disney case study questions

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8 Disney’s Marketing Strategy: A Case Study

• February 3, 2024

Disney’s marketing strategy – Disney , the legendary entertainment company founded by Walt Disney and his brother Roy O. Disney in 1923, has become a household name synonymous with magic and enchantment. With a rich history spanning nearly a century, Disney has revolutionized the entertainment industry, captivating the hearts of millions worldwide. 

But what sets Disney apart from its competitors? It’s their ingenious marketing strategy that has propelled the company to unparalleled success and popularity.

Read More : Dunkin Donuts Marketing Strategy – Full Breakdown

1. Storytelling: Creating Emotional Connections

One of the cornerstones of Disney’s marketing strategy is their exceptional storytelling. From the early days of Mickey Mouse to their latest blockbuster hits, Disney has mastered the art of creating compelling and emotionally resonant stories that capture the hearts of audiences.

By tapping into universal themes such as friendship, love, and perseverance, Disney movies and TV shows have become timeless classics that continue to entertain and inspire generations. This ability to create strong emotional connections with their audience sets Disney apart from other entertainment companies.

Disney leverages the power of nostalgia to create a sense of familiarity and warmth. By reviving old classics like “The Jungle Book” and “Beauty and the Beast,” Disney taps into the collective memories and experiences of their audience, evoking a strong sense of nostalgia.

This nostalgia-driven marketing approach not only attracts new fans but also appeals to parents who want to share their childhood favorites with their children, creating a multi-generational fan base.

2. Cross-Platform Synergy: Making Disney a Part of Everyday Lives

Disney’s marketing strategy revolves around creating a continuous presence in the lives of their consumers through cross-platform synergy. From movies and TV shows to theme parks, merchandise, and streaming services, Disney ensures that their brand is integrated into various aspects of their audience’s daily lives. 

For example, when a new Disney movie is released, it is accompanied by a wide range of merchandise, theme park attractions, and collaborations with other brands. This multi-platform approach ensures that Disney remains top-of-mind for consumers and maintains a strong market presence.

3. Nostalgia and Innovation: Balancing the Old and the New

Disney’s marketing strategy – One of Disney’s remarkable strengths is their ability to balance nostalgia and innovation. While Disney is known for their classic stories and characters, they are constantly finding ways to modernize and re-imagine these beloved works. 

By combining the familiar with the new, Disney appeals to both long-time fans and a younger audience. This strategy not only keeps the brand relevant but also fosters a sense of shared experiences among different generations of Disney enthusiasts.

For instance, the remade version of “Beauty and the Beast” brought the same plot, songs, and characters from the original animated film to the modern world, creating a strong sense of nostalgia among parents who grew up with the classic. 

At the same time, it introduced the story to a new generation, captivating them with stunning visuals and modern storytelling techniques.

4. Personalized Experiences: Creating Magic at Disney Parks

Disney’s marketing strategy – Disney understands the importance of creating personalized experiences to delight their customers. Their theme parks, such as Disneyland and Walt Disney World, go above and beyond to provide visitors with unforgettable moments. From the moment guests step into the parks, Disney uses technology to enhance their experience. 

The Disney MagicBand, for example, allows visitors to access their hotel rooms, purchase merchandise, and even save photos taken with characters, creating a seamless and personalized visit.

This focus on personalized experiences not only creates magical moments for guests but also provides valuable data for Disney to improve their marketing efforts. By understanding customer preferences and behavior, Disney can tailor their offerings and promotions to better meet the needs and desires of their audience.

5. Influencer and Social Media Marketing: Amplifying the Disney Magic

Disney’s marketing strategy – Disney harnesses the power of influencer marketing and social media to amplify their brand reach. By collaborating with popular influencers, Disney taps into their vast following, reaching new audiences and generating excitement for their releases. 

Additionally, Disney maintains an active presence on social media platforms, engaging with fans and building a strong online community. This allows them to keep fans informed about upcoming releases, events, and initiatives, fostering a sense of anticipation and connection.

6. Building a Community: Sharing the Disney Magic

Disney’s marketing strategy goes beyond traditional advertising and focuses on building a community of loyal fans. Through various online platforms and forums, Disney creates spaces where fans can connect with each other and with the brand itself. 

