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Human Rights Universalism in Practice: What the Iranian Women’s Rights Movement Can Teach Us

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Nicole Nickerson, Human Rights Universalism in Practice: What the Iranian Women’s Rights Movement Can Teach Us, Human Rights Law Review , Volume 20, Issue 3, September 2020, Pages 453–479, https://doi.org/10.1093/hrlr/ngaa025

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Does practice demonstrate the legitimacy of international human rights law? This article explores this question via a case study of the women’s rights movement in Iran. Current human rights sceptics question the system’s legitimacy because of a lack of universality and an excessive top-down approach. However, the Islamic Republic of Iran has a remarkable community of grassroots activists. The bottom-up women’s rights initiative of the One Million Signatures Campaign utilised human rights discourse in combination with local, indigenous values in pursuit of gender equality. The article argues— via the case study of this movement—that there is practical evidence to support a theory of human rights universalism, as positive human rights law empowers the existing subjectivity of individuals. The universal legitimacy of international human rights law does not primarily come from a global network dictating common values, but from members of civil society mobilising their status as rights holders.

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Human Rights in Iran

Global monitors say Iran’s human rights situation is poor and unlikely to improve amid a climate of political uncertainty and growing external pressures. But activists urge continued international scrutiny of Iran’s violations.

Backgrounder by Jayshree Bajoria and Robert McMahon

Last updated June 4, 2013 8:00 am (EST)

This publication is now archived.

Introduction

The human rights situation in Iran continues to arouse concern from the world’s leading watchdog groups, with reports of ongoing abuses since the disputed 2009 presidential election provoked mass protests. A March 2013 report by a UN Special Rapporteur cites "widespread and systemic" torture , harassment, arrest, and attacks against human rights defenders, lawyers, and journalists. Under an increasingly repressive regime focused on survival amid internal strife and external pressures, experts say prospects for reform are bleak, and urge the international community to keep the spotlight on Iran’s human rights violations.

Structural Obstacles

Iran has ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights without reservations, committing itself to the protection and promotion of civil, political, economic, and social rights including freedom of expression, assembly, association, and religion. The Iranian Constitution also guarantees these freedoms.

But Iranian lawyer and human rights activist Mehrangiz Kar says several articles of the constitution guaranteeing specific liberties suffer from ambiguity and are often restricted by various conditions and provisions. For instance, Article 24 on press freedom states: "publications and the press are free to express their ideas unless these contravene the precepts of Islam or harm public rights. These conditions will be defined by laws."

Since the precepts of Islam and public rights are not clearly defined by legislated laws, Kar writes, the authorities are free to interpret the "article in support of their own political and factional interests."

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International organizations have accused several branches of the Iranian government of human rights abuses, particularly security forces like the elite Revolutionary Guards and the volunteer paramilitary force the Basij, as well as the judiciary. Hadi Ghaemi , executive director of International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran , writes that after the 2009 protests following the disputed presidential election, the "judiciary has emerged as a key instrument to intimidate protestors and remove many leading activists and opinion makers, steps that were both critical to the regime’s survival." The judiciary, he notes, also implements the Islamic penal code, including stoning, amputations and flogging, all considered torture under international law. Plus, Iran has separate Islamic revolutionary courts whose legal standing has been repeatedly questioned by rights groups. Formed after the 1979 revolution to prosecute government officials of the previous regime, they are primarily charged with trying offenses involving acts against national security, drug smuggling, and espionage.

