Work site , restriction level , choices to get vaccinated , and advantages or penalties | Time of COVID-19 vaccination | Chen et al [ ], 2023 | 5 | Risk of adverse effects , protective duration , and effectiveness | Injection doses and injection period | — | — | Safety |
Chen et al [ ], 2021 | 5 | Protection rate , adverse effect , and protection duration | Convenience of vaccination | Cost of the vaccine | — | Safety |
Craig [ ], 2021 | 5 | Duration of immunity , risk of severe side effects , and vaccine effectiveness | Vaccination setting | — | Proof of vaccination | Effectiveness |
Darrudi et al [ ], 2022 | 6 | Group 1: effectiveness , risk of severe complications , and duration of protection | Group 1: location of vaccine production ; group 2: age | Group 1: price ; group 2: cost to the community | Group 1: underlying disease , employment in the health sector , potential capacity to spread the virus (virus spread) , and the necessary job for society | Group 1: effectiveness; group 2: potential capacity to spread the virus |
Daziano [ ], 2022 | 9 | Effectiveness , days for antibodies to develop , duration of protection , number of people out of 10 with mild side effects , and the number of people out of 1,000,000 with severe side effects | Country where vaccine was developed and introduced (months) | Out-of-pocket cost | Who recommends this specific vaccine | Recommenders |
Díaz Luévano et al [ ], 2021 | 5 | Efficacy , indirect protection , safety , and protection duration | — | — | Recommendation or incentive source | Effectiveness |
Dong et al [ ], 2020 | 6 | Effectiveness , duration of protection , and adverse event | The total number of injections and origin of the product | Price (Chinese Yuan) | — | Effectiveness |
Dong et al [ ], 2022 | 6 | Adverse effects , efficacy , duration of the vaccine , and time taken for the vaccine to work | Vaccine types | The cost of vaccination | — | Effectiveness |
Donin et al [ ], 2022 | 6 | Protection duration , efficacy , and risk of mild side effects | Route of vaccination and travel time to vaccination site | — | Recommender of the vaccine | Protection duration |
Eshun-Wilson et al [ ], 2021 | 7 | — | Vaccine frequency, waiting time at vaccination site, vaccination location, number of doses required per vaccination episode, and vaccination appointment scheduling | — | Vaccination enforcement and who has already received the vaccine in your community? | Vaccine frequency |
Fu et al [ ], 2020 | 7 | Vaccine safety and vaccine efficacy | — | Out-of-pocket costs | Infection probability , case fatality ratio , possible trends of the epidemic , and acceptance of social contacts | Possible trends of the epidemic |
Fung et al [ ], 2022 | 7 | Risk of a mild or moderate adverse event after vaccination , risk of a severe adverse event after vaccination , efficacy against COVID-19 infection , efficacy against severe manifestation of COVID-19 infection , and duration of protection after vaccination | — | Out-of-pocket costs | Incentives for completing vaccination | Quarantine-free travel |
George et al [ ], 2022 | 7 | Effectiveness | Vaccination location , waiting time at the vaccination site , number of doses , boosters required , and vaccine origin | — | Incentives for vaccination | Effectiveness |
Hazlewood et al [ ], 2023 | 4 | Effectiveness , rare but serious risks , and likelihood of having a flare | Dosing | — | — | Effectiveness |
Hess et al [ ], 2022 | 9 | Estimated protection duration, risk of mild side effects, and risk of severe side effects | — | Fee | Exemption from international travel restrictions, risk of infection, and risk of serious illness, and population coverage | Effectiveness |
Huang et al [ ], 2021 | 4 | Effectiveness , risk of adverse reactions , and duration of immunity | — | — | Whether coworkers have been vaccinated | Effectiveness |
Igarashi et al [ ], 2022 | 5 | Safety , efficacy , and immunity duration | — | Price | Disease prevalence | Effectiveness |
Krueger, and Daziano [ ], 2022 | 9 | Effectiveness , protection period , risk of severe side effects , risk of mild side effects , and incubation period | Origin of the vaccine , number of required doses , and whether the vaccine has a booster against variants | Out-of-pocket cost | — | Effectiveness |
Leng et al [ ], 2021 | 7 | Vaccine effectiveness , side effects , and duration of vaccine protection | Accessibility , number of doses , and vaccination sites | — | Proportion of acquaintances vaccinated | Effectiveness |
Luyten et al [ ], 2022 | 5 | — | Age , essential profession , and medical risk group | Cost to society | Virus spreader | Medical risk group |
Li et al [ ], 2021 | 6 | Nonsevere adverse reactions , efficacy , and protection duration | Required number of doses , and origin of the vaccine | Out-of-pocket price | — | Safety |
Li et al [ ], 2023 | 6 | Adverse effect , efficacy , duration of vaccine effect , and time for the vaccine to start working | Vaccine varieties | Cost of vaccination | — | China: cost; The United States: effectiveness |
Liu et al [ ], 2021 | 6 | Adverse effect , efficacy , duration of vaccine effect , and time for the vaccine to start working | Vaccine varieties | Cost of vaccination | — | China: cost; the United States: effectiveness |
McPhedran et al [ ], 2022 | 4 | — | Delivery mode , appointment timing , and proximity | — | Sender | SMS text message invitation sender |
McPhedran et al [ ], 2021 | 5 | Level of protection offered | Location in which the vaccine is administered and the number of doses needed for full protection | — | Recommender of the vaccine and coverage in the media | Effectiveness |
Morillon and Poder [ ], 2022 | 7 | Effectiveness , safety , and duration | Waiting time , priority population , and origin | — | Recommendation | Effectiveness |
