case study for social psychology

Social Psychology Experiments: 10 Of The Most Famous Studies

Ten of the most influential social psychology experiments explain why we sometimes do dumb or irrational things. 

Ten of the most influential social psychology experiments explain why we sometimes do dumb or irrational things.

“I have been primarily interested in how and why ordinary people do unusual things, things that seem alien to their natures. Why do good people sometimes act evil? Why do smart people sometimes do dumb or irrational things?” –Philip Zimbardo

Like famous social psychologist Professor Philip Zimbardo (author of The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil ), I’m also obsessed with why we do dumb or irrational things.

The answer quite often is because of other people — something social psychologists have comprehensively shown.

Each of the 10 brilliant social psychology experiments below tells a unique, insightful story relevant to all our lives, every day.

Click the link in each social psychology experiment to get the full description and explanation of each phenomenon.

1. Social Psychology Experiments: The Halo Effect

The halo effect is a finding from a famous social psychology experiment.

It is the idea that global evaluations about a person (e.g. she is likeable) bleed over into judgements about their specific traits (e.g. she is intelligent).

It is sometimes called the “what is beautiful is good” principle, or the “physical attractiveness stereotype”.

It is called the halo effect because a halo was often used in religious art to show that a person is good.

2. Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort people feel when trying to hold two conflicting beliefs in their mind.

People resolve this discomfort by changing their thoughts to align with one of conflicting beliefs and rejecting the other.

The study provides a central insight into the stories we tell ourselves about why we think and behave the way we do.

3. Robbers Cave Experiment: How Group Conflicts Develop

The Robbers Cave experiment was a famous social psychology experiment on how prejudice and conflict emerged between two group of boys.

It shows how groups naturally develop their own cultures, status structures and boundaries — and then come into conflict with each other.

For example, each country has its own culture, its government, legal system and it draws boundaries to differentiate itself from neighbouring countries.

One of the reasons the became so famous is that it appeared to show how groups could be reconciled, how peace could flourish.

The key was the focus on superordinate goals, those stretching beyond the boundaries of the group itself.

4. Social Psychology Experiments: The Stanford Prison Experiment

The Stanford prison experiment was run to find out how people would react to being made a prisoner or prison guard.

The psychologist Philip Zimbardo, who led the Stanford prison experiment, thought ordinary, healthy people would come to behave cruelly, like prison guards, if they were put in that situation, even if it was against their personality.

It has since become a classic social psychology experiment, studied by generations of students and recently coming under a lot of criticism.

5. The Milgram Social Psychology Experiment

The Milgram experiment , led by the well-known psychologist Stanley Milgram in the 1960s, aimed to test people’s obedience to authority.

The results of Milgram’s social psychology experiment, sometimes known as the Milgram obedience study, continue to be both thought-provoking and controversial.

The Milgram experiment discovered people are much more obedient than you might imagine.

Fully 63 percent of the participants continued administering what appeared like electric shocks to another person while they screamed in agony, begged to stop and eventually fell silent — just because they were told to.

6. The False Consensus Effect

The false consensus effect is a famous social psychological finding that people tend to assume that others agree with them.

It could apply to opinions, values, beliefs or behaviours, but people assume others think and act in the same way as they do.

It is hard for many people to believe the false consensus effect exists because they quite naturally believe they are good ‘intuitive psychologists’, thinking it is relatively easy to predict other people’s attitudes and behaviours.

In reality, people show a number of predictable biases, such as the false consensus effect, when estimating other people’s behaviour and its causes.

7. Social Psychology Experiments: Social Identity Theory

Social identity theory helps to explain why people’s behaviour in groups is fascinating and sometimes disturbing.

People gain part of their self from the groups they belong to and that is at the heart of social identity theory.

The famous theory explains why as soon as humans are bunched together in groups we start to do odd things: copy other members of our group, favour members of own group over others, look for a leader to worship and fight other groups.

8. Negotiation: 2 Psychological Strategies That Matter Most

Negotiation is one of those activities we often engage in without quite realising it.

Negotiation doesn’t just happen in the boardroom, or when we ask our boss for a raise or down at the market, it happens every time we want to reach an agreement with someone.

In a classic, award-winning series of social psychology experiments, Morgan Deutsch and Robert Krauss investigated two central factors in negotiation: how we communicate with each other and how we use threats.

9. Bystander Effect And The Diffusion Of Responsibility

The bystander effect in social psychology is the surprising finding that the mere presence of other people inhibits our own helping behaviours in an emergency.

The bystander effect social psychology experiments are mentioned in every psychology textbook and often dubbed ‘seminal’.

This famous social psychology experiment on the bystander effect was inspired by the highly publicised murder of Kitty Genovese in 1964.

It found that in some circumstances, the presence of others inhibits people’s helping behaviours — partly because of a phenomenon called diffusion of responsibility.

10. Asch Conformity Experiment: The Power Of Social Pressure

The Asch conformity experiments — some of the most famous every done — were a series of social psychology experiments carried out by noted psychologist Solomon Asch.

The Asch conformity experiment reveals how strongly a person’s opinions are affected by people around them.

In fact, the Asch conformity experiment shows that many of us will deny our own senses just to conform with others.

Author: Dr Jeremy Dean

Psychologist, Jeremy Dean, PhD is the founder and author of PsyBlog. He holds a doctorate in psychology from University College London and two other advanced degrees in psychology. He has been writing about scientific research on PsyBlog since 2004. View all posts by Dr Jeremy Dean

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Psychology Case Study Examples: A Deep Dive into Real-life Scenarios

Peeling back the layers of the human mind is no easy task, but psychology case studies can help us do just that. Through these detailed analyses, we’re able to gain a deeper understanding of human behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes. I’ve always found it fascinating how a single person’s experience can shed light on broader psychological principles.

Over the years, psychologists have conducted numerous case studies—each with their own unique insights and implications. These investigations range from Phineas Gage’s accidental lobotomy to Genie Wiley’s tragic tale of isolation. Such examples not only enlighten us about specific disorders or occurrences but also continue to shape our overall understanding of psychology .

As we delve into some noteworthy examples , I assure you’ll appreciate how varied and intricate the field of psychology truly is. Whether you’re a budding psychologist or simply an eager learner, brace yourself for an intriguing exploration into the intricacies of the human psyche.

Understanding Psychology Case Studies

Diving headfirst into the world of psychology, it’s easy to come upon a valuable tool used by psychologists and researchers alike – case studies. I’m here to shed some light on these fascinating tools.

Psychology case studies, for those unfamiliar with them, are in-depth investigations carried out to gain a profound understanding of the subject – whether it’s an individual, group or phenomenon. They’re powerful because they provide detailed insights that other research methods might miss.

Let me share a few examples to clarify this concept further:

• One notable example is Freud’s study on Little Hans. This case study explored a 5-year-old boy’s fear of horses and related it back to Freud’s theories about psychosexual stages.
• Another classic example is Genie Wiley (a pseudonym), a feral child who was subjected to severe social isolation during her early years. Her heartbreaking story provided invaluable insights into language acquisition and critical periods in development.

You see, what sets psychology case studies apart is their focus on the ‘why’ and ‘how’. While surveys or experiments might tell us ‘what’, they often don’t dig deep enough into the inner workings behind human behavior.

It’s important though not to take these psychology case studies at face value. As enlightening as they can be, we must remember that they usually focus on one specific instance or individual. Thus, generalizing findings from single-case studies should be done cautiously.

To illustrate my point using numbers: let’s say we have 1 million people suffering from condition X worldwide; if only 20 unique cases have been studied so far (which would be quite typical for rare conditions), then our understanding is based on just 0.002% of the total cases! That’s why multiple sources and types of research are vital when trying to understand complex psychological phenomena fully.

In the grand scheme of things, psychology case studies are just one piece of the puzzle – albeit an essential one. They provide rich, detailed data that can form the foundation for further research and understanding. As we delve deeper into this fascinating field, it’s crucial to appreciate all the tools at our disposal – from surveys and experiments to these insightful case studies.

Importance of Case Studies in Psychology

I’ve always been fascinated by the human mind, and if you’re here, I bet you are too. Let’s dive right into why case studies play such a pivotal role in psychology.

One of the key reasons they matter so much is because they provide detailed insights into specific psychological phenomena. Unlike other research methods that might use large samples but only offer surface-level findings, case studies allow us to study complex behaviors, disorders, and even treatments at an intimate level. They often serve as a catalyst for new theories or help refine existing ones.

To illustrate this point, let’s look at one of psychology’s most famous case studies – Phineas Gage. He was a railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain injury when an iron rod shot through his skull during an explosion in 1848. The dramatic personality changes he experienced after his accident led to significant advancements in our understanding of the brain’s role in personality and behavior.

Moreover, it’s worth noting that some rare conditions can only be studied through individual cases due to their uncommon nature. For instance, consider Genie Wiley – a girl discovered at age 13 having spent most of her life locked away from society by her parents. Her tragic story gave psychologists valuable insights into language acquisition and critical periods for learning.

Finally yet importantly, case studies also have practical applications for clinicians and therapists. Studying real-life examples can inform treatment plans and provide guidance on how theoretical concepts might apply to actual client situations.

• Detailed insights: Case studies offer comprehensive views on specific psychological phenomena.
• Catalyst for new theories: Real-life scenarios help shape our understanding of psychology .
• Study rare conditions: Unique cases can offer invaluable lessons about uncommon disorders.
• Practical applications: Clinicians benefit from studying real-world examples.

In short (but without wrapping up), it’s clear that case studies hold immense value within psychology – they illuminate what textbooks often can’t, offering a more nuanced understanding of human behavior.

Different Types of Psychology Case Studies

Diving headfirst into the world of psychology, I can’t help but be fascinated by the myriad types of case studies that revolve around this subject. Let’s take a closer look at some of them.

Firstly, we’ve got what’s known as ‘Explanatory Case Studies’. These are often used when a researcher wants to clarify complex phenomena or concepts. For example, a psychologist might use an explanatory case study to explore the reasons behind aggressive behavior in children.

Second on our list are ‘Exploratory Case Studies’, typically utilized when new and unexplored areas of research come up. They’re like pioneers; they pave the way for future studies. In psychological terms, exploratory case studies could be conducted to investigate emerging mental health conditions or under-researched therapeutic approaches.

Next up are ‘Descriptive Case Studies’. As the name suggests, these focus on depicting comprehensive and detailed profiles about a particular individual, group, or event within its natural context. A well-known example would be Sigmund Freud’s analysis of “Anna O”, which provided unique insights into hysteria.

Then there are ‘Intrinsic Case Studies’, which delve deep into one specific case because it is intrinsically interesting or unique in some way. It’s sorta like shining a spotlight onto an exceptional phenomenon. An instance would be studying savants—individuals with extraordinary abilities despite significant mental disabilities.

Lastly, we have ‘Instrumental Case Studies’. These aren’t focused on understanding a particular case per se but use it as an instrument to understand something else altogether—a bit like using one puzzle piece to make sense of the whole picture!

So there you have it! From explanatory to instrumental, each type serves its own unique purpose and adds another intriguing layer to our understanding of human behavior and cognition.