A Failing Grade

Recent reports from international organizations and Western governments have slammed Iran’s rights record. The 2012 U.S. State Department report (PDF) notes the role of Iran’s regular and paramilitary security forces in cracking down on protestors and how they have committed serious human rights abuses, including torture and murders, with impunity. Tehran rejects these claims. Rights groups point to some particular issues of concern:

"Unfortunately, the nuclear energy issue has stalemated many issues in Iran, the most important being the issue of human rights." --Shirin Ebadi

• Arbitrary arrest and detention : More than four thousand people were arrested in connection with protests over the disputed 2009 elections. Hundreds more have been arrested since then in connection with protests. Rights groups say the government denies due process and fair trials to detainees and uses systematic torture in its prisons and detention facilities. Kouhyar Goudarzi, an Iranian human rights activist who fled the country in 2013 after his own repeated detentions for speaking out on abuses, told RFE/RL in an interview that Iranian "civil society is in a state of desperation and that the establishment has managed to instill fear and silence dissent."
• Capital punishment : Rights groups accuse the Iranian authorities of imposing the death penalty and using execution as a political tool . A 2013 report by the UN Special Rapporteur (PDF) notes an increase in executions, both official and secret. It says 297 executions were officially announced by the government and about 200 secret executions were confirmed by family members, prison officials and members of the judiciary in 2012.
• Women’s rights : The Iranian constitution allows equal rights for men and women "in conformity with Islamic criteria." One of the few positive notes in the UN rapporteur’s 2013 report related to advances in literacy, access to education for women, and women’s health during the past 30 years. For instance, literary and primary school enrollment rates for women and girls were estimated at near 100 percent. According to the World Economic Forum’s 2010 Gender Gap report (PDF) --which compared disparity between men and women on economic participation, access to education, health, and political empowerment--Iran ranked 123 out of 134 countries. This was better than most countries in the region, ahead of Egypt, Morocco, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and even Turkey. However, the UN report notes that the application of certain laws is a barrier to gender equality in Iran. For instance, a woman’s worth and testimony in a court of law is regarded as half that of a man’s.
• Religious, ethnic, and other minorities : There are widespread abuses against members of recognized and unrecognized religious and ethnic minorities such as Arabs, Azeris, Baloch, Kurds, Namatullahi Sufi Muslims, Sunnis, Baha’is, and Christians. Iran’s largest non-Muslim religious minority, the Baha’i, has historically been discriminated against and continues to be denied jobs and educational opportunities, and face arbitrary detention and unfair trials. There are rising reports of such abuses committed against other religious minorities, reported the U.S. State Department in May 2013 as part of its annual report on international religious freedoms . Human Rights Watch says Iran also engages in systematic discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. "Iran is one of only seven countries with laws allowing executions for consensual same-sex conduct ," it says.

Prospects for Reform

Most human rights abuses are political in nature and closely linked with establishing the regime’s control over its population. The regime’s crackdown since the 2009 protests and its growing insecurities in the wake of the Arab uprisings have made many experts skeptical of prospects for reform within the current political system. "The government realizes the potential for such uprisings in Iran" says Ghaemi, "and it has made the regime and the security apparatus even more repressive and intolerant."

The ongoing power struggle between Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei and President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has made prospects for reform even more uncertain. Speaking at an academic gathering in October 2011, Khamenei went as far as proposing the possibility of eliminating the position of the president ( NYT ) and moving toward a parliamentary system. Eliminating the presidency will enhance the powers of the supreme leader, but either way, Khamenei will seek to ensure that the next president or prime minister is under his control, experts say. The tipping point, Ghaemi says, could be the 2013 presidential elections, which may allow Khamenei to reshape the political landscape in his vision or he may face greater resistance from competing centers of power in Tehran. "It is a nasty squabble without any heroes and regardless of who wins, the real loser will be democracy in Iran," wrote dissident Akbar Ganji in Foreign Affairs in April 2013.

"Many Iranians would like a more progressive and democratic government," says Iranian-American journalist Roxana Saberi , who spent four months in the notorious Evin prison in Iran in 2009. But she says it is not clear how many of them prefer an Islamic or a secular government. A March 2011 paper in Political Research Quarterly based on a 2005 and a 2008 survey in Iran argued that popular discontent with the regime’s performance had a strong and positive correlation to greater support for democracy .