Mouter et al [ ] | 4 | The percentage of vaccinated individuals protected against COVID-19 , the number of cases of mild side effects , and the number of cases of severe side effects | The month when the vaccine would become available to the respondent | — | — | Safety |
Mouter et al [ ], 2022 | 6 | Decrease in deaths, decrease in health damage, and decrease in households with income loss | Vaccination at home and vaccination when and where convenient | One-time tax increase | Vaccination ambassadors, pay €250 (US $280.75) if does not get vaccinated , receive €100 (US $113) if gets vaccinated , vaccination passport daily activities during outbreak vaccination passport large events , counseling if does not get vaccinated , and mandatory testing at own cost if does not get vaccinated | Mandatory testing at own cost if does not get vaccinated |
Panchalingam and Shi [ ], 2022 | 5 | Risk of severe side effects , and effectiveness , and duration of vaccine-induced protection | — | — | Risk of unvaccinated children requiring hospitalization for COVID-19 and local coverage | Safety |
Prosser et al [ ], 2023 | 6 | Effectiveness , mild common side effects , and rare adverse events | Number of doses , total time required to get vaccinated , and regulatory approval | — | — | Effectiveness |
Schwarzinger et al [ ], 2021 | 4 | Safety and efficacy | Place to be vaccinated and country of vaccine manufacturer | — | — | Region of vaccine manufacturer |
Steinert et al [ ], 2022 | 4 | — | Age | — | Employment status , country of residence and health care system capacity , and mortality risk | Mortality risk |
Teh et al [ ], 2022 | 5 | Effectiveness and risk of developing severe side effects | Vaccination schedule during office hours , distance from home to vaccination center , and halal content | — | — | Halal content |
Tran et al [ ] , 2023 | 6 | Immunity duration, effectiveness, and side effects | — | Cost of the vaccine | Limitations if not vaccinated and COVID-19 mortality rate | Mortality rate |
Velardo et al [ ], 2021 | 5 | Efficacy , risk of serious side effects per 100,000 , and duration of vaccine immunity | Place of vaccine administration and location of vaccine manufacturer | — | — | Effectiveness |
Wang et al [ ], 2022 | 6 | Probability of fever, side effects and effectiveness | Location of vaccination , number of doses , and origin of vaccine | Price (CNY) | — | Effectiveness |
Wang et al [ ], 2021 | 7 | Probability of COVID-19 infection and probability of serious adverse event | Brand and venue for vaccination | — | Recommendations from professionals, quarantine for vaccinated travelers , and vaccine uptake of people around | Effectiveness |
Wang et al [ ] 2022 | 7 | Efficacy and probability of serious adverse event | Venue for vaccination and brand | — | Recommendations from professionals, vaccination coverage among all children aged <18 years , and vaccine uptake among acquaintances’ minor children | Effectiveness |
Wang et al [ ], 2022 | 6 | Self-assessed vaccine-related side effects , duration of vaccine protection , and effectiveness | Vaccination sites | — | Risk perception and acquaintances vaccinated | Safety |
Wang et al [ ], 2022 | 6 | Effectiveness , side effects , and duration of protection | Vaccination sites | — | Perceived probability of infection of individuals or acquaintances and percentage of acquaintances vaccinated | Effectiveness |
Xiao et al [ ], 2022 | 4 | Effectiveness , adverse reactions , and protection period | — | Price | — | Effectiveness |
Zhang et al [ ], 2022 | 6 | Efficacy , duration , adverse effect , and time period when the vaccine starts working | Varieties | Cost | — | Cost |
a Attribute is significant ( P <.05).
b Not available.
c The corresponding coefficients and P values are not provided.
The Most Important Attribute Reported in DCE Studies
In total, 2 of the 5 multicountry studies did not report preferences for each country and were therefore excluded from the synthesis of the most important attribute. A total of 53 data points on COVID-19 vaccine preferences were collected from the study population of the corresponding country. In the outcome category, among the 30 attributes examined, effectiveness emerged as the most prominent, accounting for 40% (21/53) of the studies [ 31 , 35 , 36 , 38 - 42 , 48 , 50 - 52 , 57 , 58 , 60 - 62 , 64 - 67 ]. Safety was addressed in 13% (7/53) of the studies [ 33 , 43 , 47 , 56 , 59 , 68 , 69 ], while protection duration was mentioned in 4% (2/53) [ 11 , 50 ]. In the process category, 13 attributes were identified. Brand (1/53, 2%) [ 32 ], region of vaccine manufacturer (1/53, 2%) [ 34 ], and halal content (1/53, 2%) [ 53 ] were associated with vaccine production. In addition, waiting time for COVID-19 vaccination (1/53, 2%) [ 70 ] and vaccine frequency (1/53, 2%) [ 71 ] were considered. Furthermore, 3 (6%) studies on vaccine distribution prioritized vaccination for the medical risk group (1/53, 2%) [ 72 ], those who had a higher COVID-19 mortality risk (6/53, 11%) [ 63 ], and those who had the potential capacity to spread the virus (1/53, 2%) [ 72 ]. In the cost category, personal vaccination cost accounted for 6% (3/53) [ 31 , 37 , 41 ]. Among the other attributes (7/53, 13%), disease risk threat was of particular importance, including possible trends of the epidemic (1/53, 2%) [ 30 ] and COVID-19 mortality rate (1/53, 2%) [ 55 ]. In addition, incentives and penalties for vaccination were identified, including quarantine-free travel (1/53, 2%) [ 33 ] and mandatory testing at own expense if not vaccinated (1/53, 2%) [ 44 ]. Vaccine advice or support included vaccination invitation sender (1/53, 2%) [ 73 ] and recommenders (1/53, 2%) [ 46 ]. The proportion of friends and family members who had received the vaccine (1/53, 2%) [ 26 ] was also among the other attributes influencing decision-making ( Table 2 ).