Exploring Real-Life Psychology Case Study Examples

Let’s roll up our sleeves and delve into some real-life psychology case study examples. By digging deep, we can glean valuable insights from these studies that have significantly contributed to our understanding of human behavior and mental processes.

First off, let me share the fascinating case of Phineas Gage. This gentleman was a 19th-century railroad construction foreman who survived an accident where a large iron rod was accidentally driven through his skull, damaging his frontal lobes. Astonishingly, he could walk and talk immediately after the accident but underwent dramatic personality changes, becoming impulsive and irresponsible. This case is often referenced in discussions about brain injury and personality change.

Next on my list is Genie Wiley’s heart-wrenching story. She was a victim of severe abuse and neglect resulting in her being socially isolated until she was 13 years old. Due to this horrific experience, Genie couldn’t acquire language skills typically as other children would do during their developmental stages. Her tragic story offers invaluable insight into the critical periods for language development in children.

Then there’s ‘Little Hans’, a classic Freudian case that delves into child psychology. At just five years old, Little Hans developed an irrational fear of horses -or so it seemed- which Sigmund Freud interpreted as symbolic anxiety stemming from suppressed sexual desires towards his mother—quite an interpretation! The study gave us Freud’s Oedipus Complex theory.

Lastly, I’d like to mention Patient H.M., an individual who became amnesiac following surgery to control seizures by removing parts of his hippocampus bilaterally. His inability to form new memories post-operation shed light on how different areas of our brains contribute to memory formation.

Each one of these real-life psychology case studies gives us a unique window into understanding complex human behaviors better – whether it’s dissecting the role our brain plays in shaping personality or unraveling the mysteries of fear, language acquisition, and memory.

How to Analyze a Psychology Case Study

Diving headfirst into a psychology case study, I understand it can seem like an intimidating task. But don’t worry, I’m here to guide you through the process.

First off, it’s essential to go through the case study thoroughly. Read it multiple times if needed. Each reading will likely reveal new information or perspectives you may have missed initially. Look out for any patterns or inconsistencies in the subject’s behavior and make note of them.

Next on your agenda should be understanding the theoretical frameworks that might be applicable in this scenario. Is there a cognitive-behavioral approach at play? Or does psychoanalysis provide better insights? Comparing these theories with observed behavior and symptoms can help shed light on underlying psychological issues.

Now, let’s talk data interpretation. If your case study includes raw data like surveys or diagnostic tests results, you’ll need to analyze them carefully. Here are some steps that could help:

• Identify what each piece of data represents
• Look for correlations between different pieces of data
• Compute statistics (mean, median, mode) if necessary
• Use graphs or charts for visual representation

Keep in mind; interpreting raw data requires both statistical knowledge and intuition about human behavior.

Finally, drafting conclusions is key in analyzing a psychology case study. Based on your observations, evaluations of theoretical approaches and interpretations of any given data – what do you conclude about the subject’s mental health status? Remember not to jump to conclusions hastily but instead base them solidly on evidence from your analysis.

In all this journey of analysis remember one thing: every person is unique and so are their experiences! So while theories and previous studies guide us, they never define an individual completely.

Applying Lessons from Psychology Case Studies

Let’s dive into how we can apply the lessons learned from psychology case studies. If you’ve ever studied psychology, you’ll know that case studies offer rich insights. They shed light on human behavior, mental health issues, and therapeutic techniques. But it’s not just about understanding theory. It’s also about implementing these valuable lessons in real-world situations.

One of the most famous psychological case studies is Phineas Gage’s story. This 19th-century railroad worker survived a severe brain injury which dramatically altered his personality. From this study, we gained crucial insight into how different brain areas are responsible for various aspects of our personality and behavior.

• Lesson: Recognizing that damage to specific brain areas can result in personality changes, enabling us to better understand certain mental conditions.

Sigmund Freud’s work with a patient known as ‘Anna O.’ is another landmark psychology case study. Anna displayed what was then called hysteria – symptoms included hallucinations and disturbances in speech and physical coordination – which Freud linked back to repressed memories of traumatic events.

• Lesson: The importance of exploring an individual’s history for understanding their current psychological problems – a principle at the heart of psychoanalysis.

Then there’s Genie Wiley’s case – a girl who suffered extreme neglect resulting in impaired social and linguistic development. Researchers used her tragic circumstances as an opportunity to explore theories around language acquisition and socialization.

• Lesson: Reinforcing the critical role early childhood experiences play in shaping cognitive development.

Lastly, let’s consider the Stanford Prison Experiment led by Philip Zimbardo examining how people conform to societal roles even when they lead to immoral actions.

• Lesson: Highlighting that situational forces can drastically impact human behavior beyond personal characteristics or morality.

These examples demonstrate that psychology case studies aren’t just academic exercises isolated from daily life. Instead, they provide profound lessons that help us make sense of complex human behaviors, mental health issues, and therapeutic strategies. By understanding these studies, we’re better equipped to apply their lessons in our own lives – whether it’s navigating personal relationships, working with diverse teams at work or even self-improvement.

Challenges and Critiques of Psychological Case Studies

Delving into the world of psychological case studies, it’s not all rosy. Sure, they offer an in-depth understanding of individual behavior and mental processes. Yet, they’re not without their share of challenges and criticisms.

One common critique is the lack of generalizability. Each case study is unique to its subject. We can’t always apply what we learn from one person to everyone else. I’ve come across instances where results varied dramatically between similar subjects, highlighting the inherent unpredictability in human behavior.

Another challenge lies within ethical boundaries. Often, sensitive information surfaces during these studies that could potentially harm the subject if disclosed improperly. To put it plainly, maintaining confidentiality while delivering a comprehensive account isn’t always easy.

Distortion due to subjective interpretations also poses substantial difficulties for psychologists conducting case studies. The researcher’s own bias may color their observations and conclusions – leading to skewed outcomes or misleading findings.

Moreover, there’s an ongoing debate about the scientific validity of case studies because they rely heavily on qualitative data rather than quantitative analysis. Some argue this makes them less reliable or objective when compared with other research methods such as experiments or surveys.

To summarize:

• Lack of generalizability
• Ethical dilemmas concerning privacy
• Potential distortion through subjective interpretation
• Questions about scientific validity

While these critiques present significant challenges, they do not diminish the value that psychological case studies bring to our understanding of human behavior and mental health struggles.

Conclusion: The Impact of Case Studies in Understanding Human Behavior

Case studies play a pivotal role in shedding light on human behavior. Throughout this article, I’ve discussed numerous examples that illustrate just how powerful these studies can be. Yet it’s the impact they have on our understanding of human psychology where their true value lies.

Take for instance the iconic study of Phineas Gage. It was through his tragic accident and subsequent personality change that we began to grasp the profound influence our frontal lobes have on our behavior. Without such a case study, we might still be in the dark about this crucial aspect of our neurology.

Let’s also consider Genie, the feral child who showed us the critical importance of social interaction during early development. Her heartbreaking story underscores just how vital appropriate nurturing is for healthy mental and emotional growth.

Here are some key takeaways from these case studies:

• Our brain structure significantly influences our behavior.
• Social interaction during formative years is vital for normal psychological development.
• Studying individual cases can reveal universal truths about human nature.

What stands out though, is not merely what these case studies teach us individually but collectively. They remind us that each person constitutes a unique combination of various factors—biological, psychological, and environmental—that shape their behavior.

One cannot overstate the significance of case studies in psychology—they are more than mere stories or isolated incidents; they’re windows into the complexities and nuances of human nature itself.

In wrapping up, I’d say that while statistics give us patterns and trends to understand groups, it’s these detailed narratives offered by case studies that help us comprehend individuals’ unique experiences within those groups—making them an invaluable part of psychological research.

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Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a person, group, event, or community. Typically, data is gathered from various sources using several methods (e.g., observations & interviews).

The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e., the patient’s personal history). In psychology, case studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual.

The information is mainly biographical and relates to events in the individual’s past (i.e., retrospective), as well as to significant events that are currently occurring in his or her everyday life.

The case study is not a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies.

Freud (1909a, 1909b) conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

This makes it clear that the case study is a method that should only be used by a psychologist, therapist, or psychiatrist, i.e., someone with a professional qualification.

There is an ethical issue of competence. Only someone qualified to diagnose and treat a person can conduct a formal case study relating to atypical (i.e., abnormal) behavior or atypical development.

 Famous Case Studies

• Anna O – One of the most famous case studies, documenting psychoanalyst Josef Breuer’s treatment of “Anna O” (real name Bertha Pappenheim) for hysteria in the late 1800s using early psychoanalytic theory.
• Little Hans – A child psychoanalysis case study published by Sigmund Freud in 1909 analyzing his five-year-old patient Herbert Graf’s house phobia as related to the Oedipus complex.
• Bruce/Brenda – Gender identity case of the boy (Bruce) whose botched circumcision led psychologist John Money to advise gender reassignment and raise him as a girl (Brenda) in the 1960s.
• Genie Wiley – Linguistics/psychological development case of the victim of extreme isolation abuse who was studied in 1970s California for effects of early language deprivation on acquiring speech later in life.
• Phineas Gage – One of the most famous neuropsychology case studies analyzes personality changes in railroad worker Phineas Gage after an 1848 brain injury involving a tamping iron piercing his skull.

Clinical Case Studies

• Studying the effectiveness of psychotherapy approaches with an individual patient
• Assessing and treating mental illnesses like depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD
• Neuropsychological cases investigating brain injuries or disorders

Child Psychology Case Studies

• Studying psychological development from birth through adolescence
• Cases of learning disabilities, autism spectrum disorders, ADHD
• Effects of trauma, abuse, deprivation on development

Types of Case Studies

• Explanatory case studies : Used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Helpful for doing qualitative analysis to explain presumed causal links.
• Exploratory case studies : Used to explore situations where an intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes. It helps define questions and hypotheses for future research.
• Descriptive case studies : Describe an intervention or phenomenon and the real-life context in which it occurred. It is helpful for illustrating certain topics within an evaluation.
• Multiple-case studies : Used to explore differences between cases and replicate findings across cases. Helpful for comparing and contrasting specific cases.
• Intrinsic : Used to gain a better understanding of a particular case. Helpful for capturing the complexity of a single case.
• Collective : Used to explore a general phenomenon using multiple case studies. Helpful for jointly studying a group of cases in order to inquire into the phenomenon.

Where Do You Find Data for a Case Study?

There are several places to find data for a case study. The key is to gather data from multiple sources to get a complete picture of the case and corroborate facts or findings through triangulation of evidence. Most of this information is likely qualitative (i.e., verbal description rather than measurement), but the psychologist might also collect numerical data.

1. Primary sources

• Interviews – Interviewing key people related to the case to get their perspectives and insights. The interview is an extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to collect comments from the person’s friends, parents, employer, workmates, and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person him or herself.
• Observations – Observing behaviors, interactions, processes, etc., related to the case as they unfold in real-time.
• Documents & Records – Reviewing private documents, diaries, public records, correspondence, meeting minutes, etc., relevant to the case.

2. Secondary sources

• News/Media – News coverage of events related to the case study.
• Academic articles – Journal articles, dissertations etc. that discuss the case.
• Government reports – Official data and records related to the case context.
• Books/films – Books, documentaries or films discussing the case.

3. Archival records

Searching historical archives, museum collections and databases to find relevant documents, visual/audio records related to the case history and context.