Kar says for any meaningful change, there must be reforms in election laws that grant the Guardian Council of twelve Islamic jurists, six of them appointed by the supreme leader, the right to veto parliamentary and presidential candidates. Ghaemi calls for reform of the judiciary and greater accountability for the country’s security forces.

Policy Options

Rights activists in and outside Iran have repeatedly said the international focus on Iran’s nuclear program--which many Western states believe is cover for a weapons program-- has hampered efforts to advance human rights reforms. Iranian human rights activist Shirin Ebadi, a Nobel Peace Prize laureate, says "unfortunately, the nuclear energy issue has stalemated many issues in Iran, the most important being the issue of human rights."

But global attention to Iranian human rights has been on the rise. In March 2011, the UN Human Rights Council appointed a special rapporteur for Iran to investigate the country’s human rights violations, the first since 2002.

The United States imposed the first sanctions on Iran for human rights abuses in September 2010. Ten Iranian officials were initially barred from travel to the United States, and financial restrictions were imposed . Scores of Iranian individuals have since been added to sanctions lists for rights abuses. The European Union also sanctioned thirty-two Iranian officials in April 2011 and another twenty-nine in October. By early 2013 the EU had sanctioned almost 90 individuals because of rights violations. These include senior members of security forces and the judiciary.

While the impact of sanctions remain uncertain, experts say targeted sanctions are effective tools for naming and shaming Iranian authorities and keeping the spotlight on human rights abuses. "It’s the best way to show that the international community cares," says Ghaemi, urging for sanctions that target private sector and government companies that enable repression, such as those that censor mobile, satellite, and Internet communications. Coleman says the United States must be more consistent on human rights in Iran.

Some experts have also called for the United States to support greater openness in Iran by providing Iranians with improved access to technology. On May 30, 2013, the U.S. departments of State and Treasury announced the lifting of sanctions on companies that seek to sell cell phones, laptops, encryption technology, and other equipment to Iranians who want to circumvent government media controls .

Some Iranians have also questioned what they see as lack of adequate U.S. support for the Green Movement in 2009. Others caution any direct U.S. involvement , arguing it would delegitimize the opposition movement. In an October 2011 interview with BBC Persia , Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said if the Green Movement or some other opposition movement gained strength and decided that they wanted U.S. support, they should ask for it more directly.

Saberi says the international community should also find a way to "help exiled journalists and human rights defenders who have fled Iran to continue their education and their work, and lead by example by observing human rights ourselves."

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Introduction Advisory

Discover the Advisory Board of the Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI), a team of esteemed experts guiding our strategic initiatives and international collaborations. Their expertise is crucial in our dedicated pursuit of human rights, especially in relation to Iranian society, media engagement, and cooperation with global organizations. In this section, you can explore the… Read more

Discover the Advisory Board of the Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI), a team of esteemed experts guiding our strategic initiatives and international collaborations. Their expertise is crucial in our dedicated pursuit of human rights, especially in relation to Iranian society, media engagement, and cooperation with global organizations. In this section, you can explore the diverse list of our Advisory Board members, each offering unique insights and significant contributions to our mission.

Explore our extensive free library, a valuable resource offered by the Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI). This library features a wide range of books and publications in both Persian and English, designed to enhance your understanding of human rights. Here, you’ll find in-depth materials that provide first-hand insights into the human rights situation in… Read more

Explore our extensive free library, a valuable resource offered by the Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI). This library features a wide range of books and publications in both Persian and English, designed to enhance your understanding of human rights. Here, you’ll find in-depth materials that provide first-hand insights into the human rights situation in Iran. Our collection is meticulously curated to support learning, research, and awareness, making it an indispensable tool for anyone interested in human rights issues, particularly those pertaining to Iran. Whether you are a researcher, activist, or simply a curious individual, our library is a gateway to a wealth of knowledge and perspectives.