This sense of community strengthens brand loyalty and encourages fans to actively participate in the Disney experience. By fostering a sense of belonging and shared enthusiasm, Disney cultivates a passionate fan base that supports and promotes the brand.

7. Corporate Social Responsibility: Making a Positive Impact

Disney’s marketing strategy – Disney recognizes the importance of corporate social responsibility in their marketing strategy. They actively engage in initiatives around sustainability, diversity, and philanthropy.

By aligning their brand with social issues and promoting positive change, Disney appeals to socially conscious consumers who value companies that make a difference. This commitment to social responsibility enhances Disney’s brand image and resonates with their audience on a deeper level.

8. Innovation: Embracing Technology and Creativity

Innovation is at the core of Disney’s marketing strategy. The company constantly explores new technologies and creative approaches to enhance the Disney experience. 

From virtual reality experiences to personalized content recommendations, Disney stays at the forefront of technological advancements. By embracing innovation, Disney continues to captivate audiences and push the boundaries of what is possible in the entertainment industry.

Read More : Cadbury Marketing Strategy: A Case Study

Disney’s marketing strategy is a masterclass in building a magical brand. Through their exceptional storytelling, cross-platform synergy, nostalgia and innovation, personalized experiences, influencer and social media marketing, community building, corporate social responsibility, and commitment to innovation, Disney has created a brand that resonates with audiences of all ages.

Lydia Pricillia

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The Wonderful World of Human Resources at Disney – Case Solution

This paper on "The Wonderful World of Human Resources at Disney" case study aims to analyze the two different case studies by exploring the knowledge about human resource management, human resource practices, and leadership throughout the organizations.

​Gerry Yemen and Lynn A. Isabella Harvard Business Review ( UV6787-PDF-ENG ) July 19, 2013

Case questions answered:

• Explore the role of organizational values and culture in a large firm.
• Examine a leadership style and its influence on human management practices.
• How to establish human resource processes and maintain a competitive advantage.
• What kind of culture does WDC want to create?
• Create a pictorial image of how HR works at WDC, and be prepared to share your image in class.
• What is intriguing about how WDC manages its human resources toward that culture? Is WDC really a magical place?
• Are Walt Disney Company (WDC) human resources practices transferable outside the United States?

Not the questions you were looking for? Submit your own questions & get answers .

The Wonderful World of Human Resources at Disney Case Answers

Executive summary – the wonderful world of human resources at disney case study.

This paper, “The Wonderful World of Human Resources at Disney,” aims to analyze the two different case studies by exploring the knowledge about human resource management, human resource practices, and leadership throughout the organizations.

In this paper, two case studies are used. These case studies, “Creating the Best Workplace on Earth” and “The Wonderful World of Human Resources at Disney,” both describe the practices followed by the organizations to provide a suitable workplace to the employees and fulfill the goals of the firms by giving good services to their customers.

By using both cases, we describe how organizations use their human resource management in order to maintain their competitive advantage over the other firms, the corporate cultures of the organizations, different leadership styles used by the company’s management, and functions of the human resource department.

Moreover, in this research, we explored both studies and interlinked the ideas of both to conclude how different organizations use their human resource skills to reach their goals. For the exploration of both cases, there are many other resources used in order to support the arguments.

Introduction

This assignment is based on the two case studies which are related to organizational culture, values, human resources, human resource management, and leadership. Both of them are explaining the ideal world.

The first one explains what factors help to make an ideal workplace. In contrast, the second one focuses on the imaginative world, which would provide excellent customer satisfaction by using human resources.

The study of “Creating the Best Workplace on Earth” is about how we can make any workplace ideal. Many executives who were interviewed for this have different opinions about expectations for the ideal workplace.

According to their analysis, six main factors help any organization to maintain a better working environment. Those six factors are:

• Every employee should know the current situation of the company
• The management should help their employees evolve their unique skills and qualities more
• Employees should never change their identity
• A firm should value its employees and all other valuable resources
• Never force your employees to follow stupid rules
• To motivate their employee, management should reward them for their daily achievements

These are the main things that make a dream workplace for any employee. Moreover, they want to promote the shared value thing in any organization. For that, the firm and its employees should not only fulfill their mission statements but should focus on their personal and organizational values equally (Goffee and Jones, 2013).