Public archives like newspapers, organizational records, photographic collections could all include potentially relevant pieces of information to shed light on attitudes, cultural perspectives, common practices and historical contexts related to psychology.

4. Organizational records

Organizational records offer the advantage of often having large datasets collected over time that can reveal or confirm psychological insights.

Of course, privacy and ethical concerns regarding confidential data must be navigated carefully.

However, with proper protocols, organizational records can provide invaluable context and empirical depth to qualitative case studies exploring the intersection of psychology and organizations.

• Organizational/industrial psychology research : Organizational records like employee surveys, turnover/retention data, policies, incident reports etc. may provide insight into topics like job satisfaction, workplace culture and dynamics, leadership issues, employee behaviors etc.
• Clinical psychology : Therapists/hospitals may grant access to anonymized medical records to study aspects like assessments, diagnoses, treatment plans etc. This could shed light on clinical practices.
• School psychology : Studies could utilize anonymized student records like test scores, grades, disciplinary issues, and counseling referrals to study child development, learning barriers, effectiveness of support programs, and more.

How do I Write a Case Study in Psychology?

Follow specified case study guidelines provided by a journal or your psychology tutor. General components of clinical case studies include: background, symptoms, assessments, diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes. Interpreting the information means the researcher decides what to include or leave out. A good case study should always clarify which information is the factual description and which is an inference or the researcher’s opinion.

1. Introduction

• Provide background on the case context and why it is of interest, presenting background information like demographics, relevant history, and presenting problem.
• Compare briefly to similar published cases if applicable. Clearly state the focus/importance of the case.

2. Case Presentation

• Describe the presenting problem in detail, including symptoms, duration,and impact on daily life.
• Include client demographics like age and gender, information about social relationships, and mental health history.
• Describe all physical, emotional, and/or sensory symptoms reported by the client.
• Use patient quotes to describe the initial complaint verbatim. Follow with full-sentence summaries of relevant history details gathered, including key components that led to a working diagnosis.
• Summarize clinical exam results, namely orthopedic/neurological tests, imaging, lab tests, etc. Note actual results rather than subjective conclusions. Provide images if clearly reproducible/anonymized.
• Clearly state the working diagnosis or clinical impression before transitioning to management.

3. Management and Outcome

• Indicate the total duration of care and number of treatments given over what timeframe. Use specific names/descriptions for any therapies/interventions applied.
• Present the results of the intervention,including any quantitative or qualitative data collected.
• For outcomes, utilize visual analog scales for pain, medication usage logs, etc., if possible. Include patient self-reports of improvement/worsening of symptoms. Note the reason for discharge/end of care.

4. Discussion

• Analyze the case, exploring contributing factors, limitations of the study, and connections to existing research.
• Analyze the effectiveness of the intervention,considering factors like participant adherence, limitations of the study, and potential alternative explanations for the results.
• Identify any questions raised in the case analysis and relate insights to established theories and current research if applicable. Avoid definitive claims about physiological explanations.
• Offer clinical implications, and suggest future research directions.

5. Additional Items

• Thank specific assistants for writing support only. No patient acknowledgments.
• References should directly support any key claims or quotes included.
• Use tables/figures/images only if substantially informative. Include permissions and legends/explanatory notes.
• Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information.
• Provides insight for further research.
• Permitting investigation of otherwise impractical (or unethical) situations.

Case studies allow a researcher to investigate a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of ‘averaging’.

Because of their in-depth, multi-sided approach, case studies often shed light on aspects of human thinking and behavior that would be unethical or impractical to study in other ways.

Research that only looks into the measurable aspects of human behavior is not likely to give us insights into the subjective dimension of experience, which is important to psychoanalytic and humanistic psychologists.

Case studies are often used in exploratory research. They can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person’s life are related to each other.

The method is, therefore, important for psychologists who adopt a holistic point of view (i.e., humanistic psychologists ).

Limitations

• Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider population.
• Researchers’ own subjective feelings may influence the case study (researcher bias).
• Difficult to replicate.
• Time-consuming and expensive.
• The volume of data, together with the time restrictions in place, impacted the depth of analysis that was possible within the available resources.

Because a case study deals with only one person/event/group, we can never be sure if the case study investigated is representative of the wider body of “similar” instances. This means the conclusions drawn from a particular case may not be transferable to other settings.

Because case studies are based on the analysis of qualitative (i.e., descriptive) data , a lot depends on the psychologist’s interpretation of the information she has acquired.

This means that there is a lot of scope for Anna O , and it could be that the subjective opinions of the psychologist intrude in the assessment of what the data means.

For example, Freud has been criticized for producing case studies in which the information was sometimes distorted to fit particular behavioral theories (e.g., Little Hans ).

This is also true of Money’s interpretation of the Bruce/Brenda case study (Diamond, 1997) when he ignored evidence that went against his theory.

Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (1895).  Studies on hysteria . Standard Edition 2: London.

Curtiss, S. (1981). Genie: The case of a modern wild child .

Diamond, M., & Sigmundson, K. (1997). Sex Reassignment at Birth: Long-term Review and Clinical Implications. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 151(3), 298-304

Freud, S. (1909a). Analysis of a phobia of a five year old boy. In The Pelican Freud Library (1977), Vol 8, Case Histories 1, pages 169-306

Freud, S. (1909b). Bemerkungen über einen Fall von Zwangsneurose (Der “Rattenmann”). Jb. psychoanal. psychopathol. Forsch ., I, p. 357-421; GW, VII, p. 379-463; Notes upon a case of obsessional neurosis, SE , 10: 151-318.

Harlow J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head.  Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39 , 389–393.

Harlow, J. M. (1868).  Recovery from the Passage of an Iron Bar through the Head .  Publications of the Massachusetts Medical Society. 2  (3), 327-347.

Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972).  Man & Woman, Boy & Girl : The Differentiation and Dimorphism of Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Money, J., & Tucker, P. (1975). Sexual signatures: On being a man or a woman.

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Case Studies for Teaching Social Psychology Critical Thinking and Application

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What captivates learners and interests them in studying social psychology? In Case Studies for Teaching Social Psychology, Tom Heinzen and Wind Goodfriend use brief, entertaining case stories to further enhance the historical context, evolution of, and challenges to major theories within the field. By employing a mix of unique, contemporary research and hallmark studies to illustrate classic concepts, Heinzen and Goodfriend steer students to explore new, meaningful ways of thinking about and connecting with foundational course concepts. In turn, this approach facilitates engaged conversation and deeper critical thinking both in and outside of the classroom.

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Chapter 1: How Do Social Psychologists Think?

Chapter 2: The Social Psychologist’s Toolbox

Thomas Heinzen

Dr. Thomas Heinzen, at William Paterson University of New Jersey, is proudest that he has mentored more than 60 student presentations and published research. He has been a keynote speaker at a variety of teaching-related conferences, including NITOP, Rocky Mountain Teaching of Psychology, and the Association for Psychological Science about his book on Clever Hans and facilitated communication. He has been elected as a fellow to the Eastern Psychological Association, to the Association for Psychological Science, and to Division 1 of the American Psychological Association. He has also been an invited speaker at several technology... More About Author

Wind Goodfriend

Dr. Wind Goodfriend has been named Faculty of the Year three times in her 19 years as a professor at Buena Vista University. This distinction is the result of an all-student vote, and her General Psychology course was chosen as the “Most Recommended” individual class in the entire university by the BVU newspaper. She has also won the Wythe Award, one of the largest collegiate teaching prizes in the nation. She has written over a dozen book chapters about psychology in pop culture, four textbooks for Sage, three Audible audiobooks about psychology, dozens of peer-reviewed journal articles, and has published over 30 journal articles... More About Author

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A Case for the Case Study: How and Why They Matter

• Original Paper
• Published: 06 June 2017
• Volume 45 , pages 189–200, ( 2017 )

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• Jeffrey Longhofer 1 ,
• Jerry Floersch 1 &
• Eric Hartmann 2  

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In this special issue we have asked the contributors to make a case for the case study. The guest editors, Jeffrey Longhofer, Jerry Floersch and Eric Hartmann, intergrate ideas from across the disciplines to explore the complexties of case study methods and theory. In education, Gary Thomas explores the importance of ethnographic case studies in understanding the relationships among schools, teachers, and students. Lance Dodes and Josh Dodes use the case study to articulate a psychoanalytic approach to addiction. In policy and generalist practice, Nancy Cartwright and Jeremy Hardie elaborate a model for a case-by-case approach to prediction and the swampy ground prediction serves up to practitioners. Christian Salas and Oliver Turnbull persuasively write about the role of the case study in neuro-psychoanalysis and illustrate it with a case vignette. In political science, Sanford Schram argues for a bottom up and ethnographic approach to studying policy implementation by describing a case of a home ownership program in Philadelphia. Eric Hartman queers the case study by articulating its role in deconstructing normative explanations of sexuality. In applied psychology, Daniel Fishman describes a comprehensive applied psychology perspective on the paradigmatic case study. Richard Miller and Miriam Jaffe offer us important ways of thinking about writing the case study and the use of multi-media. Each contributor brings a unique perspective to the use of the case study in their field, yet they share practical and philosophical assumptions.

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Longhofer, J., Floersch, J. & Hartmann, E. A Case for the Case Study: How and Why They Matter. Clin Soc Work J 45 , 189–200 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-017-0631-8

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Psychology’s 10 Greatest Case Studies – Digested

These ten characters have all had a huge influence on psychology and their stories continue to intrigue each new generation of students.

27 November 2015

By Christian Jarrett

These ten characters have all had a huge influence on psychology and their stories continue to intrigue each new generation of students. What's particularly fascinating is that many of their stories continue to evolve – new evidence comes to light, or new technologies are brought to bear, changing how the cases are interpreted and understood. What many of these 10 also have in common is that they speak to some of the perennial debates in psychology, about personality and identity, nature and nurture, and the links between mind and body.

Phineas Gage

One day in 1848 in Central Vermont, Phineas Gage was tamping explosives into the ground to prepare the way for a new railway line when he had a terrible accident. The detonation went off prematurely, and his tamping iron shot into his face, through his brain, and out the top of his head. Remarkably Gage survived, although his friends and family reportedly felt he was changed so profoundly (becoming listless and aggressive) that "he was no longer Gage."

There the story used to rest – a classic example of frontal brain damage affecting personality. However, recent years have seen  a drastic reevaluation  of Gage's story in light of new evidence. It's now believed that he underwent significant rehabilitation and in fact began work as a horse carriage driver in Chile. A  simulation of his injuries  suggested much of his right frontal cortex was likely spared, and  photographic evidence  has been unearthed showing a post-accident dapper Gage. Not that you'll find this revised account in many psychology textbooks:  a recent analysis  showed that few of them have kept up to date with the new evidence.

See also Jim Horne's ' Blasts from the past ', looking back at similar accounts from the era.

Henry Gustav Molaison (known for years as H.M. in the literature to protect his privacy), who died in 2008, developed severe amnesia at age 27 after undergoing brain surgery as a form of treatment for the epilepsy he'd suffered since childhood. He was subsequently the focus of study by over 100 psychologists and neuroscientists and he's been mentioned in over 12,000 journal articles! Molaison's surgery involved the removal of large parts of the hippocampus on both sides of his brain and the result was that he was almost entirely unable to store any new information in long-term memory (there were some exceptions – for example, after 1963 he was aware that a US president had been assassinated in Dallas). The extremity of Molaison's deficits was a surprise to experts of the day because many of them believed that memory was distributed throughout the cerebral cortex.