Join our mission at the Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI), a non-governmental organization powered by a vast network of dedicated volunteers. We firmly believe in the power of collective action to enhance human rights conditions. Your valuable cooperation and participation are the keystones that enable us to make significant strides in improving human rights.… Read more

Join our mission at the Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI), a non-governmental organization powered by a vast network of dedicated volunteers. We firmly believe in the power of collective action to enhance human rights conditions. Your valuable cooperation and participation are the keystones that enable us to make significant strides in improving human rights. To facilitate this collaboration, we have designed a form for those interested in joining our cause. By filling out this form, you can express your interest in working with us and contribute your unique expertise and passion. We welcome a diverse range of skills and perspectives, understanding that every individual brings something special to our journey towards human rights advocacy.

Discover the journey of Iran’s modern civil society through our story at the Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI). Our rich history, filled with challenges and achievements, offers invaluable insights for those involved in human rights, in Iran and beyond. We’ve encapsulated this wealth of experience in a book about our organization, providing a detailed… Read more

Discover the journey of Iran’s modern civil society through our story at the Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI). Our rich history, filled with challenges and achievements, offers invaluable insights for those involved in human rights, in Iran and beyond. We’ve encapsulated this wealth of experience in a book about our organization, providing a detailed account of our journey. In this section, you can delve into how this organization was funded, gaining a deeper understanding of our mission and the lessons we’ve learned along the way. This narrative not only recounts our past but also serves as a beacon for future human rights advocacy.

Video Reports

Our Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI) channel features powerful video reports that bring the reality of human rights violations into sharp focus. These videos connect viewers directly with the experiences of victims, often depicting challenging yet crucial stories. Through these visual narratives, we aim to share the pain and resilience of those affected and… Read more

Our Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI) channel features powerful video reports that bring the reality of human rights violations into sharp focus. These videos connect viewers directly with the experiences of victims, often depicting challenging yet crucial stories. Through these visual narratives, we aim to share the pain and resilience of those affected and highlight the efforts for democracy in Iranian society. These reports are an integral part of our mission to raise awareness and foster a deeper understanding of the human rights landscape in Iran.

Our History

Understanding the history of an organization is key to appreciating its identity and mission. At the Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI), we pride ourselves on a rich and dynamic history, marked by various challenges and triumphs. This section offers you a concise yet informative overview of our organization’s journey. Here, you can explore the… Read more

Understanding the history of an organization is key to appreciating its identity and mission. At the Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRAI), we pride ourselves on a rich and dynamic history, marked by various challenges and triumphs. This section offers you a concise yet informative overview of our organization’s journey. Here, you can explore the milestones, the obstacles we’ve overcome, and the pivotal moments that have shaped us over time. Our history not only reflects our resilience and commitment to human rights advocacy but also serves as a valuable resource for our audience and partners, providing context and depth to our ongoing efforts.

Peace Mark Magazine: Launched as an e-publication in 2009 and in print since 2011, it’s Iran’s first human rights publication, offering news, analysis, and education.

Spreading Justice: Started in 2019, it’s Iran’s extensive database on human rights violators, updated daily and supported by legal experts.

HRA Official Site: The main source for Human Rights Activists’ statements and news, available in two languages and detailing various sites and operations.

HRANA News Agency: Iran’s premier 24/7 human rights news agency, providing exclusive reports and facilitating easy user access through its structured websites.

Fourth Pillar Committee: Defends information freedom as a democracy pillar, fighting censorship and offering resources like VPNs to ensure internet freedom in Iran.

HRA Study Center: A subsidiary of HRANA, it serves as a digital library for human rights education, sourcing from HRA and other educational materials.

Statistics And Documents Center: Established in late 2010, it collects, analyzes, and archives human rights reports in Iran, sharing findings with activists and institutions.

Kardanan Initiative: Created in 2019 by HRA to offer legal and educational support on labor rights, becoming a comprehensive resource for labor-related queries.

PDP Initiative: Launched in 2023 by HRA to investigate the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps’ role in human rights violations, providing research resources in two languages.

