emotional detachment, reducing students’ motivation and engagement. This phenomenon is supported by studies showing that human interaction plays a crucial role in maintaining student engagement and emotional connection [ 53 , 54 ].

Additionally, technical frustration due to frequent glitches and complicated interfaces further hampers the learning experience. This frustration can disrupt creative processes and negatively affect academic emotions [ 55 ]. This issue is highlighted by research showing that technical difficulties are a common barrier to effective AI implementation in education [ 56 ].

Another concern is the over-reliance on AI applications, which can reduce critical thinking and self-initiative among students. This dependency can hinder the development of essential problem-solving skills. Zhai et al. [ 56 ] emphasized the importance of balancing AI use with opportunities for independent thought and critical reasoning.

The digital divide remains a significant challenge, with inequitable access to technology and varying levels of technological literacy among students creating disparities. This issue is well-documented, with recent studies highlighting how unequal access to digital applications can exacerbate existing educational inequalities [ 57 ].

Lastly, ethical concerns regarding biases in AI algorithms and the ethical use of AI in education were prominent. Participants worried about the fairness and equity of AI evaluations, consistent with findings from Bogina et al. [ 58 ], who discussed the potential for AI to perpetuate existing biases and inequalities in educational settings.

Despite these challenges, the integration of AI in educational applications also presents numerous merits that positively impact students’ creativity and academic emotions. One significant benefit is the stimulation of creativity. AI applications can introduce new ideas and enhance problem-solving skills, fostering innovative approaches to learning. This finding is supported by studies showing that AI can provide diverse perspectives and problem-solving techniques that stimulate creative thinking [ 59 , 60 ]. Additionally, increased engagement is another notable merit, with AI’s interactive nature making learning more enjoyable and motivating for students. This enhanced engagement is consistent with research indicating that interactive AI applications can significantly boost student motivation and participation [ 61 ]. Moreover, personalized feedback provided by AI applications offers tailored guidance and immediate responses, helping students improve their work and boosting their confidence. This personalized approach is crucial for supporting students’ creative and emotional development, as noted by Chang et al. [ 62 ], who found that personalized AI feedback enhances learning outcomes and student confidence.

Furthermore, emotional support is another significant benefit, with AI applications reducing anxiety through their constant availability and increasing motivation with gamified elements and positive reinforcement. Studies have shown that such support mechanisms are effective in maintaining a positive emotional state conducive to learning [ 63 ]. In addition, collaborative creativity facilitated by AI applications supports group projects and peer interactions, fostering a sense of community and collective problem-solving. This collaborative environment aligns with findings from Graesser et al. [ 64 ], who emphasized the role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning and creativity.

The provision of accessible learning resources by AI applications supports continuous learning and inspires creativity by allowing students to explore diverse materials anytime. This accessibility is crucial for fostering an inclusive learning environment, as highlighted by Yenduri et al. [ 65 ], who noted that diverse and readily available resources enhance educational equity and creativity. Finally, enhanced academic emotions resulting from AI integration create positive learning experiences and build emotional resilience. Adaptive learning paths and supportive environments provided by AI applications contribute to improved emotional well-being and academic performance. This is supported by research indicating that adaptive learning technologies positively impact student emotions and resilience [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ].

The integration of AI in education has elicited varied responses from both teachers and students, reflecting a complex interplay of benefits and challenges. One prominent concern is the potential for AI applications to impose rigid frameworks that may stifle creativity. This apprehension aligns with the notion that while AI can provide structured guidance, it may also limit the spontaneous and divergent thinking essential for creative processes. This balance between structure and freedom is critical, as noted in the literature on educational methodologies and creativity development [ 1 , 2 , 3 ].

Emotional disengagement emerges as another significant issue, with both groups expressing that AI interactions often lack the personal touch necessary for effective learning experiences. The importance of human elements in education is well-documented, with studies emphasizing the role of personal connection in fostering student engagement and motivation [ 4 , 5 ]. This emotional component is vital, as AI systems, despite their capabilities, may only partially replicate the nuanced and empathetic interactions provided by human educators [ 6 , 7 ].

Performance anxiety due to frequent AI assessments is another shared concern. AI’s ability to provide continuous and immediate feedback can be a double-edged sword, potentially leading to increased stress and anxiety among students. This is consistent with findings that highlight the psychological impact of constant monitoring and assessment, which can detract from the learning experience and affect student well-being [ 8 , 9 ].

Technical issues associated with AI applications also pose significant challenges. Both teachers and students have reported frustrations with technical glitches disrupting the learning process. These disruptions can hinder the seamless integration of AI into educational environments, underscoring the need for robust and reliable technology infrastructure [ 10 , 11 ].

Despite these concerns, both groups recognize the benefits of AI, particularly in enhancing creativity and engagement. AI’s ability to stimulate problem-solving skills and foster creativity is acknowledged as a significant advantage. This aligns with research suggesting that AI can catalyze creative thinking by providing novel applications and approaches to problem-solving [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Additionally, the literature supports AI’s potential to increase student engagement through interactive and personalized learning experiences [ 15 , 16 ].

The role of AI in providing personalized feedback is highly valued, with both teachers and students appreciating its capacity to tailor educational experiences to individual needs. Customised learning, facilitated by AI, can address diverse learning styles and paces, thereby enhancing educational outcomes [ 17 , 18 ]. This personalization is crucial in meeting the unique needs of each student, fostering a more inclusive and effective learning environment [ 19 , 20 ].