Today, Molaison's legacy lives on: his brain was carefully sliced and preserved and turned into a 3D digital atlas and his life story is reportedly due to be turned into a feature film based on the book researcher Suzanne Corkin wrote about him:  Permanent Present Tense, The Man With No Memory and What He Taught The World .

See also 'Understanding amnesia - Is it time to forget H.M.?'

Victor Leborgne (nickname "Tan")

The fact that, in most people, language function is served predominantly by the left frontal cortex has today almost become common knowledge, at least among psych students. However, back in the early 19th century, the consensus view was that language function (like memory, see entry for H.M.) was distributed through the brain. An 19th century patient who helped change that was Victor Leborgne, a Frenchman who was nicknamed "Tan" because that was the only sound he could utter (besides the expletive phrase "sacre nom de Dieu").

In 1861, aged 51, Leborgne was referred to the renowned neurologist Paul Broca, but died soon after. Broca examined Leborgne's brain and noticed a lesion in his left frontal lobe – a segment of tissue now known as Broca's area. Given Leborgne's impaired speech but intact comprehension, Broca concluded that this area of the brain was responsible for speech production and he set about persuading his peers of this fact – now recognised as a key moment in psychology's history.

For decades little was known about Leborgne, besides his important contribution to science. However, in a paper published in 2013, Cezary Domanski at Maria Curie-Sklodowska University in Poland uncovered new biographical details, including the possibility that Leborgne muttered the word "Tan" because his birthplace of Moret, home to several tanneries.

See also ' Glimpsed at last ', and ' Using brain imaging to re-evaluate psychology's three most famous cases '.

Wild Boy of Aveyron

The "Wild boy of Aveyron" – named Victor by the physician Jean-Marc Itard – was found emerging from Aveyron forest in South West France in 1800, aged 11 or 12, where's it's thought he had been living in the wild for several years. For psychologists and philosophers, Victor became a kind of "natural experiment" into the question of nature and nurture. How would he be affected by the lack of human input early in his life?

Those who hoped Victor would support the notion of the "noble savage" uncorrupted by modern civilisation were largely disappointed: the boy was dirty and dishevelled, defecated where he stood and apparently motivated largely by hunger. Victor acquired celebrity status after he was transported to Paris and Itard began a mission to teach and socialise the "feral child". This programme met with mixed success: Victor never learned to speak fluently, but he dressed, learned civil toilet habits, could write a few letters and acquired some very basic language comprehension. Autism expert Uta Frith believes Victor may have been abandoned because he was autistic, but she acknowledges we will never know the truth of his background.

Victor's story inspired the 2004 novel  The Wild Boy  and was dramatised in the 1970 French film  The Wild Child .

Listen to an episode of 'The Mind Changers'.

Nicknamed 'Kim-puter' by his friends, Peek who died in 2010 aged 58, was the inspiration for Dustin Hoffman's autistic savant character in the multi-Oscar-winning film  Rain Man . Before that movie, which was released in 1988, few people had heard of autism, so Peek via the film can be credited with helping to raise the profile of the condition.

Arguably though, the film also helped spread the popular misconception that giftedness is a hallmark of autism (in one notable scene, Hoffman's character deduces in an instant the precise number of cocktail sticks – 246 – that a waitress drops on the floor). Peek himself was actually a non-autistic savant, born with brain abnormalities including a malformed cerebellum and an absent corpus callosum (the massive bundle of tissue that usually connects the two hemispheres). His savant skills were astonishing and included calendar calculation, as well as an encyclopaedic knowledge of history, literature, classical music, US zip codes and travel routes. It was estimated that he read more than 12,000 books in his life time, all of them committed to flawless memory. Although outgoing and sociable, Peek had coordination problems and struggled with abstract or conceptual thinking.

"Anna O." is the pseudonym for Bertha Pappenheim, a pioneering German Jewish feminist and social worker who died in 1936 aged 77. As Anna O. she is known as one of the first ever patients to undergo psychoanalysis and her case inspired much of Freud's thinking on mental illness. Pappenheim first came to the attention of another psychoanalyst, Joseph Breuer, in 1880 when he was called to her house in Vienna where she was lying in bed, almost entirely paralysed. Her other symptoms include hallucinations, personality changes and rambling speech, but doctors could find no physical cause.

For 18 months, Breuer visited her almost daily and talked to her about her thoughts and feelings, including her grief for her father, and the more she talked, the more her symptoms seemed to fade – this was apparently one of the first ever instances of psychoanalysis or "the talking cure", although the degree of Breuer's success has been disputed and some historians allege that Pappenheim did have an organic illness, such as epilepsy.

Although Freud never met Pappenheim, he wrote about her case, including the notion that she had a hysterical pregnancy, although this too is disputed. The latter part of Pappenheim's life in Germany post 1888 is as remarkable as her time as Anna O. She became a prolific writer and social pioneer, including authoring stories, plays, and translating seminal texts, and she founded social clubs for Jewish women, worked in orphanages and founded the German Federation of Jewish Women.

Kitty Genovese

Sadly, it is not really Kitty Genovese the person who has become one of psychology's classic case studies, but rather the terrible fate that befell her. In 1964 in New York, Genovese was returning home from her job as a bar maid when she was attacked and eventually murdered by Winston Mosely. What made this tragedy so influential to psychology was that it inspired research into what became known as the Bystander Phenomenon – the now well-established finding that our sense of individual responsibility is diluted by the presence of other people. According to folklore, 38 people watched Genovese's demise yet not one of them did anything to help, apparently a terrible real life instance of the Bystander Effect.

However, the story doesn't end there because historians have since established  the reality was much more complicated  – at least two people did try to summon help, and actually there was only one witness the second and fatal attack. While the main principle of the Bystander Effect has stood the test of time, modern psychology's understanding of the way it works has become a lot more nuanced. For example, there's evidence that in some situations people are more likely to act when they're part of a larger group, such as when they and the other group members all belong to the same social category (such as all being women) as the victim.

See also another angle , on false confessions.

Little Albert

"Little Albert" was the nickname that the pioneering behaviourist psychologist John Watson gave to an 11-month-old baby, in whom, with his colleague and future wife Rosalind Rayner, he deliberately attempted to instill certain fears through a process of conditioning. The research, which was of dubious scientific quality, was conducted in 1920 and has become notorious for being so unethical (such a procedure would never be given approval in modern university settings).

Interest in Little Albert has reignited in recent years as an academic quarrel has erupted over his true identity. A group led by Hall Beck at Appalachian University announced in 2011 that they thought Little Albert was actually Douglas Merritte, the son of a wet nurse at John Hopkins University where Watson and Rayner were based. According to this sad account, Little Albert was neurologically impaired, compounding the unethical nature of the Watson/Rayner research, and he died aged six of  hydrocephalus (fluid on the brain).

However, this account was challenged by a different group of scholars led by Russell Powell at MacEwan University in 2014. They established that Little Albert was more likely William A Barger (recorded in his medical file as Albert Barger), the son of a different wet nurse. Earlier this year, textbook writer Richard Griggs weighed up all the evidence and concluded that the Barger story is the more credible, which would mean that Little Albert in fact died 2007 aged 87.

Chris Sizemore

Chris Costner Sizemore is one of the most famous patients to be given the controversial diagnosis of multiple personality disorder, known today as dissociative identity disorder. Sizemore's alter egos apparently included Eve White, Eve Black, Jane and many others. By some accounts, Sizemore expressed these personalities as a coping mechanism in the face of traumas she experienced in childhood, including seeing her mother badly injured and a man sawn in half at a lumber mill.

In recent years, Sizemore has described how her alter egos have been combined into one united personality for many decades, but she still sees different aspects of her past as belonging to her different personalities. For example, she has stated that her husband was married to Eve White (not her), and that Eve White is the mother of her first daughter. Her story was turned into a movie in 1957 called  The Three Faces of Eve  (based on a book of the same name written by her psychiatrists). Joanne Woodward won the best actress Oscar for portraying Sizemore and her various personalities in this film. Sizemore published her autobiography in 1977 called  I'm Eve . In 2009, she appeared on the BBC's  Hard Talk  interview show.

David Reimer

One of the most famous patients in psychology, Reimer lost his penis in a botched circumcision operation when he was just 8 months old. His parents were subsequently advised by psychologist John Money to raise Reimer as a girl, "Brenda", and for him to undergo further surgery and hormone treatment to assist his gender reassignment. Money initially described the experiment (no one had tried anything like this before) as a huge success that appeared to support his belief in the important role of socialisation, rather than innate factors, in children's gender identity.

In fact, the reassignment was seriously problematic and Reimer's boyishness was never far beneath the surface. When he was aged 14, Reimer was told the truth about his past and set about reversing the gender reassignment process to become male again. He later campaigned against other children with genital injuries being gender reassigned in the way that he had been. His story was turned into the book  As Nature Made Him, The Boy Who Was Raised As A Girl  by John Colapinto, and he is the subject of two BBC Horizon documentaries. Tragically, Reimer took his own life in 2004, aged just 38.

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15 Famous Experiments and Case Studies in Psychology

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Psychology has seen thousands upon thousands of research studies over the years. Most of these studies have helped shape our current understanding of human thoughts, behavior, and feelings.

The psychology case studies in this list are considered classic examples of psychological case studies and experiments, which are still being taught in introductory psychology courses up to this day.

Some studies, however, were downright shocking and controversial that you’d probably wonder why such studies were conducted back in the day. Imagine participating in an experiment for a small reward or extra class credit, only to be left scarred for life. These kinds of studies, however, paved the way for a more ethical approach to studying psychology and implementation of research standards such as the use of debriefing in psychology research .

Case Study vs. Experiment

Before we dive into the list of the most famous studies in psychology, let us first review the difference between case studies and experiments.

• It is an in-depth study and analysis of an individual, group, community, or phenomenon. The results of a case study cannot be applied to the whole population, but they can provide insights for further studies.
• It often uses qualitative research methods such as observations, surveys, and interviews.
• It is often conducted in real-life settings rather than in controlled environments.
• An experiment is a type of study done on a sample or group of random participants, the results of which can be generalized to the whole population.
• It often uses quantitative research methods that rely on numbers and statistics.
• It is conducted in controlled environments, wherein some things or situations are manipulated.

See Also: Experimental vs Observational Studies

Famous Experiments in Psychology

1. the marshmallow experiment.

Psychologist Walter Mischel conducted the marshmallow experiment at Stanford University in the 1960s to early 1970s. It was a simple test that aimed to define the connection between delayed gratification and success in life.

The instructions were fairly straightforward: children ages 4-6 were presented a piece of marshmallow on a table and they were told that they would receive a second piece if they could wait for 15 minutes without eating the first marshmallow.

About one-third of the 600 participants succeeded in delaying gratification to receive the second marshmallow. Mischel and his team followed up on these participants in the 1990s, learning that those who had the willpower to wait for a larger reward experienced more success in life in terms of SAT scores and other metrics.