Brian Currin

He is a South African lawyer who was instrumental in the establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. He practiced law in Pretoria from 1977 to 1987, specializing in labour law and civil and human rights, and now works in mediation and institutional transformation. In 1994 he was appointed by South African President Nelson Mandela to chair a Prison Audit Committee and was subsequently involved in the creation of the… Read more

Dr. Sima Samar

She is a well known women’s and human rights advocate, activist and a social worker within national and international forums, who served as Minister of Women’s Affairs of Afghanistan from December 2001 to 2003. She is currently the Chairperson of the Afghan Independent Human Rights Commission (AIHRC) and, since 2005, United Nations Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Sudan. In 2011, she was part of the newly… Read more

Farhad Sabetan

Teaches Economics at California State University, East Bay for the past seven years and has been a research economist in the private and public sectors for more than 15 years.  He is currently a spokesperson for Bahá’í International Community, United Nations, and has been involved in the human rights field in the past thirteen years. Read more

He is a native of Saudi Arabia. He has lived in the United States for many years and has been an avid advocate for political reforms in Saudi Arabia most of his life. He holds a Ph.D. in Government from the Claremont Graduate University in Southern California, and a Master’s Degree from California State University in Los Angeles. Ph. D. doctoral theses: The Impact of Modernization on the Stability of… Read more

Şanar Yurdatapan

He was born in Susurluk, Turkey in 1941. He became well-known as a composer and song-writer during the 1970s. In addition to his contribution to popular and traditional music, Şanar has written music for films and plays. He composed the music for the film “Arkadaş” (Friend) which brought him the Golden Orange Award at the Antalya Film Festival. In 1979, he became the General Secretary of the DEMAR (Democratic Artists… Read more

Joanne Michele

She is Iran Specialist in Safe World for Women organization. “I believe that meaningful change to further human rights must be brought about in the capitals of our nations. I am involved in women’s rights issues in the Middle East – specifically Iran – with Safeworld. My goal is to empower women around the world so not only will they prosper, but so society as a whole might finally become… Read more

Christina M. Storm

Christina Storm is an American lawyer who founded the international Lawyers Without Borders. She practiced law as a trial lawyer in Connecticut from 1978 through 2008 with focus on mediation, criminal law, employment discrimination and matrimonial law. After founding Lawyers Without Borders in 2000, she led it through 2019. Her work in international rule of law has included leading programs in East and West Africa, the Middle East and the… Read more

He was the head of Lawyers Center in Diyarbakir in Turkey. As a lawyer, he had represented many significant cases of aggrieved plaintiffs in Turkey and in the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). He was born in 1966 and graduated in 1991 in the human rights field. Tahir Elci studied at the Academy of European Law in Germany. He had held presentations at many conferences and seminars regarding human… Read more

Michael Cromartie

He was Vice President of the Ethics and Public Policy Center, where he directed both the Evangelicals in Civic Life and Faith Angle Forum programs. His area of expertise included issues at the cross-section of religion and politics. Mr. Cromartie had contributed book reviews and articles to many prominent publications, including First Things, the Washington Post, Christianity Today, and World magazine. Mr. Cromartie also appeared on numerous radio and television… Read more

Shadi Sadr, a lawyer, is the founder and an executive director of Justice for Iran (JFI). Sadr, who is a member of Volunteer Lawyers Network, has won at least six prestigious awards for her human rights activism. On the 10th anniversary of the Human Rights Activists (HRA), we asked Sadr about the structural differences that led to a perpetual existence of the human rights organization and its continuous activism. She noted that the 10-years survival… Read more

Elahe Sharifpour-Hicks has been defending human rights for more than two decades. She was the Iran researcher for Human Rights Watch from 1994 to 2001 and is currently the manager of Human Rights and Planning at New York. On the tenth anniversary of the Human Rights Activists in Iran (HRA), Sharifpour-Hicks tells Peace Mark Monthly: “The most positive feature of HRA is distancing itself from politics.” And regarding the permanence of HRA, she adds: “The… Read more