Although effectiveness remained the most important attribute, it is worth noting that variations in preferences were also observed among different subgroups. A higher proportion of studies conducted in LMICs (4/24, 17%) than in HICs (3/29, 10%) prioritized on safety ( Multimedia Appendix 5 ). In addition, COVID-19 mortality risk was the second most important attribute (6/29, 21%) after effectiveness in HICs. Cost was considered to be another most important attribute (3/24, 13%) in LMICs. Interestingly, many other attributes also became more important as the pandemic progressed. Protection duration (2/24, 8%) emerged as one of the most important attributes during the pandemic wave. COVID-19 mortality risk (5/25, 20%) and cost (3/25, 12%) were considered as the most important attributes after the pandemic wave ( Multimedia Appendix 6 ).
Study Quality
The overall reporting quality was deemed acceptable but there is room for improvement. The PREFS scores of the 47 studies ranged from 2 to 4, with a mean of 3.23 (SD 0.52). No study scored 5. Most studies scored 3 (32/47, 68%) or 4 (13/47, 28%), while 2 studies (2/47, 4%) scored 2 ( Multimedia Appendix 7 [ 11 , 26 , 30 - 74 ]).
Principal Findings
This systematic review synthesizes existing data on preference for COVID-19 vaccine using DCE, with the aim of informing improvements in vaccine coverage and vaccine policy development. We identified 47 studies conducted in 29 countries, including 21 HICs and 8 LMICs. HICs had an adequate supply of vaccine since the early emergency availability of COVID-19 vaccine, and HICs had 1.5 times more doses of COVID-19 vaccinations than LMICs by September 2023 [ 85 ]. In total, 19 (40%) studies were conducted in China and 9 (19%) in the United States, demonstrating their significant contribution to the research and their leadership in vaccine research and development. Vaccine effectiveness and safety were the most important attributes in DCEs, although preferences differed among subgroups.
Recent years have seen new trends in the design, implementation, and validation of the DCE. For example, most studies (40/47, 85%) reported that the DCE was administered through web-based surveys, which have become a quick and cost-effective way to collect DCE data [ 66 ]. Almost half of the studies (25/47, 53%) did not report a pilot test. However, piloting in multiple stages throughout the development of a DCE is conducive to identifying appropriate and understandable attributes, considering whether participants can effectively evaluate the full profiles, and producing an efficient design [ 21 , 86 , 87 ].
Overall, vaccine effectiveness and safety have emerged as the most commonly investigated attributes in the outcome category. Despite heterogeneity in preferences across subpopulations, effectiveness remains the primary driver for COVID-19 vaccination across the studies [ 31 , 35 , 36 , 38 - 42 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 57 , 58 , 60 - 62 , 64 - 67 ], similar to the previous findings [ 18 ]. A study conducted in India and Europe found that respondents’ preference for the COVID-19 vaccine increased with effectiveness and peaked at 95% effectiveness [ 45 ]. Another study conducted among university staff and students in South Africa found that vaccine effectiveness not only was a concern but also significantly influenced vaccine choice behavior [ 64 ]. Interestingly, a nationwide stated choice survey in the United States found a strong interaction between effectiveness and other attributes [ 58 ]. These findings support the ongoing efforts to maximize vaccine effectiveness while emphasizing the importance of communicating information on vaccine effectiveness to the target population for promotion [ 62 ].
Safety has also been identified as a crucial factor influencing the acceptance of COVID-19 vaccine [ 33 , 43 , 47 , 56 , 59 , 68 , 69 ]. One study indicated that the likelihood of the general public choosing vaccines with low or moderate side effects increased by 75% and 63%, respectively, compared with vaccines with high side effects. While the likelihood changed within a 30% range when most attributes other than effectiveness and safety were changed [ 69 ]. In addition, respondents in Australia expressed a willingness to wait an additional 0.04 and 1.2 months to reduce the incidence of mild and severe adverse events by 1/10,000, respectively [ 56 ].