“The Wonderful World of Human Resources at Disney” case study also focuses on human resources, culture, and leadership styles. This study showed how Walt had made his dream place a reality.

Moreover, it explains how he managed his staff as a leader who came up with an excellent strategy for his Disneyland business. He believed that always treat your employees as your partners or guests to encourage and motivate them for their work.

This case study also showed how different cultures help Disney to attract more customers by following their values like quality, innovation, optimism, decency, and more. The Walt Disney Company (WDC) is based on an inspiring creativity model that focuses on four factors: organizational identity, structural systems, collaborative culture, and leader’s role. This model helped them to achieve great success because, until now, every kid, even teenagers, is fascinated by Disney characters.

Also, most individuals want to visit Disneyland once in their life. So, from here, it is clear that Walt’s way of handling his employees, guests, partners, and Disney characters made Disney successful (Yemen, 2014).

Q1.      Explore the role of organizational values and culture in a large firm.

Organizational culture is a set of values, beliefs, opinions, expectations, and actions that would help the employees behave, dress, and act in the organization. The best thing about the culture is that if it works, then it helps the firm to improve its performance and productivity.

On the other hand, if it does not fit, it would create hurdles to success. Moreover, culture and values help the organization earn a competitive advantage and influence talent (Wong, 2020). The best indicator of customer satisfaction in every business is a positive cultural environment.

In “Creating the Best Workplace on Earth,” the author described the six main factors of an organizational culture that would help them create an excellent working environment.

There are many roles of corporate culture and values in a large firm:

• Helps shape the corporate identity : In any organization, the corporate culture helps to set specific goals and commitments for the organization, which further gives their employees a particular direction to work by developing their plans to achieve the final destination. Therefore, smoothly achieving the goals helps the organization to achieve success and to improve the identity of the organization (Alton, 2017).
• Helps to earn competitive advantage : The organizational culture and values allow the different skills to evolve according to the need. It also helps to select the employees for the work according to their talents. Moreover, as mentioned in the case study, if the organization’s culture allows the different skills to develop and present their ideas in the market, that will help them to achieve a competitive advantage. For example, in LVMH, the main factor for their success is diverse cultures and talents, which work co-operatively, and their employees are so creative. Also, they are capable of presenting their ideas, which helped them to achieve great success (Goffee and Jones, 2013).
• It promotes shared values and cooperation : Culture is a phenomenon that can’t work on an individual basis. So, to achieve success, the primary function of culture and values is to unite the different opinions and values of the employees to work together in a group. Moreover, this shared value culture helps to reduce the conflicts in the groups and promotes cooperation. By this, the employees forget about their incentives instead of focusing on the company’s goal (Groysberg & et al., 2018).
• It helps to build brand image and customer loyalty : If an organization’s culture allows the employees to be themselves, provides incentives daily, makes employees aware of the current happenings, and also does not force them to follow some stupid rules, then employees do their work with more enthusiasm. They do not feel stressed in that working environment and also give their best to attain maximum sales. If employees are treating their customers happy and excitedly, it would be helpful for them to achieve customer loyalty and the right brand image (Alton, 2017).

Therefore, these are some roles that are played by organizational culture for the benefit and success of any organization.

Q2.     Examine a leadership style and its influence on human management practices.

Leadership is considered a core task of the organizational members creating, shaping, and negotiating the content of observational structures to represent normal working conditions (Smircich & Morgan, 1982).