Mehrangiz Kar is a lawyer, writer and a journalist focused on human rights and the spread of democracy. Kar has won at least eight internationally recognized human rights awards and works at Pembroke Center for Teaching and Research on Women at Brown University. On the tenth anniversary of Human Right Activists, (HRA), Peace Mark Monthly asked Ms. Kar’s opinion on HRA’s performance and effectiveness regarding the growth of the civil society of Iran. While emphasizing… Read more

Dr. Lahiji has been devoted to human rights activism for more than five decades. Two years prior to the Iranian Revolution of 1979, in order to promote the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Lahiji founded the Iranian Law Association and Iranian Association for Freedom and Human Rights. After the 1979 Revolution, he was one of the first to condemn the executions and other forms of human rights violations committed by the new regime. In the… Read more

On the occasion of the 10th anniversary of the Human Rights Activists, (HRA), Peace Mark Monthly asked Dr. Hadi Ghaemi, the director of International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran, (ICHRI), about the work and contributions of HRA. Ghaemi: “In my opinion, the greatest feature of HRA that has led to the continuation of its activism is being informed and reporting from inside of Iranian prisons. In addition, HRA has been able to follow up,… Read more

The complexity of social relations and the diversity of social and individual needs have long fueled the reality that society would not be able to fulfill all its needs, pass all its barriers and problems and earn the public trust without the existence of civil society institutes. The necessity of social institutions has been emphasized by philosophers such as Hegel (1770-1831). Hegel believed “Family and civil society are the two pillars of the idealistic and… Read more

It was May Day, the first of May, International Workers’ Day. I was there to report on the rally of the workers of the Syndicate of Tehran and Suburbs Bus Company (SWTSBC). It was about noon, and the crowd kept growing; citizens, workers’ families, and students. A young, bearded man with long hair took pictures and videos in the middle of the crowd. While some people were joining and others leaving, the riot police arrived… Read more

It is no secret that, after the Revolution, the civil rights of the Baha’is in Iran have been constantly violated. These violations have clearly attracted the attention of the international community and the civil society of Iran as a great portion of the reports on the violation of human rights in Iran includes those of the Baha’is’ rights. However, this focus and attention has not always been the same and has increased during various decades… Read more

In August 1980, all nine members of the First National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha’is of Iran and two of their colleagues were arrested and taken to a secret location by undercover agents where they were executed. There was no news published or broadcast about the arrests, harassment or subsequent execution of the Baha’i community manager. Credible and verified news was leaked and the details of the events remained veiled and hidden in the security… Read more

“I believe that everything has a price. Freedom and democracy are also precious, and a nation will remain in bondage if it fails to pay the price. The question is what we can do to lower the costs of this price for people. First, the information must be provided correctly and accurately as much as possible. Second, it should be done in a way that won’t hurt ordinary people and third, the offered tactics should… Read more

The World Coalition Against the Death Penalty unites over 160 organizations worldwide to advocate for the universal abolition of the death penalty.

The KeepItOn coalition, comprising over 300 organizations from 105 countries, combats internet shutdowns through advocacy, policy engagement, technical support, and legal action.

Toosheh is an innovative project that allows Iranian users free access to internet content via satellite, without needing a subscription.

CIVICUS is a global network dedicated to enhancing citizen action and civil society across more than 175 countries.

INTRODUCING BOOK

‘Human Rights Activists in Iran: History, Obstacles, Achievements’

provides a compelling overview of the struggles and triumphs of human rights advocacy within Iran. This book captures the essence of grassroots activism against a backdrop of adversity, including severe repression and the sacrifices of activists who faced imprisonment and exile. It highlights the organization’s foundational principles such as youth leadership, social engagement within the country, and a commitment to non-discrimination. These themes are woven through personal narratives and reflections that underscore the resilience and dedication of those fighting for justice. Aimed at inspiring future generations, this publication is a testament to the power of perseverance and the enduring spirit of human rights activism.”