Similar to the results of previous systematic reviews of DCEs for various vaccines [ 18 , 19 ], the most common predictors of COVID-19 vaccine acceptance are effectiveness and safety, particularly during the rapid development and rollout of COVID-19 vaccines, which essentially boils down to trust in the vaccine [ 31 ]. Respondents expressed the importance of having a safe and effective COVID-19 vaccine available as soon as possible, but the majority preferred to wait a few months to observe the experience of others rather than be the first in line [ 43 ]. Therefore, collaborating to enhance vaccine effectiveness while reducing the risk of severe side effects could be a highly effective strategy to address vaccine hesitancy and augment vaccine desirability. Dissemination of this important vaccine-related information by governments and health care institutions, along with effective communication by health care professionals, can help build public trust and ultimately increase vaccination rates [ 69 ]. However, these inherent vaccine attributes are typically beyond the control of a vaccination program, and given the ongoing mutations of SARS-CoV-2, it is challenging to predict the effectiveness of the vaccines currently in development [ 66 ]. Global collaboration between scientists and pharmaceutical companies is therefore essential to improve vaccine effectiveness and minimize side effects [ 41 ].
Vaccine production, including its origin, brand, vaccine frequency, and content, are key considerations in the process category. Vaccine brand also has a significant impact on vaccine choice [ 32 ], independent of effectiveness and safety, due to factors such as reputation, country of origin, technological advances, and reported side effects associated with the brands [ 35 ]. For vaccine origin, some studies found that participants preferred domestic vaccines to imported vaccines, which may depend on the availability or the approval of vaccines in different countries [ 31 , 41 , 50 ] or the incidence of side effects among different types of COVID-19 vaccines [ 37 ]. However, some studies found that imported vaccines were more likely to be accepted than domestically produced vaccines, which may be attributed to less trust in domestically produced vaccines [ 57 , 66 ]. A study on vaccine preferences among the Malaysian population found that the composition and production process of the COVID-19 vaccine, which complied with Islamic dietary requirements (ie, halal content) was an important factor for many Malaysians when deciding whether to be vaccinated. This underscores the substantial influence of religion on vaccine choice [ 53 ].
Vaccine frequency was emphasized to play an important role in the choice of COVID-19 vaccine among the US public, while the 90% efficacy with low side effect rate of the COVID-19 vaccine was set. The prospect of vaccinating once to get lifelong immunity was very attractive, reflecting the fact that people were effort minimizers [ 71 ]. This is similar to the nature of the 2 studies referenced in the outcome attribute, where the protection duration is prioritized. Given the threat of COVID-19, people expect the protection duration to be as long as possible [ 11 , 50 ].
When vaccine supply is limited, people tend to prioritize vaccination for those who are more susceptible to the disease, have higher mortality rates from infectious diseases, or have greater potential to spread the virus. A study in Iran found that individuals tend to prioritize vaccination for those in the community with higher potential for virus transmission [ 57 ]. In addition, results from a study in 6 European countries revealed unanimous agreement among respondents that candidates with higher mortality and infection risks should be prioritized for vaccination [ 63 ]. While another study conducted among Belgians also found that respondents would prioritize populations at higher medical risk [ 72 ].
Cost was another important factor influencing COVID-19 vaccine preferences, mostly related to out-of-pocket costs [ 31 , 37 , 41 ]. In 2 studies comparing public preferences for COVID-19 vaccines in China and the United States, vaccine efficacy emerged as the most important driver for the American public, whereas the cost of vaccination had the greatest impact on the Chinese public. This difference was likely due to the relatively stable pandemic situation in China at the time and the lower perceived risk of COVID-19. As a result, the Chinese population was more price sensitive and reluctant to pay for vaccination [ 31 , 37 , 41 ].
For the other category, several different attributes were highlighted, depending on the specific population or situation. When people perceive the threat of a disease, their desire to be vaccinated becomes more urgent. In a study among health care workers in China, participants’ expectations about the future development of COVID-19 had a greater impact on their decision to be vaccinated than their perceived risk of infection or actual case rates, which may have been influenced by their previous experience with seasonal influenza vaccination [ 30 ]. The mortality rate of COVID-19 was considered the most influential factor in the uptake of COVID-19 booster shots in Vietnam. This study was conducted during a pandemic wave in Vietnam, which may have led to an increased perception of public health risks and a greater inclination toward COVID-19 vaccination [ 55 ]. To achieve herd immunity, government authorities can implement policies of incentives and penalties for vaccination to encourage population-wide uptake. A study conducted in the Netherlands revealed that respondents particularly disliked policies that penalized those who were not vaccinated, such as mandatory testing at their own expense if they were not vaccinated [ 44 ]. Instead, they favored policies that rewarded vaccination, such as giving vaccinated individuals additional privileges through a vaccination passport. This finding is consistent with a study in Hong Kong, which found that quarantine-free travel was considered the most important motivator among university students and staff, given their frequent engagement in international travel [ 33 ].
The source of vaccine information also influences vaccine decision-making [ 30 ]. Variation in the sender of vaccination appointment invitation via SMS text messaging and recommenders may potentially influence the public’s willingness to vaccinate against a disease [ 30 , 46 , 73 ]. Furthermore, the acceptance of vaccines was observed to change as the firsthand information about vaccine side effects and effectiveness was provided by friends and family in India [ 26 ].