In the case, “The Wonderful World of Human Resources at Disney,” Mr. Walter is…

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Disney at the crossroads of disruptive trends

Owing to its intangible nature and oligopolistic structure, the Media & Entertainment industry used to seem particularly difficulty to disrupt, and Disney was sitting right at the top. Yet, ten years after Netflix launched its online video streaming service, incumbents acknowledged that surviving the online revolution requires drastic changes. Until 2017, Disney had not taken the threat seriously. Its streaming strategy could be described as exploratory, at best: It had a 30% stake in Hulu, a third-party streaming platform jointly owned by media giants, and it sold its “old” content to Netflix. However, as Disney’s cable partners (e.g., Comcast) started to lose millions of highly profitable subscribers, the company realized that its half-hearted approach to online streaming was a recipe for disaster. That year marked the turnaround of Disney’s approach to streaming. First, it shocked the world in August, when it announced that it would gradually withdraw its movie content from Netflix. That same month, it revealed it had taken a controlling stake in BAMTech, a technology company providing streaming video technology. Finally, in December, it announced its intention to acquire 21st Century Fox in a deal that closed 15 months later, giving it a controlling stake in Hulu and greatly expanding Disney’s already formidable content library. With the nomination of Kevin Mayer at the helm of DTCI in March 2018, Disney realized its intention to transition into a B2C company. However, it was going to be a long road for Mayer, who faced both external and internal challenges. The case explores Mayer’s options to succeed in a rapidly evolving marketplace in which former partners and internet giants have become the competitors. It also examines how Mayer can position DTCI within Disney, addressing the complexities of collaborating with other business units and the potential cannibalization of the Media Networks division.

• Acquire a holistic view of what is needed to create and support a firm’s overall strategy by conducting a thorough analysis of the environment and the competitors.
• Identify key aspects of strategy formulation and strategy execution in a global dynamic and highly competitive industry.

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Walt Disney Company, The: The Entertainment King

• Format: Print
• | Language: English
• | Pages: 27

About The Author

David J. Collis

Related work.

• Faculty Research

The Walt Disney Company: The Entertainment King (Abridged)

• The Walt Disney Company: The Entertainment King (Abridged)  By: Michael G. Rukstad and David J. Collis
• Walt Disney Company, The: The Entertainment King  By: Michael G. Rukstad, David J. Collis and Tyrell Levine

The Walt Disney Company’s Strategy in Context Case Study

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

The case study selected for the investigation of strategic management and planning is devoted to the Walt Disney Company. It is one of the leading mass-media and entertainment corporations with the central office in the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, California (Cieply, 2012). At the moment, it is considered the world’s largest conglomerate that is focused on the production of movies, cartoons, and entertaining products such as theme parks that are popular among the population globally.

It is an American company headed by its president, Robert Iger who is considered a successful CEO because of a number of effective solutions contributing to the development of the company and it’s becoming a leader in the selected market segment ( The Walt Disney Company announces, 2018). The company also owns other famous franchises and studios such as 21st Century Fox which contributes to the generation of the competitive advantage and significant empowerment of the corporation.

The decision that is discussed in terms of this case is the purchase of Lucasfilm for $4 billion by Disney. The given strategic solution became a surprise for the media world because of the popularity of the legendary Star Wars franchise and multiple opportunities related to its possible utilization to create new products such as movies, theme parks, or cartoons (Cieply, 2012). Despite stakeholders’ fears associated with this deal and high risks, the decision turned out successful because of the stable revenue generated due to the licensing agreements, sales of merchandise apparel, toys, and more than $4,8 billion income at the box office (Cowley, 2012). It also improved Disney’s position in the market providing new ways to evolve and broadening the target audience. For this reason, this purchase is selected for discussion and in-depth analysis.

In such a way, the deal between Lucasfilm and Disney is taken as the basis for the provided case study. Being one of the leaders in the market segment devoted to entertainment and movie making, Disney accepted the decision to buy the famous franchise regardless of the potential risks and possible negative attitudes from fans. The positive effect of this strategic move provided the corporation with new opportunities for its development and growth via the distribution of products associated with the Star Wars brand. Analysis of this decision will help to acquire an improved understanding of how strategic planning was impacted by internal and external factors and what aspects were considered by CEOs.

The following case study has a particular structure that contributes to a better comprehension of the discussed issue. There is the introduction of the central actors who planned the strategic decision and its details. This part is followed by the detailed evaluation of external and internal factors impacting this step with the application of stakeholder theory. Furthermore, the power of rivals and ideological constructs is investigated to determine the degree to which they preconditioned the change. The value created due to the given move is also analyzed. Finally, there is a conclusion summarising all meaningful details and discussing the importance of strategic management.