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Empowering Youth: Human Rights in Professional Youth Work

Iran’s Security Forces Kill Growing Numbers of Kurdish and Baluchi Border Couriers

“When border agents see a fuel courier…they just start shooting”

September 4, 2023 –  An alarming number of border couriers, primarily from Iran’s Kurdish and Baluchi minorities, have been killed in the first eight months of 2024, as Islamic Republic agents use unlawful and lethal force against those who transport goods and fuel across Iranian borders as their only means of survival, said the Center for Human Rights in Iran (CHRI).

From January to August 2024, at least 30 Kurdish border couriers, known as kulbars, were killed and 198 others injured by direct gunfire from Iranian government forces, according to research undertaken by CHRI. Six of the injured were children. One of them was  17-year-old Arian Mamandi  from Sardasht, who was shot in the face by border guards and lost an eye.

Over the same eight-month period, at least 34 Baluchi fuel couriers, known as sukhtbars, were killed, and 39 others were injured by direct gunfire from government forces, CHRI’s research showed. One of those killed was  14-year-old Omran Baloch Zahi .

“The ongoing killings of border couriers are yet another example of the Islamic Republic’s use of disproportionate and lethal violence against Iran’s oppressed ethnic communities,” said Hadi Ghaemi, CHRI executive director.

“The Iranian government must immediately halt its unlawful use of lethal force against border couriers and instead focus on developing economic empowerment initiatives. This relentless violence against vulnerable populations must end,” Ghaemi said.

CHRI calls upon the UN and human rights organizations to demand that the Iranian authorities immediately cease the use of lethal force against border couriers, and adhere to the  UN’s Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials , which explicitly state that the “intentional lethal use of firearms may only be made when strictly unavoidable in order to protect life,” and the  UN’s International Standards for Law Enforcement , which strictly restrict the use of force only to situations of absolute necessity and require the use of force to be restrained and proportional.

CHRI notes that while couriers are shot and killed by border agents without warning or trial, Article 22 of Iran’s constitution states, “the life, property, rights, and occupation of individuals are immune from violation.” Despite this, border couriers are losing their lives in growing numbers at the hands of officers who shoot without legal authorization.

“Under Iranian law, those who order and execute the shooting of couriers should be prosecuted and punished, and citizens should have the right to use all available channels to seek justice,” Ghaemi added.

Poverty and Discrimination Force Iran’s Ethnic Minorities into Dangerous Courier Jobs

Kulbars transport goods between the Kurdish regions of Iran and Iraq, while sukhtbars operate in the Sistan and Baluchistan province. With little other available work in these economically depressed areas that are badly neglected by the central government, these border couriers navigate hazardous terrain and face the continuous threat of being shot and killed by Iranian border guards.

The killing of 14-year-old Omran Baloch Zahi was typical of the violent and unlawful actions these couriers are subjected to by Islamic Republic border guards. The guards did not stop and warn the driver of the fuel tanker, but proceeded immediately to  shoot at the couriers , according to the HRNA human rights news agency. Omran was shot in the back, his 16-year-old brother was shot in the abdomen, and his 15-year-old cousin was also shot. They were taken to Razi Saravan Hospital for treatment, but Omran died a week later.

The above  numbers  represent an increasing use of lethal state force against the couriers. During the 12-month period from March 2023 to March 2024, at least 27 kulbars, including one 17-year-old child, were  killed , and 311 kulbars, including 15 children, were  injured  by gunfire from Iranian security forces, according to the Kurdistan Human Rights Network. Meanwhile, at least 40 sukhtbars were killed by Iran’s security forces  in 2023 , and 19 others were injured, according to the Baluch Activists Campaign. One of the sukhtbars killed was a child,  15-year-old Edris Gomshad Zehi Gorgij , who was the only breadwinner in the family since Edris’s father was imprisoned.