In HICs, COVID-19 mortality risk was the second most important attribute after effectiveness, as respondents in all 6 high-income European countries from a study of public preferences for COVID-19 vaccine distribution prioritized candidates with higher mortality risks [ 63 ]. However, individuals from LMICs appeared to be more concerned about vaccine safety than those from HICs. This may be related to greater confidence in vaccine safety in HICs due to the earlier initiation and higher rates of COVID-19 vaccination [ 85 ]. In contrast, in some LMICs, vaccine safety was reported as the main reason influencing the willingness to vaccinate due to the rapid development of the COVID-19 vaccines [ 26 , 43 , 47 , 59 , 68 , 69 , 74 , 88 ].
Interestingly, the preference for COVID-19 vaccines may also have changed as the pandemic progressed [ 63 ]. Similarly, effectiveness remained the most important attribute in all periods, possibly due to the continuing severity of the pandemic and the fear of the possible emergence of new coronavirus strains [ 43 ]. Before the pandemic wave, the information on vaccine effectiveness was limited [ 26 ], but people still considered vaccine effectiveness to be the most important driver of vaccination. However, during the pandemic, the public’s perception of the health risk increased. As vaccines were introduced and used, people seemed to become more concerned about the duration of vaccine protection and preferred a longer vaccine protection [ 11 , 50 ]. After the pandemic wave, as the pandemic situation gradually stabilized, cost, combined with their perception of the risk of susceptibility, became more important in their preferences. However, despite this shift, most of the public still believed that people who are at higher risk of infection or death should be vaccinated first [ 63 ].
Limitations
Our study had several limitations. First, not all studies used the same attributes and levels, which limited our ability to perform a quantitative synthesis and directly compare the estimates of model parameters. Instead, we qualitatively synthesized and summarized the range of attributes that may be useful in the formative stage of attribute selection in future DCE surveys investigating the preference for COVID-19 vaccine. Second, although DCEs have been shown to be a valid method for eliciting preferences, the experiment may not represent real market choices but rather hypothetical scenarios with plausible and realistic attributes. However, it offers opportunities to evaluate vaccines that are not yet available in the market or to specific population [ 68 ]. Third, the commonly used classification of outcome, cost, and process was used in order to better explain the public’s preference for vaccine attributes. However, several attributes could not be properly classified, and a fourth category (ie, other attributes) had to be added [ 19 ]. Meanwhile, the variety of attributes included may make it difficult to appropriately name and interpret this category as a whole. Fifth, the PREFS checklist is limited to 5 questions and fails to elicit several criteria that should be reported in DCE studies. Also, it does not provide sufficient tools to assess the biases in a DCE, such as selection bias and nonresponse bias [ 79 , 89 ]. Finally, although there was no specific theoretical framework to structure our qualitative analysis from the 4 identified categories, our classification was based on previous studies [ 18 , 19 , 82 , 90 , 91 ] and our own findings. This synthesis led us to categorize attributes into 4 main classes, providing a clear structure for analyzing and presenting participants’ vaccine preferences and making it easier to compare their preferences across different studies.
Conclusions
In conclusion, this systematic review synthesized the global evidence on preferences for COVID-19 vaccines using the DCE methodology. Vaccine effectiveness and safety were found to be the main drivers for COVID-19 vaccination, highlighting the importance of global collaboration to improve vaccine effectiveness and minimize side effects, as well as the importance of communicating this vaccine-related information to the public to maximize the uptake of COVID-19 vaccines. The subgroup analyses emphasized the importance of differences in vaccine preference of specific populations and time periods in optimizing the acceptance of COVID-19 vaccines. These findings may serve as valuable insights for government agencies involved in the social mobilization process for COVID-19 vaccination. However, the response to the pandemic is a continuous learning process [ 92 ]. It is crucial for policy makers to consider preference evidence when designing policies to promote vaccination.
Acknowledgments
The authors have not received a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Data Availability
All data relevant to the study are included in the article or uploaded as supplemental information. Data sets of this study are available upon reasonable request to the corresponding author.
Authors' Contributions
YH, SF, and YZ are joint first authors. HJ conceived the study and its methodology. YH, SF, and YZ designed, refined, and implemented the search strategy; screened articles for inclusion; and extracted and curated the data. All authors contributed to the interpretation of the results. YH, SF, and YZ wrote the initial draft of the manuscript. HJ and HW critically reviewed the manuscript. HJ supervised the study design and provided overall guidance. All authors approved the final draft of the manuscript. HJ had full access to all the data used in this study, and all authors had final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication.
Conflicts of Interest
None declared.
PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) 2020 checklist.
Search strategies.
Attributes included in each category.
The detailed distribution of the study period across countries.
Preference for COVID-19 vaccines among high-income countries and low- and middle-income countries (n=53).
Preference for COVID-19 vaccines in the different study periods (n=53).
Assessment of 47 included studies quality using the Purpose, Respondents, Explanation, Findings, and Significance checklist.
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Abbreviations
discrete choice experiment |
high-income country |
low- and middle-income country |
Purpose, Respondents, Explanation, Findings, and Significance |
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses |
Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 19.01.24; peer-reviewed by T Ricks, I Saha; comments to author 11.04.24; revised version received 01.05.24; accepted 26.05.24; published 29.07.24.