This case study also supported self-control theory , a theory in criminology that holds that people with greater self-control are less likely to end up in trouble with the law!

The classic marshmallow experiment, however, was debunked in a 2018 replication study done by Tyler Watts and colleagues.

This more recent experiment had a larger group of participants (900) and a better representation of the general population when it comes to race and ethnicity. In this study, the researchers found out that the ability to wait for a second marshmallow does not depend on willpower alone but more so on the economic background and social status of the participants.

2. The Bystander Effect

In 1694, Kitty Genovese was murdered in the neighborhood of Kew Gardens, New York. It was told that there were up to 38 witnesses and onlookers in the vicinity of the crime scene, but nobody did anything to stop the murder or call for help.

Such tragedy was the catalyst that inspired social psychologists Bibb Latane and John Darley to formulate the phenomenon called bystander effect or bystander apathy .

Subsequent investigations showed that this story was exaggerated and inaccurate, as there were actually only about a dozen witnesses, at least two of whom called the police. But the case of Kitty Genovese led to various studies that aim to shed light on the bystander phenomenon.

Latane and Darley tested bystander intervention in an experimental study . Participants were asked to answer a questionnaire inside a room, and they would either be alone or with two other participants (who were actually actors or confederates in the study). Smoke would then come out from under the door. The reaction time of participants was tested — how long would it take them to report the smoke to the authorities or the experimenters?

The results showed that participants who were alone in the room reported the smoke faster than participants who were with two passive others. The study suggests that the more onlookers are present in an emergency situation, the less likely someone would step up to help, a social phenomenon now popularly called the bystander effect.

3. Asch Conformity Study

Have you ever made a decision against your better judgment just to fit in with your friends or family? The Asch Conformity Studies will help you understand this kind of situation better.

In this experiment, a group of participants were shown three numbered lines of different lengths and asked to identify the longest of them all. However, only one true participant was present in every group and the rest were actors, most of whom told the wrong answer.

Results showed that the participants went for the wrong answer, even though they knew which line was the longest one in the first place. When the participants were asked why they identified the wrong one, they said that they didn’t want to be branded as strange or peculiar.

This study goes to show that there are situations in life when people prefer fitting in than being right. It also tells that there is power in numbers — a group’s decision can overwhelm a person and make them doubt their judgment.

4. The Bobo Doll Experiment

The Bobo Doll Experiment was conducted by Dr. Albert Bandura, the proponent of social learning theory .

Back in the 1960s, the Nature vs. Nurture debate was a popular topic among psychologists. Bandura contributed to this discussion by proposing that human behavior is mostly influenced by environmental rather than genetic factors.

In the Bobo Doll Experiment, children were divided into three groups: one group was shown a video in which an adult acted aggressively toward the Bobo Doll, the second group was shown a video in which an adult play with the Bobo Doll, and the third group served as the control group where no video was shown.

The children were then led to a room with different kinds of toys, including the Bobo Doll they’ve seen in the video. Results showed that children tend to imitate the adults in the video. Those who were presented the aggressive model acted aggressively toward the Bobo Doll while those who were presented the passive model showed less aggression.

While the Bobo Doll Experiment can no longer be replicated because of ethical concerns, it has laid out the foundations of social learning theory and helped us understand the degree of influence adult behavior has on children.

5. Blue Eye / Brown Eye Experiment

Following the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968, third-grade teacher Jane Elliott conducted an experiment in her class. Although not a formal experiment in controlled settings, A Class Divided is a good example of a social experiment to help children understand the concept of racism and discrimination.

The class was divided into two groups: blue-eyed children and brown-eyed children. For one day, Elliott gave preferential treatment to her blue-eyed students, giving them more attention and pampering them with rewards. The next day, it was the brown-eyed students’ turn to receive extra favors and privileges.

As a result, whichever group of students was given preferential treatment performed exceptionally well in class, had higher quiz scores, and recited more frequently; students who were discriminated against felt humiliated, answered poorly in tests, and became uncertain with their answers in class.

This study is now widely taught in sociocultural psychology classes.

6. Stanford Prison Experiment

One of the most controversial and widely-cited studies in psychology is the Stanford Prison Experiment , conducted by Philip Zimbardo at the basement of the Stanford psychology building in 1971. The hypothesis was that abusive behavior in prisons is influenced by the personality traits of the prisoners and prison guards.

The participants in the experiment were college students who were randomly assigned as either a prisoner or a prison guard. The prison guards were then told to run the simulated prison for two weeks. However, the experiment had to be stopped in just 6 days.

The prison guards abused their authority and harassed the prisoners through verbal and physical means. The prisoners, on the other hand, showed submissive behavior. Zimbardo decided to stop the experiment because the prisoners were showing signs of emotional and physical breakdown.

Although the experiment wasn’t completed, the results strongly showed that people can easily get into a social role when others expect them to, especially when it’s highly stereotyped .

7. The Halo Effect

Have you ever wondered why toothpastes and other dental products are endorsed in advertisements by celebrities more often than dentists? The Halo Effect is one of the reasons!

The Halo Effect shows how one favorable attribute of a person can gain them positive perceptions in other attributes. In the case of product advertisements, attractive celebrities are also perceived as intelligent and knowledgeable of a certain subject matter even though they’re not technically experts.

The Halo Effect originated in a classic study done by Edward Thorndike in the early 1900s. He asked military commanding officers to rate their subordinates based on different qualities, such as physical appearance, leadership, dependability, and intelligence.

The results showed that high ratings of a particular quality influences the ratings of other qualities, producing a halo effect of overall high ratings. The opposite also applied, which means that a negative rating in one quality also correlated to negative ratings in other qualities.

Experiments on the Halo Effect came in various formats as well, supporting Thorndike’s original theory. This phenomenon suggests that our perception of other people’s overall personality is hugely influenced by a quality that we focus on.

8. Cognitive Dissonance

There are experiences in our lives when our beliefs and behaviors do not align with each other and we try to justify them in our minds. This is cognitive dissonance , which was studied in an experiment by Leon Festinger and James Carlsmith back in 1959.

In this experiment, participants had to go through a series of boring and repetitive tasks, such as spending an hour turning pegs in a wooden knob. After completing the tasks, they were then paid either $1 or $20 to tell the next participants that the tasks were extremely fun and enjoyable. Afterwards, participants were asked to rate the experiment. Those who were given $1 rated the experiment as more interesting and fun than those who received $20.

The results showed that those who received a smaller incentive to lie experienced cognitive dissonance — $1 wasn’t enough incentive for that one hour of painstakingly boring activity, so the participants had to justify that they had fun anyway.

Famous Case Studies in Psychology

9. little albert.

In 1920, behaviourist theorists John Watson and Rosalie Rayner experimented on a 9-month-old baby to test the effects of classical conditioning in instilling fear in humans.

This was such a controversial study that it gained popularity in psychology textbooks and syllabi because it is a classic example of unethical research studies done in the name of science.

In one of the experiments, Little Albert was presented with a harmless stimulus or object, a white rat, which he wasn’t scared of at first. But every time Little Albert would see the white rat, the researchers would play a scary sound of hammer and steel. After about 6 pairings, Little Albert learned to fear the rat even without the scary sound.

Little Albert developed signs of fear to different objects presented to him through classical conditioning . He even generalized his fear to other stimuli not present in the course of the experiment.

10. Phineas Gage

Phineas Gage is such a celebrity in Psych 101 classes, even though the way he rose to popularity began with a tragic accident. He was a resident of Central Vermont and worked in the construction of a new railway line in the mid-1800s. One day, an explosive went off prematurely, sending a tamping iron straight into his face and through his brain.

Gage survived the accident, fortunately, something that is considered a feat even up to this day. He managed to find a job as a stagecoach after the accident. However, his family and friends reported that his personality changed so much that “he was no longer Gage” (Harlow, 1868).

New evidence on the case of Phineas Gage has since come to light, thanks to modern scientific studies and medical tests. However, there are still plenty of mysteries revolving around his brain damage and subsequent recovery.

11. Anna O.

Anna O., a social worker and feminist of German Jewish descent, was one of the first patients to receive psychoanalytic treatment.

Her real name was Bertha Pappenheim and she inspired much of Sigmund Freud’s works and books on psychoanalytic theory, although they hadn’t met in person. Their connection was through Joseph Breuer, Freud’s mentor when he was still starting his clinical practice.

Anna O. suffered from paralysis, personality changes, hallucinations, and rambling speech, but her doctors could not find the cause. Joseph Breuer was then called to her house for intervention and he performed psychoanalysis, also called the “talking cure”, on her.

Breuer would tell Anna O. to say anything that came to her mind, such as her thoughts, feelings, and childhood experiences. It was noted that her symptoms subsided by talking things out.

However, Breuer later referred Anna O. to the Bellevue Sanatorium, where she recovered and set out to be a renowned writer and advocate of women and children.

12. Patient HM

H.M., or Henry Gustav Molaison, was a severe amnesiac who had been the subject of countless psychological and neurological studies.

Henry was 27 when he underwent brain surgery to cure the epilepsy that he had been experiencing since childhood. In an unfortunate turn of events, he lost his memory because of the surgery and his brain also became unable to store long-term memories.

He was then regarded as someone living solely in the present, forgetting an experience as soon as it happened and only remembering bits and pieces of his past. Over the years, his amnesia and the structure of his brain had helped neuropsychologists learn more about cognitive functions .

Suzanne Corkin, a researcher, writer, and good friend of H.M., recently published a book about his life. Entitled Permanent Present Tense , this book is both a memoir and a case study following the struggles and joys of Henry Gustav Molaison.

13. Chris Sizemore

Chris Sizemore gained celebrity status in the psychology community when she was diagnosed with multiple personality disorder, now known as dissociative identity disorder.

Sizemore has several alter egos, which included Eve Black, Eve White, and Jane. Various papers about her stated that these alter egos were formed as a coping mechanism against the traumatic experiences she underwent in her childhood.

Sizemore said that although she has succeeded in unifying her alter egos into one dominant personality, there were periods in the past experienced by only one of her alter egos. For example, her husband married her Eve White alter ego and not her.

Her story inspired her psychiatrists to write a book about her, entitled The Three Faces of Eve , which was then turned into a 1957 movie of the same title.

14. David Reimer

When David was just 8 months old, he lost his penis because of a botched circumcision operation.

Psychologist John Money then advised Reimer’s parents to raise him as a girl instead, naming him Brenda. His gender reassignment was supported by subsequent surgery and hormonal therapy.

Money described Reimer’s gender reassignment as a success, but problems started to arise as Reimer was growing up. His boyishness was not completely subdued by the hormonal therapy. When he was 14 years old, he learned about the secrets of his past and he underwent gender reassignment to become male again.

Reimer became an advocate for children undergoing the same difficult situation he had been. His life story ended when he was 38 as he took his own life.

15. Kim Peek

Kim Peek was the inspiration behind Rain Man , an Oscar-winning movie about an autistic savant character played by Dustin Hoffman.

The movie was released in 1988, a time when autism wasn’t widely known and acknowledged yet. So it was an eye-opener for many people who watched the film.

In reality, Kim Peek was a non-autistic savant. He was exceptionally intelligent despite the brain abnormalities he was born with. He was like a walking encyclopedia, knowledgeable about travel routes, US zip codes, historical facts, and classical music. He also read and memorized approximately 12,000 books in his lifetime.