The entrenched discrimination that the country’s minorities face is the prime driver behind their courier work. Regions predominantly inhabited by ethnic minorities experience severe  underdevelopment  compared to other areas of the country, and poor access to education and employment forces many to take on dangerous jobs such as border couriers. In addition to the state violence, hundreds of couriers are killed or injured every year in accidents.

“When border agents see a fuel courier … they just start shooting”

CHRI interviewed a 34-year-old sukhtbar from the border city of Saravan in Sistan and Baluchistan province. He explained that the primary reason for taking this job is the severe lack of employment opportunities.

“The main reason I got into this line of work was the lack of jobs and the poverty. I have been smuggling fuel for nearly four years now. There is no reason other than poverty and bad economic conditions that drive people towards this work. I know many juveniles who smuggle fuel. These are children who, due to difficult economic circumstances, cannot continue their education and turn to fuel smuggling. These children don’t even have the money to travel from one village to another to attend school. Almost two or three members of every family I know are involved in fuel smuggling, including children. In border cities and villages like Saravan, the number of juveniles involved in fuel smuggling is very high.

When border agents see a fuel courier, it’s as if they’ve seen ISIS militants. They just start shooting. They don’t even consider the fact that this fuel smuggler is also a human being with a family.”

CHRI interviewed a 40-year-old fuel courier in the city of Chabahar, Sistan and Baluchistan province, who spoke about the extortion couriers also regularly face from border agents.

“In recent years, the number of fuel couriers in Sistan and Baluchistan province has increased significantly. The only reason for this is extreme poverty. There is no other reason for people to risk their lives and become fuel couriers. State agents, in fact, extort money from fuel couriers. They stop them and take any money they have earned, so they won’t be arrested. If we don’t have money, they confiscate our means of transportation, which means our families will suffer because we have no other source of income. Security officers are only interested in extortion. It’s not just the danger of being killed that affects the families of fuel couriers, but also the extortion by the officers that destroys the lives of these families.”

“The authorities treat kulbars like drug traffickers”

CHRI interviewed a kulbar from Kamyaran, Kurdistan province, who described the harsh realities of their work and the violence they face from Islamic Republic security forces.

“Being a kulbar is not easy work. It’s not like you can just go to the border and bring goods with you. The routes are very difficult, and there is a high risk of being arrested, killed, or injured along these routes. In this line of work, there is always the possibility of being shot. Often, the authorities also confiscate our belongings and mobile phones.

The items we kulbars bring are clothes, TV sets, household appliances like vacuum cleaners, juicers, cosmetics, fabrics, and so on. We don’t smuggle drugs or alcoholic beverages, but the authorities treat kulbars like drug traffickers.”

Many Children Work as Couriers—and Face Lethal State Violence

CHRI interviewed a 38-year-old kulbar from Kamyaran in Kurdistan province, who was formerly a pastry chef. Worsening economic conditions and a lack of employment opportunities forced him to become a kulbar. He discussed how many kulbars are young and some even hold professional degrees, yet have turned to this dangerous work as their only means of livelihood.

“It’s not unusual these days to see 18-year-old kulbars. Not long ago, I saw a 12-year-old boy who had come with his father for kulbari. [The father] said his son should be in school, but he didn’t have the means to pay for his education. Right now, 60-70% of the kulbars are under 20 years old. Some are even 15 or 16 years and younger.

Last month, I was working with 12 other kulbars. I was older than all of them. All 12 of them were born in the 2000s. Not only are more children engaged in kulbari, but the number of educated kulbars has also increased. There are young people who even have university degrees but were forced [by economic hardship] to become kulbars.

I myself am a professional pastry chef. However, the economic conditions have become so bad in the past few years that I could no longer continue working as a chef; I had to become a kulbar.”

“Kurdish and Baluchi minority populations should not face state violence for simply trying to survive in regions that have been systematically neglected by the Iranian government,” said Ghaemi.

“Instead of demonstrating their complete disregard for the lives of minority members, Iranian authorities should ensure that education and employment opportunities are available to young people in these communities, so that they’re not forced into courier jobs,” Ghaemi said.

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