©Yiting Huang, Shuaixin Feng, Yuyan Zhao, Haode Wang, Hongbo Jiang. Originally published in JMIR Public Health and Surveillance (https://publichealth.jmir.org), 29.07.2024.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://publichealth.jmir.org, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.
Approved Experiments | Public Experiment List
The following is a list of approved experiments at FRIB. Click on a column header to sort by that column.
Experiment Number | Contact Spokesperson | Co-Spokespersons | Title | Beam on Target Hours Approved | Beam Tuning Hours | Date Completed |
23509 | Baryshev, Sergey | | Studying Resilience of Power Load Switch to Heavy Ion Radiation | 6.00 | | THU 22 FEB 2024 |
23508 | Cortesi, Marco | Dziubinski, Sean | Performance test ELOSS detector | 12.00 | | FRI 19 JUL 2024 |
23505 | Lidia, Steve | | High-flux, short-pulse single event effects demonstration experiment | 39.00 | | SAT 12 AUG 2023 |
23503 | Grzywacz, Robert | Kitamura, Noritaka; Neupane, Shree; Xu, Zhengyu | Beta-delayed neutron spectroscopy of 24O | 8.00 | | MON 15 MAY 2023 |
23502 | Wrede, Christopher | | Twentieth Exotic Beam Summer School | 24.00 | | SAT 15 JUL 2023 |
23084 | Pain, Steven | Balakrishnan, Sudarsan; Pain, Steven | Informing the i process: constraining the As/Ge abundance ratio in a metal poor star via 75Ga(d,pg)76Ga | 96.00 | 36.00 | SUN 05 MAY 2024 |
23080 | Moroch, Scott | Garcia Ruiz, Ronald Fernando; Karthein, Jonas; Minamisono, Kei | Precision Laser Spectroscopy of Atoms and Molecules Containing 229,232Th Isotopes | | | TUE 02 JUL 2024 (partial) |
23079 | Pain, Steven | Chipps, Kelly; Ong, Wei Jia | Simultaneous high-precision spectroscopic measurements of (a,p) reactions on proton-rich mass 26 nuclides for X-Ray-Burst nucleosynthesis | 192.00 | 48.00 | |
23078 | Korkulu Stuhl, Zeren | Estrade, Alfredo | Mass measurements on the r-process path relevant for the first r-process peak | 156.00 | 36.00 | |
23076 | Grzywacz, Robert | Allmond, Mitch; Fijalkowska, Aleksandra; Rasco, Bertis; Rykaczewski, Krzysztof | Intersections of nuclear structure and statistical model in βn-decays of cobalt isotopes and isomers | 74.00 | 0.00 | |
23071 | Seweryniak, Dariusz | Allmond, Mitch; Clark, Roderick; Grzywacz, Robert; Liddick, Sean; Tarasov, Oleg | The Study of Proton-Rich Isotopes Along the Proton Drip-Line above 100Sn | 72.00 | 36.00 | |
23070 | Lubna, Rebeka Sultana | Lubna, Rebeka Sultana; Tang, Tsz Leung | Probing the N=28 shell gap migration via simultaneous measurements of the 40,42S(d, p) and 40,42S(d, t) reactions | 48.00 | 48.00 | |
23068 | Monteagudo Godoy, Belen | Revel, Aldric | Study of possible p-wave halo in 34Na ground state | 111.00 | 36.00 | |
23066 | Domnanich, Katharina | Gaiser, Alyssa; Scielzo, Nicholas; Severin, Gregory; Shusterman, Jennifer | Isotope Harvesting with the First 58Ni Primary Beam at FRIB | 20.00 | 36.00 | |
23065 | Mitchell, Alan | Kay, Benjamin | Single-particle fragmentation near N=28 explored through direct reactions on 46Ca | | | |
23064 | Allmond, Mitch | Carpenter, Michael; Gray, Tim; Grzywacz, Robert; Liddick, Sean; Portillo, Mauricio; Rasco, Bertis; Rykaczewski, Krzysztof; Seweryniak, Dariusz; Tarasov, Oleg | Seniority Isomers and Single-Particle Evolution in 218-222Pb Region: New Isotopes, Isomers, and Half Lives | | | |
23063 | Garcia Ruiz, Ronald Fernando | Minamisono, Kei; Wilkins, Shane | Laser spectroscopy of neutron-rich silicon isotopes | 62.00 | 84.00 | |
23060 | Wilkins, Shane | Garcia Ruiz, Ronald Fernando; Minamisono, Kei | Towards determining the rotational fingerprints of the radioactive molecules 26AlF and 32SiO for astronomical studies | | | WED 20 SEP 2023 (partial) |
23058 | Brown, Kyle | Chajecki, Zbigniew | Measuring the isospin dependence of the nucleon effective mass at supersaturation density | 116.00 | 36.00 | |
23056 | Richard, Andrea | Zegers, Remco | Indirect 99Nb(n,g)100Nb Constraint for the Astrophysical i-Process | 96.00 | 36.00 | |
23055 | Crider, Ben | Allmond, Mitch; Janssens, Robert; Liddick, Sean; Stuchbery, Andrew | Decay Spectroscopy Near N = 40: toward the N = 50 island of inversion near 78Ni | 60.00 | 36.00 | |
23054 | Williams, Matt | | Exploring the p-process with SECAR | 92.00 | 48.00 | |
23047 | Estrade, Alfredo | Crawford, Heather; Fallon, Paul; Schatz, Hendrik | Mass measurement along the neutron dripline | 180.00 | 36.00 | |
23045 | Montes, Fernando | Garg, Ruchi | Machine learning techniques to optimise and automate recoil separators performance and operation | | | |