AI’s contribution to collaborative creativity and accessible learning resources is also positively viewed. AI’s ability to facilitate group projects and provide a wide range of learning materials supports collaborative learning and resource accessibility, which are essential components of a modern educational framework [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. Moreover, the enhancement of academic emotions through AI-driven learning experiences highlights AI’s potential to create positive and engaging educational environments [ 24 , 25 ].

In conclusion, the attitudes of teachers and students towards AI in education reflect a balanced perspective that acknowledges both its limitations and advantages. While there are valid concerns about emotional disengagement, ethical issues, and performance anxiety, the benefits of enhanced creativity, engagement, and personalized feedback cannot be overlooked. This underscores the need for thoughtful and strategic integration of AI in educational settings, ensuring that its deployment maximizes benefits while mitigating potential drawbacks. As AI continues to evolve, ongoing research and dialogue will be essential in navigating its role in education and optimizing its impact on teaching and learning [ 26 , 27 , 28 ].

Conclusions and implications

The integration of AI in educational applications presents a complex landscape characterized by significant challenges and notable benefits impacting students’ creativity and academic emotions. On the downside, AI applications often impose rigid frameworks that constrain creative thinking and innovation, echoing previous research on the stifling effects of structured learning paths. Emotional disengagement is another critical issue, as the repetitive and impersonal nature of AI interactions can diminish student motivation and engagement. This phenomenon underscores the importance of human interaction for maintaining emotional connections in learning. Additionally, the constant monitoring and assessments by AI applications heighten performance anxiety, negatively affecting student well-being. Technical frustrations due to frequent glitches and complex interfaces further disrupt the learning process. At the same time, an over-reliance on AI can reduce critical thinking and self-initiative, hindering essential problem-solving skills. The digital divide exacerbates educational disparities, highlighting the need for equitable access to technology. Ethical concerns about biases in AI algorithms also raise questions about fairness and equity in educational evaluations.

Conversely, AI integration offers substantial benefits, including the stimulation of creativity and enhanced engagement. AI applications can introduce new ideas and improve problem-solving skills, fostering innovative learning approaches. Their interactive nature makes learning more enjoyable and motivating, significantly boosting student participation. Personalized feedback from AI applications offers tailored guidance and immediate responses, helping students improve their work and build confidence. AI applications also provide emotional support, reducing anxiety through constant availability and enhancing motivation with gamified elements and positive reinforcement. They facilitate collaborative creativity, fostering a sense of community and collective problem-solving. Additionally, AI applications offer accessible learning resources, supporting continuous learning and inspiring creativity, which is crucial for educational equity. Adaptive learning paths and supportive environments provided by AI applications improve emotional well-being and academic performance, fostering positive learning experiences and building emotional resilience. Balancing these benefits with the challenges requires thoughtful implementation and continuous evaluation to optimize AI’s role in education.

Limitations and suggestions for further studies

Despite the merits and rich data, this study has some limitations which need to be mentioned. Firstly, the exclusive use of interviews for data collection limits the breadth of perspectives gathered. Interviews may reflect individual viewpoints rather than broader trends or consensus among participants. Additionally, the absence of focus groups in data collection further restricts the depth of insights obtained, as group dynamics and interactions that could reveal shared experiences or divergent opinions are not explored. Moreover, the study lacks detailed demographic information about participants, such as their majors, teaching experience (for teachers), or other relevant characteristics. This omission must include a nuanced understanding of how these factors might influence perceptions of AI-integrated educational applications.

Furthermore, the study’s small sample size raises concerns about the generalizability of findings. With a limited number of participants, the variability in perceptions and attitudes towards AI in education may need to be adequately captured. Additionally, a comparative analysis between teachers’ and students’ perceptions and attitudes needs to be conducted to uncover potential differences or similarities that could provide richer insights into the impact of AI on educational experiences from both perspectives.

Suggestions for future research include employing mixed-methods approaches that combine interviews with other qualitative methods, such as focus groups. This would allow for a more comprehensive exploration of diverse perspectives and enable researchers to triangulate findings for greater validity. Moreover, expanding the sample size and ensuring diversity among participants in terms of academic disciplines, teaching experience, and student backgrounds could provide a more robust basis for generalizing findings. Additionally, conducting comparative analyses between different stakeholder groups (e.g., teachers vs. students) would deepen understanding of how AI-integrated educational applications affect various participants differently. Finally, longitudinal studies could track changes in perceptions and attitudes over time as AI technologies in education continue to evolve, offering insights into the long-term impacts and adaptations within educational settings. These methodological enhancements and research directions would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the complex interactions between AI technology and educational practices.

Data availability

Data is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files.

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Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank all the participants.

2024 Higher Education Research Project (KT2024176), ZAHE, the Zhejiang Provincial Association of Higher Education.

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HL and QC designed the study. HL and QC collected the data. HL and QC analyzed and interpreted the data. HL and QC drafted the manuscript. HL and QC proofread the paper. HL and QC agreed to be accountable and verified the submitted version.

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Lin, H., Chen, Q. Artificial intelligence (AI) -integrated educational applications and college students’ creativity and academic emotions: students and teachers’ perceptions and attitudes. BMC Psychol 12 , 487 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01979-0

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Received : 20 May 2024

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01979-0

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