This list of experiments and case studies in psychology is just the tip of the iceberg! There are still countless interesting psychology studies that you can explore if you want to learn more about human behavior and dynamics.

You can also conduct your own mini-experiment or participate in a study conducted in your school or neighborhood. Just remember that there are ethical standards to follow so as not to repeat the lasting physical and emotional harm done to Little Albert or the Stanford Prison Experiment participants.

Asch, S. E. (1956). Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 70 (9), 1–70. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0093718

Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63 (3), 575–582. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045925

Elliott, J., Yale University., WGBH (Television station : Boston, Mass.), & PBS DVD (Firm). (2003). A class divided. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Films.

Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58 (2), 203–210. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0041593

Haney, C., Banks, W. C., & Zimbardo, P. G. (1973). A study of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison. Naval Research Review , 30 , 4-17.

Latane, B., & Darley, J. M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10 (3), 215–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0026570

Mischel, W. (2014). The Marshmallow Test: Mastering self-control. Little, Brown and Co.

Thorndike, E. (1920) A Constant Error in Psychological Ratings. Journal of Applied Psychology , 4 , 25-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0071663

Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of experimental psychology , 3 (1), 1.

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Graduate study in the Social Psychology program at NYU means being part of an unusually active research culture. We share well-equipped laboratories, and we promote 'open door' relationships between professors and students. Although students typically have a primary home in one professor's laboratory, we require that students work in at least one other laboratory to promote breadth of training in a variety of methodological approaches and research issues. Our goal is to prepare students to be highly competitive in the job market for the type of career they seek, and we are proud of the steady success of our students in obtaining academic positions at top research universities and teaching colleges.

All students accepted into our graduate program are fully funded through the Henry M. MacCracken Program or the NYUAD Global PhD Fellowship.

MacCracken funding is provided through a combination of teaching assistantship, research assistantship, and fellowship, in proportions to be determined. The award package typically includes a full tuition scholarship, comprehensive health insurance and a stipend. Funding is typically guaranteed for five years, although students with substantial graduate credits or a Master's degree may only be guaranteed four years of support.

NYUAD Global PhD Fellowships include full tuition scholarship, health insurance, travel benefits, and a stipend. Funding is for five years, which typically includes two years or less of course work in New York and the remaining at least three years or more of dissertation research in Abu Dhabi. Campus housing in Abu Dhabi is provided free of cost and is available to all Global Fellows.

There is a very limited supply of subsidized housing available for graduate students which is generally used for a subset of each entering class to provide them the opportunity to get settled in New York City during their first year of residence.

NYU Abu Dhabi PhD Program

The Program in Social Psychology maintains a relationship with the Social Psychology faculty at NYU Abu Dhabi. This relationship supports opportunities for collaboration between students and faculty across the New York and Abu Dhabi campuses. Students accepted for the NYU Abu Dhabi Ph.D. program will typically spend two years primarily in New York with multiple visits to Abu Dhabi. During those two years, students complete all or most of their coursework as well as carrying out research in collaboration with an NYU Abu Dhabi advisor and a co-mentor in New York. The subsequent three years are spent in Abu Dhabi completing the dissertation research and any remaining course requirements. For further information on the Global Ph.D. program, click here .

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Psychology Subfields

The science of psychology benefits society and enhances our lives. Psychologists examine the relationships between brain function and behavior and the environment and behavior, applying what they learn to illuminate our understanding and improve the world around us.

Brain science and cognitive psychology

Climate and environmental psychology

Clinical psychology

Counseling psychology

Developmental psychology

Experimental psychology

Forensic and public service psychology

Health psychology

Human factors and engineering psychology

Industrial and organizational psychology

Psychology of teaching and learning

Quantitative psychology

Rehabilitation psychology

Social psychology

Sport and performance psychology

Psychology Careers: What to Know

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Psychology—BS

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If you are intrigued by the inner workings of the psyche, a Bachelor of Science in Psychology from Michigan Tech will allow you to mold that curiosity into a meaningful career.

Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior and cognitive processes. This broad discipline seeks to understand the human condition and explain behavior using scientific methods, with the fundamental goal of improving the well-being of individuals and our overall society.

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Psychologists can apply their training to help preserve or rehabilitate people's interpersonal relationships and mental health, and to help businesses safeguard assets such as time, finances, and human resources. From health practitioners who manage and treat psychological disorders, to business professionals who foster a healthy and productive workplace, to researchers who solve practical problems—psychology offers diverse applications and career pathways that attract many students to the discipline.

Flexible Degree, Countless Opportunities

A degree in psychology paves the way for a myriad of careers in countless settings, including government, industry, law, sports science, engineering, communications, and computers/technology. New psychology graduates entering the job market may qualify for entry-level positions in mental health, social/human services, and business administration.

Data crunching is the next big thing and a psychology grad is equipped to go beyond the numbers to interpret meaning, track trends, and gather insights. Scientific research, another growing field, requires the use of case study, content analysis, lab and field experiments, and surveys—research approaches that you gain experience with as a psychology major. In a more traditional vein, the demand for counseling and therapy services is expected to continue rising along with awareness of mental health as a component of overall well-being.

Concentrations

Psychology is a broad discipline. Focusing your effort on a concentration allows you to specialize and align with a future career interest, increasing your chances of securing graduate school acceptance or a job post-graduation.

Clinical/Counseling Psychology

The Clinical/Counseling Psychology concentration focuses on theories that inform how people function both personally and in their relationships at all ages; the emotional, social, work, school, and physical health concerns people may have at different stages in their lives; and the assessment and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. Students gain in-depth knowledge of normal development, psychological disorders, psychological theories, and treatment techniques.

Cognitive Psychology

The Cognitive Psychology concentration focuses on brain, perception, attention, memory, thinking and decision making with additional courses in the application of cognitive theory to work (e.g., industrial/organizational psychology), social media, and design (e.g., human centered design, cognitive task analysis).

Social Psychology

The Social Psychology concentration focuses on how individuals interact with, and are affected by, each other and their environments. Thematic areas include social and intergroup relations; social justice and perception; social influence; attitude and attitude change; motivation; emotion; industrial/organizational psychology; personality; and social cognition.

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• 3 concentration options
• 100% of psychology students participate in research or a field experience
• 90% graduate school acceptance rate—higher than the national average of 20%

Tomorrow Needs Professionals Who Understand The Human Condition

In a fast-moving and increasingly more stressed society, the need for mental health professionals will continue to grow. And psychology graduates can apply their deep understanding of human behavior, motivation, and cognitive processes to various roles in today's tech-driven business world, like customer service, human resources, management, marketing, and sales. With knowledge in psychology, you can help predict employee and customer behavior which leads to better decision-making and more effective strategies.

Career Opportunities for Psychology Majors

Those with a BS in Psychology work in some of the most satisfying jobs. Mental Health Counselor is #100 , School Psychologist is #94 , and Psychologist is #80 of the 100 Best Jobs according to US News and World Report. Some of the other career paths open to you with a BS in Psychology:

• Account Manager
• Behavior Analyst/Technician
• Case Worker
• Child Protection Worker
• College Admissions Counselor or Recruiter
• Community Recreation Coordinator
• Corrections Officer
• Drug/Substance Abuse Counselor
• Employment Counselor
• Family Services Coordinator
• Group Home Coordinator
• Health and Wellness Coach
• Hospital Patient Services Representative
• Marketing Researcher
• Marketing Specialist/Manager
• Occupational Analyst
• Program Manager
• Public Relations
• Residential Youth Counselor
• Social Service Director
• Training Specialist
• Youth Development Leader

Michigan Tech's Psychology Program: The Perfect Preparation for Graduate Studies

The growing list of graduate schools that have enrolled Michigan Tech psychology graduates includes:

• Boston College
• Brandeis University
• Canisius College
• Central Michigan University
• Florida State University
• Kansas State University
• Marquette University
• Minnesota State University
• Montana State University
• Northern Michigan University
• St. George's University
• Southern Illinois University
• University of Denver
• University of Massachusetts
• University of St. Thomas
• University of Wisconsin-Madison
• University of Wisconsin-Stout
• Western Michigan University

Ready to take the next step?

Learn more about studying psychology at Michigan's flagship technological university.

"The program is really small and it's a really close relationship with the faculty. There are a lot of chances for research and building those important connections with people in your field." Hannah DeRuyter '23, BS Psychology

Study Psychology at a Technological University

A rapidly changing world demands professionals who think critically, communicate clearly with a variety of audiences, and engage with empathy and understanding in diverse workplaces. Put your keen understanding of how and why people think, feel, and behave the way they do to make a difference in people's lives and impact the way humans live, work, and play.

• Get personalized attention : 6:1 student to faculty ratio. Nearly every major class is taught by one of our core faculty. Your instructors will take the time to get to know you and help you explore career possibilities. Faculty are doing interesting research in a variety of domains; you can join their lab or develop your own research ideas with them.
• Customize your education : Our programs are flexible by design, allowing you to create a personalized program of study to explore your interests and build a unique portfolio of skills and experiences that sets you apart on the job market. Choose a concentration in clinical psychology and counseling, social psychology, or cognitive psychology. You can also use your free electives to pursue a minor without increasing your time to graduation. Many of our students choose minors in areas that complement psychology, including pre-health professions , business , public health , diversity studies , math , and computer science .
• Engage in research : As an undergraduate, work on research with a faculty mentor in one of our labs or research groups . Gain hands-on experience with state-of-the-art research methods and tools. Research experiences give students a competitive advantage when applying for graduate school and for research-based jobs in industry. All psychology students gain foundational research skills through a two-semester research course in which they work in teams to design, conduct, and present the results of a study of their choice.
• Gain hands-on experience through internships : You can complete an internship to explore job possibilities and build your skill sets in real-world settings without needing to take a semester off to do so. Past internship locations have included the Center for Student Mental Health and Well-being, the Copper Country Intermediate School District, U.P. Kids foster and adoption services, The Barbara Kettle Gundlach Shelter for Domestic Abuse, and many others.

Undergraduate Majors in Psychology and Human Factors

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Not sure which major is the right fit? No problem. Just declare the General Sciences and Arts major , give yourself time, and decide when you arrive on campus. To learn more speak to an academic advisor .

Undergraduate Minors

Specialize in a secondary discipline outside of or complementary to your major, expand your knowledge base, and boost your potential career options with a psychology minor . Want a future career in law or medicine? A minor in a pre-professional program such as Law and Society  or Pre-Health prepares you for graduate school. Or choose any of the other 80+ minors . Although you can declare a minor anytime, we recommend that you begin your minor studies as early as possible in your academic career. To learn more speak to an academic advisor .

Tomorrow Needs You

Supercharge your understanding of people. Apply your knowledge to help preserve or rehabilitate people's interpersonal relationships and mental health, or to help businesses safeguard assets such as time, finances, and human resources. You'll join the ranks of health practitioners who manage and treat psychological disorders, business professionals who foster a healthy and productive workplace, or collaborative researchers from a variety of fields who work together to solve some of the most important social problems through innovative solutions. Diverse applications and career pathways await.