23041 | Chaple Gore , Ivis | Domnanich, Katharina | Production and separation of radioplatinum for a theragnostic approach to cancer | 48.00 | 36.00 | |
23038 | Redshaw, Matt | Ringle, Ryan; Xavier, Mougeot | High-precision Penning trap determination of the 99Tc beta-decay Q value for the evaluation of precise beta-spectrum measurements | | | |
23037 | Fougeres, Chloe | de oliveira santos, Francois; de Séréville, Nicolas; Hammache, Faïrouz | Angle-integrated measurement of the d(25Al, n gamma)26Si transfer reaction to probe resonance strengths in 25Al(p,gamma)26Si relevant for the production of 26Al in classical novae | 132.00 | 36.00 | FRI 10 NOV 2023 |
23035 | Wrede, Christopher | | Is there a NiCu Cycle in X-ray Bursts? | 120.00 | 36.00 | |
23033 | Revel, Aldric | Monteagudo Godoy, Belen | Investigating the halo structure of 37Mg | 108.00 | 36.00 | |
23031 | Ayyad Limonge, Yassid | Lay , José; Zamora, Juan | Investigating the electric dipole response of halo nuclei using proton inelastic scattering | 84.00 | 36.00 | MON 15 JUL 2024 |
23030 | Porzio, Carlotta | Crawford, Heather; Porzio, Carlotta; Rice, Emma | Quadrupole Collectivity at the Boundaries of the N=40 Island of Inversion | 24.00 | 24.00 | SAT 03 FEB 2024 |
23025 | Brown, Kyle | Cook, Kaitlin; McCormick, Caitlin | Quasifission dynamics with neutron-rich calcium. | 60.00 | 48.00 | |
23023 | Pfützner, Marek | Grzywacz, Robert; Mazzocchi, Chiara | Proton-proton momentum correlations in two-proton radioactivity of 54Zn | 120.00 | 36.00 | |
23017 | Wu, Ching-Yen | Gade, Alexandra; Henderson, Jack | Shape coexistence in N = Z nucleus, 44Ti | | | |
23012 | Minamisono, Kei | Garcia Ruiz, Ronald Fernando; Nörtershäuser, Wilfried; Rossi, Dominic | Symmetry-energy constraints using the charge-radius difference of 52Ni-52Cr mirror nuclei | 108.00 | 54.00 | |
23011 | Kobayashi, Nobuyuki | Iwasaki, Hironori | Halo formation in neutron-rich carbon isotopes | 114.00 | 36.00 | SAT 09 DEC 2023 |
23009 | Zegers, Remco | Giraud, Simon | Search for the Isovector Giant Monopole Resonance via the 90Zr(10Be,10B[0+,T=1]) reaction | 108.00 | 36.00 | SAT 17 FEB 2024 |
23006 | Karthein, Jonas | Ringle, Ryan | Precision Binding Energies for Pioneering Astrophysical Studies | 53.00 | 57.00 | |
23005 | deSouza, Romualdo | Hudan, Sylvie | Fusing light nuclei near the neutron drip-line | 60.00 | 72.00 | |
23004 | Ronning, Eleanor | Richard, Andrea; Ronning, Eleanor | The Last Piece of the Generalized Brink Axel Hypothesis Puzzle | 68.00 | 48.00 | THU 08 FEB 2024 |
23003 | Iwasaki, Hironori | Zimba, George | Collectivity at N=27 studied by heavy-ion inelastic scattering and lifetime measurements | 64.00 | 36.00 | SAT 09 MAR 2024 |
23002 | Gade, Alexandra | Henderson, Jack; Wu, Ching-Yen | Collectivity and Shape North of Sn | 72.00 | | FRI 10 MAY 2024 |
23001 | Gade, Alexandra | Tostevin, Jeffrey | Single-neutron structure at the heart of the N=28 island of inversion | 110.00 | 36.00 | |
22511 | Brown, Kyle | Wuosmaa, Alan | Transfer reactions with the doubly magic 56Ni | 216.00 | | |
22510 | Grinder, Mara | Pain, Steven | 80Ge(d,p gamma): Informing weak r-process neutron capture | 144.00 | | TUE 30 APR 2024 |
22507 | Cortesi, Marco | Dziubinski, Sean | Performance Test of the Energy Loss Optical Scintillation System (ELOSS) | 12.00 | | FRI 14 JUL 2023 |
22505 | Kyle, Alicia | Spyrou, Artemis; Tsantiri, Artemis | Nucleosynthesis of neutron‐deficient isotopes in the A=70 region | 107.00 | | THU 27 JUL 2023 |
22503 | Montes, Fernando | Schatz, Hendrik | SECAR Development in Preparation for First FRIB Experiments | | | THU 20 JUN 2024 (partial) |
22502 | Ayyad Limonge, Yassid | Mittig, Wolfgang | Investigating new alpha-clustering observables in neutron-rich carbon nuclei | 130.00 | | MON 18 DEC 2023 |
22501 | Tarasov, Oleg | Gade, Alexandra | Commissioning with a high-Z primary beam | 120.00 | | MON 06 FEB 2023 |
21080 | Wu, Jin | Estrade, Alfredo; Tarasov, Oleg | Decay spectroscopy in the vicinity of the N=126 shell closure | 128.00 | 24.00 | |
21073 | Spyrou, Artemis | | Constraining neutron capture rates for the r-process | 100.00 | 24.00 | |
21072 | Wrede, Christopher | | Strength of the key 15O(a,g)19Ne resonance in X-ray bursts | 54.00 | 24.00 | MON 28 NOV 2022 |
21070 | Marshall, Caleb | | Determining the Site of Globular Cluster Potassium Enrichment via the 38Ar(p, gamma)39K Reaction in Inverse Kinematics | 158.00 | 24.00 | |
21069 | Ong, Wei Jia | Allmond, Mitch; Grzywacz, Robert; Rasco, Bertis; Schatz, Hendrik; Sherrill, Bradley; Tarasov, Oleg | Decay spectroscopy of the N=35 nuclei 55Ca,54K and 53Ar and the search for dripline nucleus 50S | 174.00 | 24.00 | TUE 30 JAN 2024 |