"Being curious is part of the culture, because we are so research driven." Katie Ulinski '23, BS Psychology, BS Human Factors

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A few years ago, Jamil Zaki , a Stanford psychologist who researches empathy, found himself split between his research and his inner life.

It was the height of the COVID-19 pandemic and by day, he radiated positivity as he praised the many benefits he and his lab had discovered about how kind, generous, and open-minded most people are – qualities the world needed to hear about.

But by night, he was doomscrolling, caught in an endless loop of negative thinking.

Zaki became acutely aware of the contradiction: If a scholar dedicated to studying human goodness was losing faith in humanity, what hope did the rest of us have?

In his new book, Hope for Cynics: The Surprising Science of Human Goodness (Grand Central Publishing, 2024) Zaki, an associate professor of psychology in the School of Humanities and Sciences and director of the Stanford Social Neuroscience Laboratory , shares how he escaped the cynicism trap and offers simple but effective practices to avoid our cynical tendencies from taking over.

Cynicism is a losing strategy

Zaki argues that cynicism – the idea that people tend to be selfish, greedy, and dishonest – is often more naive than we realize. Of course, bad things do happen, but cynical perceptions do not stack up to reality. Cynicism, he explains, is both personally harmful and damaging to society.

Research shows cynics tend to earn less money , experience more depression, and drink more heavily . Tragically, they are more likely to die younger than non-cynics. Cynics are also less likely than optimists to take part in collective action, protest, or sign a petition and vote .

“By never trusting, cynics never lose,” writes Zaki. “They also never win. Refusing to trust anyone is like playing poker by folding every hand before it begins. Cynicism protects us from predators but also shuts down opportunities for collaboration, love, and community, all of which require trust. And though we forever remember people who hurt us, it’s harder to notice the friends we could have made if we’d been more open.”

Social shark attacks

Zaki saw these effects firsthand at Stanford, where students drastically underestimated each other.

In 2022, Zaki and his lab surveyed thousands of Stanford undergraduates, asking them how much they cared about their peers, whether they enjoyed helping other people, and if they wanted to connect with students they didn’t know.

The researchers also asked them about their perceptions of the average Stanford student.

His findings, published in Hope for Cynics , were startling.

“We discovered not one, but two Stanfords,” writes Zaki. “One was real, made up of students’ self-reports. This campus was extraordinarily warm. Eighty-five percent of students said they wanted to meet new friends. Ninety-five percent said they enjoyed helping peers who were feeling down. Their empathy was through the roof.”

But in students’ minds, they saw the Stanford community as uncongenial.

“They believed their ‘average’ peer was relatively unfriendly, judgmental, and callous,” Zaki adds, noting how these beliefs made the students less willing to share their struggles with friends or start a conversation with their classmates. 

Grand Central Publishing, 2024

Students were experiencing what Jamil Zaki calls “social shark attacks,” imagining worst-case scenarios as inevitable, even though the likelihood of them actually playing out was incredibly unlikely.

To counter this, Zaki’s lab worked with Frosh 101 , a program for first-year students, to launch an advertising campaign to correct these misperceptions. They put up posters in target dorms, presenting students with real data about how much their peers wanted to connect, and had conversations with residents to discuss the findings. The intervention helped students feel more positive and willing to engage with their peers.

Being a ‘hopeful skeptic’

In addition to questioning our assumptions of other people, Zaki encourages replacing cynicism with “hopeful skepticism,” which combines openness to new information with critical thinking.

Hope, he explains, is not to be mistaken for naivety or even optimism. Optimism is idealistic, and in excess, can turn into “toxic positivity” which brushes away negative feelings and emotions.

Hope, on the other hand, acknowledges those experiences. By recognizing them, hope can galvanize people towards change and action.

Adding skepticism to hope invites inquiry.

As Zaki emphasizes, hopeful skepticism is about applying a scientific mindset. Like a scientist, hopeful skeptics seek out facts and evidence instead of relying on feelings and fears. And rather than being fatalistic, they are critical and curious instead.

“Cynicism often boils down to a lack of good evidence. Being less cynical, then, is simply a matter of noticing more precisely,” Zaki said. He adds: “The cynical voice inside each of us claims that we already know everything about people. But humanity is far more beautiful and complex than a cynic imagines, the future far more mysterious than they know.”

MSU Researchers Use XR to Study Social-Communicative Processes

Scholars in the Center for Avatar Research and Immersive Social Media Applications ( CARISMA ) Lab at Michigan State University are pioneering interdisciplinary research to study basic social-communicative processes within immersive environments.

From Theory to Innovation: How MSU’s CARISMA Lab is Leading XR Research

Nestled beneath ComArtSci, the CARISMA Lab stands at the cutting edge of extended reality (XR) research. Since opening in 2016, the lab’s interdisciplinary team, led by Professor Gary Bente , is redefining how we perceive and interact within immersive environments, pushing the boundaries of communication science.

For Bente, this methodology began long before the Oculus Rift or the Meta Quest. Bente has been blazing the XR trail since the 1980s, publishing his first article on using 3-D animation to study nonverbal communication in Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers in 1989, and continuing throughout the ‘90s. He published his first book “Virtuelle Realitäten” covering virtual reality from a psychological perspective in 2002. Seventeen years later, editors S.W. Wilson and S.W. Smith published Bente’s chapter on using emergent technologies in nonverbal communication research in their book “Reflections on Interpersonal Communication” (2019). In this chapter, Bente details the experiments that inspired him to use avatars to begin with — and how, over time, technological advancements enabled him to collect even better, more precise data.

“The biggest challenge for research in natural sciences and hard science is to recreate nature, to simulate what’s going on,” Bente said. “So, if you were able to recreate a phenomenon by just numbers and getting an animation on the screen, for example — then you have understood what’s going on, I guessed.”

Bente began using his descriptive, coded data to produce those animations and simple wire frame models himself. “I was always expecting ... this will fly ,” he said. “Avatars and agents, this will be the future. Nobody believed me.”

Today, CARISMA Lab’s research spans several critical areas — including nonverbal communication, communication neuroscience and media psychology — gleaning profound insights into human behavior by using advanced technologies like motion capture, electroencephalogram (EEG) systems, VR headsets and more.

CARISMA Lab’s co-director, Associate Professor Ralf Schmälzle , is a cognitive neuroscientist using XR technologies to study things that are otherwise difficult to analyze, particularly in the realm of social interactions.

“There is one theory that has a strong history in MSU; it’s called expectancy violation theory,” Schmälzle said. This theory seeks to explain how people respond when others behave in a way that doesn’t align with their expectations or social norms, which happens regularly in social interaction. “There are these little micro disturbances, and then the brain rings kind of an alarm bell — and one can ideally study that in virtual contexts.” 

Schmälzle says a benefit of using virtual reality (VR) headsets is that participants can have natural interactions with other people and the neurophysiological measurement gear is already wrapped around their head.

“We’re interested in the eye. The eye is the main information acquisition device that the brain has,” he said. “The majority of information that comes into the brain goes in either via the eye or via the ear, and those are also the two senses that VR can best already capture — because VR is basically just a cell phone in front of your eyes.”

As eye tracking has become more integrated in standard VR headsets, this tool is both accessible and invaluable to cognitive neuroscientists like Schmälzle. In one of CARISMA’s recent projects, the team used VR to track how our eyes react to media content in real-time. By observing tiny changes in pupil size, the researchers could measure audience engagement and emotional responses with a level of unprecedented accuracy. This methodology could revolutionize how we tailor media content to better connect with viewers, whether in traditional media or in emerging virtual environments.

CARISMA researchers aren’t only interested in how people react to media; they also explore how our surroundings influence what we notice and remember. The VR Billboard Paradigm study is a perfect example. By recreating a roadside environment in VR, researchers can measure where people look and what they remember when exposed to advertising — providing valuable insights into how to craft more effective visual communication strategies in the real world, as well as implications for road safety.

Sue Lim is a Ph.D. student in the Department of Communication with an interest in combining artificial intelligence (AI) and VR methods. As a laboratory assistant at CARISMA, Lim regularly works with Bente and Schmälzle. For one of her latest studies examining how interactions with AI agents can subtly influence human behavior, the CARISMA researchers built embodied conversational agents , called VR-ECAs, that can naturally converse with humans. The study revealed that when the gender of AI agents did not match that of the participants, engagement in health-related conversations and decision-making improved. It also found participants experienced greater presence while conversing with VR-embodied agents than while chatting with text-only agents, like Chat GPT. This study paves the way for new experimental research — highlighting how the way AI is presented can shape human interactions, with potential applications in education, healthcare and more.

“If you use avatars for research, the basic question is: is it the same as if you would use real people, or a video of real people?” Bente said. It’s a question he has put to the test many times with a variety of experiments. Each time, the results were nearly identical.

“Nonverbal behavior is also about using space. If you move forward in the space, you invade a little bit more of my space; the co-presence might be something that makes a difference,” Bente explained. “I wanted to see whether if I observe somebody expressing an emotion in a shared space — or the same person showing this emotion on the screen, for example — does this make a difference?”

To test that, Bente’s research on emotion perception in shared virtual environments explored how being in the same virtual space as others affects our emotional judgments. The researchers found subtle differences, but the attributions participants made, the hit rates for emotions, were still the same.

One area that can benefit from this insight, Schmälzle says, is virtual meeting platforms (like Zoom, Teams or Skype) since both spatial and social presence are key in shaping social interactions and emotional experiences. “You have a sort of spatial presence right now [in a virtual meeting]; you are a 2D face on the screen and we can have a conversation because a lot of it works via verbal information exchange,” he said. “Some social presence is also there, but I would argue it’s only about 10% compared to what the real thing is.”

Schmälzle and Bente (as well as colleagues at the SPARTIE Lab) believe that virtual meetings, held in virtual reality , will be an improvement to what we currently experience … at least, once the animations are able to translate the full range of expressive body postures and facial movements with high fidelity.

“I think in the end it will be super realistic so that you really cannot make the distinction,” Bente said.

“But I think what’s really coming — and 20 years ago, I said this will be the world: where we have augmented reality, the other is coming in as an avatar and taking a seat on my real couch — well, that’s it.” 

By Jessica Mussell

CARISMA Lab Research

Basic research: CARISMA uses XR technology as a methodology to study the basics of human communication and nonverbal interaction. Motion capture, neurophysiological measures and avatar animations provide new insights into the bio-behavioral mechanisms underlying person perception, emotion inferences, conflict management and social bonding.

Applied Research: In collaboration with media industry partners, CARISMA helps to develop and evaluate practical XR applications for entertainment, training and therapy. We study user responses and outcomes of XR usage along a variety of cognitive, emotional and behavioral measures, including enjoyment, stress, learning and more.

If you are interested in our research, please contact the Department of Communication or one of our faculty.

CARISMA Research

Extended Reality at MSU

Qualifications

• U.S. bachelor’s degree or international equivalent.
• Students must be comfortable with rapid and idiomatic spoken English. To be eligible for admission, applicants are required to provide test scores and must have a minimum TOEFL iBT score of 100 or receive a 7.0 or higher on the IELTS. Applicants with scores below the program’s requirements should consider applying to the American Language Program .
• Demonstrated ability for critical thinking and analysis.
• Strong written and oral communication skills.

In Memoriam: Ralph Austen, Professor Emeritus of African History, African Studies, and the College

This tribute is dedicated to Ralph Austen, Professor Emeritus of African History, African Studies, and the College, who passed away this past weekend.  

A service in Ralph Austen’s honor will be held on Wednesday, 28 August at 10AM at KAM Isaiah Israel, 5039 South Greenwood Avenue. 

Austen was a gifted thinker and mentor who will be remembered for his curiosity, generosity, and intellectual capaciousness. Austen produced a prolific and expansive scholarly corpus over his career, one that was animated by a persistent focus on the dynamics of historical change in Africa and their relationship to wider, global processes. This concern resulted in path-breaking studies in the fields of economic, imperial, and cultural history; comparative analyses that brought Africa together with Europe and India; and examinations of an array of geographic regions, including Tanzania, Cameroon, the Mande world of West Africa, the Saharan desert, and the Atlantic world. On the University of Chicago campus, Austen played a key role in establishing, more than forty years ago, one of the first workshops devoted to interdisciplinary graduate student training. Since its founding, the African Studies Workshop has served as a vital nexus of debate and discussion for generations of students and faculty from disciplines across the Social Sciences and Humanities.  Austen remained a core member of that workshop well into his retirement. 

When he arrived at the University of Chicago as an Assistant Professor in 1967, Austen was the first tenure-line historian of Africa to be hired by this institution. His recruitment reflected a growing recognition by mainstream history departments that the African continent could and should be studied not only through the matrices of culture and ethnography, but through systematic investigations of change over time. This thinking was fortified by the imperatives of independence: as African countries threw off the yoke of colonial rule in the 1960s, intellectuals and politicians sought to understand European colonization and its legacies, as well as the enduring and specific impacts of African social and political processes. Austen made this case explicitly in his first monograph, which opened with the observation that Africa possessed a history “apart” from its conquest by European powers, a history that is critical to the “emergence of independent African nation-states” and rooted in “a long and rich precolonial African past.” Austen concluded by observing that the political project of independent Tanzania depended “not only upon the actions of Tanzanians in the present, but also on their understanding of the past.”   ( Northwest Tanzania Under German and British Rule , 1968, 1, 257.)

Austen’s research on colonization in German and British East Africa served as the basis for an ever-widening series of historical investigations. He undertook a study of the Duala coastal peoples in Cameroon and their role as brokers of politics and trade on the Atlantic coast over three hundred years. He brought attention to the trades in enslaved Africans that traversed not only the Atlantic Ocean, but the Sahara and the Red Sea – and he also considered the ways that enslavement has been commemorated and memorialized in different times and places. He undertook a continent-wide examination of the tensions of economic development and dependency, and he charted the workings of technology and disease in both facilitating and impeding European ambitions on the continent. The operations of colonial bureaucracies also drew focus. Austen argued against presumptions of their fixity or coherence, noting their vulnerabilities to shifting resources, personnel, and policy, as well as the force of social, linguistic, and political context. Austen’s embrace of interdisciplinarity perspectives, particularly those of Anthropology, helped him to author a trailblazing comparison of gender, capitalism, and moral economy in Europe and Africa. 

Austen also brought to bear his historical acumen on sources that had typically been the domain of ethnographers and folklorists Through his work on figures such as Sundiata, the hero of the Mande world who is credited with founding the Mali Empire in the thirteenth century, Austen helped to show how epic traditions constitute artifacts of memory, change, and performance, and serve as windows onto modes of historical consciousness. These oral histories, and their relation to the tangled colonial roots of ethnography, also brought into Austen’s intellectual orbit a figure who is at once towering and enigmatic, Amadou Hampâté Bâ. This former colonial official, scholar, and memoirist from what is today the country of Mali inspired several of Austen’s articles and projects in his later years.

Austen’s willingness to move, adapt, and learn was supported in part by formidable linguistic skills: Austen spoke and read German and French fluently, and he developed what he described as a “moderate command” of Duala, Hebrew, Spanish, and Swahili. He also traveled widely. The most significant voyage took place early in his life, when Austen was a small child and he and his family fled from Nazi Germany. As a young man, Austen wanted to return to Europe for a visit, which he achieved by taking a job on a cargo ship that was staffed by a crew of men from all over the world. His next major transoceanic trip came after his arrival at the University of Chicago, when, in 1969-70, Austen moved his wife, Ernestine, and young son, Jake, to Nigeria. There, he took part in a faculty exchange with a fellow historian, Professor Joseph Adebowale Atanda, of the University of Ibadan. During that year, Austen and Atanda traded not only professional and pedagogical responsibilities, but also their offices, houses, and personal cars.

Austen earned the admiration of his colleagues because of the ease with which he could engage diverse intellectual realms: he could weigh in on the global history of capitalism, argue about classic texts of political economy, parse the nuances of West African epic oral traditions, and assess African cinematic productions. Throughout his career, Ralph replied readily to correspondence and emails, from students and faculty alike, giving feedback on draft manuscripts with speed and care. He loved to meet with colleagues for a mid-day meal and a chat, for which he would bring his brown bag lunch. He was an active and appreciated member of the Mande Studies Association, and regularly joined that group for conferences and activities in countries in Europe, the United States, and West Africa. 

Austen and his wife of fifty-six years, Ernestine, often opened their home to visiting students and scholars. Their two sons, Ben and Jake, grew up in Hyde Park, attended public schools, and graduated from Kenwood Academy. Like their father, each has pursued a career that involves writing, argumentation, and analysis. Ralph spoke proudly of his daughters-in-law, Danielle Austen and Jacqueline Stewart (who is also a faculty member at the University of Chicago), and of his grandchildren: Maiya, Lusia, Noble, and Jonah. In his spare time, Ralph participated in study groups and helped to organize lectures at his synagogue, KAM Isaiah Israel, and he also taught English to recent immigrants with the Hyde Park Refugee Program. 

Many colleagues here on campus and beyond will remember with great fondness Ralph’s committed presence in the African Studies Workshop. In recent years, he typically arrived to the workshop wearing his bright yellow windbreaker and carrying his white bicycle helmet under his arm. He brought unrivaled depth of knowledge, and a frank and warm inquisitiveness, to our conversations. In that setting, as with so many others, he will be acutely and sorely missed. 

-Emily Lynn Osborn, Associate Professor of African History, African Studies, and the College

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An Overview of Social Psychology

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What Is Social Psychology?

History of social psychology.

• Social Psychology and Other Disciplines

Social psychology is the study of the interplay between an individual and social groups. Social psychologists tackle issues that significantly affect people's health and well-being, such as bullying.

According to psychologist Gordon Allport , social psychology uses scientific methods "to understand and explain how the thoughts , feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied the presence of other human beings." Essentially, social psychology is about understanding how each person's individual behavior is influenced by the social environment in which that behavior takes place.

You probably already realize that other people can have a dramatic influence on the way you act and the choices you make. Consider how you might behave in a situation if you were all alone versus if there were other people in the room.

The decisions you make and the behaviors you exhibit might depend on not only how many people are present but exactly who you are around. For example, you are likely to behave much differently when you are around a group of close friends than you would around a group of colleagues or supervisors from work.

Social psychology encompasses a wide range of social topics, including:

• Group behavior
• Social perception
• Nonverbal behavior

​ It is important to note that social psychology is not just about looking at social influences. Social perception and social interaction are also vital to understanding social behavior.

The way that we see other people (and the way we think they see us) can play a powerful role in a wide variety of actions and decisions. Just think for a moment about how you sometimes act differently in a public setting than you might if you were at home by yourself. At home, you might be loud and rambunctious, while in public you might be much more subdued and reserved.

Why is this? Because the people around us shape our thoughts, feelings, moods, attitudes, and perceptions. The presence of other people can make a difference in the choices we make and the actions we take.

While social psychology tends to be an academic field, the research that social psychologists perform has a powerful influence on our understanding of mental health and well-being. For example, research on conformity helps explain why teenagers sometimes go to such great lengths to fit in with their social group—sometimes to the detriment of their own health and wellness.

Understanding this helps psychologists develop public health programs and treatment approaches for adolescents. These can help teenagers resist potentially harmful behaviors such as smoking, drinking, and substance use.

Plato referred to the idea of the "crowd mind," and concepts such as social loafing and social facilitation were introduced in the late 1800s. But it wasn't until after World War II that research on social psychology began in earnest.

The horrors of the Holocaust led researchers to study social influence, conformity , and obedience. What could explain why people participated in such evil actions? Were people following orders and bowing to social pressure, or were there some other forces at work? By investigating these questions, social psychologists were able to gain a greater understanding of the power of societal forces such as authority, compliance , and obedience.  

Social psychologist Stanley Milgram, for example, was able to demonstrate just how far people are willing to go to obey authority figures. In a series of now infamous experiments , Milgram and his colleagues ordered study participants to deliver what they believed was a potentially dangerous shock to another person.

In reality, the shocks were not real and the other individual was only pretending to be hurt by the electrical pulses. But 65% of those who took part in the study delivered the maximum level of shock simply because an authority figure told them to do so.  

Social psychology has continued to grow throughout the twentieth century, inspiring research that has contributed to our understanding of social experience and behavior. Our social world makes up such a tremendous part of our lives, so it is no wonder that this topic is so fascinating to many.

How Social Psychology Differs From Other Disciplines

Social psychology is often confused with folk wisdom, personality psychology , and sociology. Unlike folk wisdom, which relies on anecdotal observations and subjective interpretation, social psychology employs scientific methods and empirical study. Researchers do not make assumptions about how people behave; they devise and carry out experiments that help point out relationships between different variables.

Personality psychology focuses on individual traits, characteristics, and thoughts. Social psychology is focused on situations. Social psychologists are interested in the impact that the social environment and group interactions have on attitudes and behaviors.

Finally, it is important to distinguish between social psychology and sociology. While there are many similarities between the two, sociology tends to look at social behavior and influences at a very broad-based level. Sociologists are interested in the institutions and cultures that influence how people behave.

Psychologists instead focus on situational variables that affect social behavior. While psychology and sociology both study similar topics, they are looking at these questions from different perspectives.

A Word From Verywell

What makes social psychology such an important topic? Social psychologists focus on societal concerns that have a powerful influence on individual well-being as well as the health of society as a whole, including problems such as substance use, crime, prejudice, domestic abuse, public health, bullying, and aggression.

Social psychologists typically do not work directly in the field of mental health, but the results of their research influence how mental health professionals treat behaviors that are influenced by social factors. Public health programs, for example, often rely on persuasion techniques identified by social psychologists to encourage people to engage in healthy behaviors while avoiding potentially dangerous ones.

Uldall BR. Social psychology . In: Runehov ALC, Oviedo L., eds. Encyclopedia of Sciences and Religions . New York: Springer; 2013. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-8265-8_1047

Knoll LJ, Magis-Weinberg L, Speekenbrink M, Blakemore SJ. Social influence on risk perception during adolescence .  Psychol Sci . 2015;26(5):583-592. doi:10.1177/0956797615569578

Martin J. Ernest Becker and Stanley Milgram: Twentieth-century students of evil . Hist Psychol. 2016;19(1):3-21. doi:10.1037/hop0000016

Milgram S. Behavioral study of obedience .  J Abnorm Psychol . 1963;67(4):371-378. doi:10.1037/h0040525.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."