21067 | Pain, Steven | | Simultaneous constraint of the 34g,mCl(p,g) reactions via a Spectroscopic Mirror Study using ORRUBA and SECAR | 168.00 | 36.00 | |
21066 | Baumann, Thomas | Frank, Nathan | Neutron-Unbound Excited States in 53,55Ca | 36.00 | 24.00 | |
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21040 | Ayyad Limonge, Yassid | | Studying np pairing in N=Z nuclei: The 52Fe(3He,p) reaction at ReA with the AT-TPC | 48.00 | 48.00 | |
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21034 | Bentley, Michael | Wadsworth, Bob | Evolution and isospin-dependence of quadrupole collectivity in the heaviest N=Z systems | 84.00 | 24.00 | TUE 18 APR 2023 |
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21026 | Avila, Melina | | Direct measurement of the 59Cu(p,α)56Ni reaction | 72.00 | 36.00 | |
21024 | Crawford, Heather | | Reaction Cross-Section Measurement in 40Mg: A Halo Candidate? | 144.00 | 24.00 | |
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21021 | Grzywacz, Robert | | Complete decay spectroscopy of 100Sn and its neighbors | 124.00 | 24.00 | |
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21003 | Grzywacz-Jones, Kate | Cerizza, Giordano; Gade, Alexandra; Grzywacz, Robert | The structure of light tin isotopes | 72.00 | 24.00 | THU 15 DEC 2022 |
21001 | Riley, Lew | Cottle, Paul | Measuring proton and neutron matrix elements for the 0^+_gs→2^+_1 transition in the deformed neutron-rich N=28 nucleus 42Si | 56.00 | 24.00 | FRI 29 MAR 2024 |
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Using natural experimental studies to guide public health action: turning the evidence-based medicine paradigm on its head
Affiliations.
- 1 MRC Epidemiology Unit and Centre for Diet and Activity Research (CEDAR), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK [email protected].
- 2 MRC Epidemiology Unit and Centre for Diet and Activity Research (CEDAR), University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
- 3 Charles Perkins Centre and Prevention Research Collaboration, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
- 4 School of Public Health, Imperial College, London, UK.
- 5 National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
- PMID: 31744848
- PMCID: PMC6993029
- DOI: 10.1136/jech-2019-213085
Despite smaller effect sizes, interventions delivered at population level to prevent non-communicable diseases generally have greater reach, impact and equity than those delivered to high-risk groups. Nevertheless, how to shift population behaviour patterns in this way remains one of the greatest uncertainties for research and policy. Evidence about behaviour change interventions that are easier to evaluate tends to overshadow that for population-wide and system-wide approaches that generate and sustain healthier behaviours. Population health interventions are often implemented as natural experiments, which makes their evaluation more complex and unpredictable than a typical randomised controlled trial (RCT). We discuss the growing importance of evaluating natural experiments and their distinctive contribution to the evidence for public health policy. We contrast the established evidence-based practice pathway, in which RCTs generate 'definitive' evidence for particular interventions, with a practice-based evidence pathway in which evaluation can help adjust the compass bearing of existing policy. We propose that intervention studies should focus on reducing critical uncertainties, that non-randomised study designs should be embraced rather than tolerated and that a more nuanced approach to appraising the utility of diverse types of evidence is required. The complex evidence needed to guide public health action is not necessarily the same as that which is needed to provide an unbiased effect size estimate. The practice-based evidence pathway is neither inferior nor merely the best available when all else fails. It is often the only way to generate meaningful evidence to address critical questions about investing in population health interventions.
Keywords: evaluation; natural experimental studies; non-randomised studies; practice-based evidence; public health policy.
© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2020. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.
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Conflict of interest statement
Competing interests: None declared.
Two complementary modes of evidence…
Two complementary modes of evidence generation.
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