When it Happened

October 30, 2012, Disney announced that it would buy Lucasfilm company and rights for a famous franchise Star Wards. The established price of the deal was $4,05 billion in cash and stock which became one of the most significant agreements in the world of cinema (Baidawi, 2016). The given news became astonishing for the business sector because it signalized the new era of Star Wars and the Disney conglomerate. Today, specialists consider the purchase one of the smartest acquisitions ever made in the corporate world of America because of its critical impact on the market and companies’ position in it (Baidawi, 2016). However, the given solution was not spontaneous as it was preceded by complex negotiations both between Lucasfilm and Disney’s CEOs and within these very companies. The high price along with the existence of numerous complications associated with the utilization of the franchise stipulated significant risks.

Robert Iger, Disney’s CEO, insisted on the given strategic decision as one of the possible ways to improve the state of the company and create the basis for its further evolution. One of the main elements of his strategy was the focus on significant acquisitions and exploration of the well-known franchises to return Disney to its leading positions and reconsider the functioning of the corporation (Whitten, 2018). Since his appointment in 2005, Iger has adhered to a particular strategy that presupposes the acquisition of powerful and recognizable trademarks that will be able to diversify products offered by Disney and increase income (Harmanci, 2012). For this reason, Pixar’s purchase became the first significant deal offered by Iger regarding the suggested course. It became a successful strategic decision as the corporation earned about $1 billion for Toy Story 3 (Baidawi, 2016). The positive outcomes associated with this solution make the discussed deal possible as the acquisition of Lucasfilm was expected to contribute to the corporation’s growth.

Preliminary Work

At the same time, the complexity and large scope of the problem meant that the company’s CEO had to consider all possible options for analyzing both the advantages and disadvantages of the given strategic decision. For this reason, before October 2012, the analysis of the market situation, external and internal factors was performed with the primary aim to determine if the company can afford this deal and utilize the franchise effectively (Goldsby & Mathews, 2018). Another problem was to keep the agreement secret to avoid interference of rivals or the negative impact of the important financial information’s disclosure. For this reason, by the end of June 2012, the company managed to accumulate $4,4 billion in cash and short-term investments to make the deal, which helped to benefit from this strategic decision and overcome the closest rivals (Krantz, Sinder, Cava, & Alexander, 2012).

In such a way, it was a planned decision that demanded the utilization of all resources available for Disney at that moment. Moreover, Iger and Lucas’s participation was critical as they both represented their companies and acted regarding the existing interests and goals. Due to the effective negotiation and cooperation, The Walt Disney Company managed to acquire Lucasfilm, one of the most recognizable brands of the modern entertainment industry which significantly contributed to the further evolution of the conglomerate.

Impacting Factors

The scope of the given strategic decision means that there was a set of factors impacting the company at that period of time and preconditioning the emerging need for this step. These include both internal and external aspects that have an essential impact on the development and functioning of the organization (Kotler & Armstrong, 2015). The roots of this strategic decision can be found analyzing all forces that are relevant and unique features of Disney’s problems or strategic planning (McPhail, 2014). For this reason, the strategy utilized by the corporation while buying the rights for using the famous franchise comes from the existing issues and problems that should be solved or improved to achieve success and contribute to the further evolution of the conglomerate.

Cogitating about the purchase of Lucasfilm, it is critical to understand external factors that preconditioned this decision. First of all, Disney had to struggle against the closest rivals such as Sony, CBS, and Comcast who mainly provided products for TV, cable, DVD, video games, and Internet markets (Segal, 2018). Their position was strong due to brands’ unique peculiarities, Disney had no alternative products that would be able to compete with these. For this reason, the focus on making content resting on the popular franchise was made. Previously, Marvel studio was bought by Disney as one of the ways to introduce new heroes and attract a wide public audience. Lucasfilm became another brand bought because of the growing pressure of rivals.

The stable popularity of Star Wars and the growing interest in a new movie about this Universe became another factor that impacted this strategic decision. Correctly realizing the tendency towards the increasing attention to fantastic movies and superheroes, Disney decided to relaunch one of the most successful franchises in history. This factor had an essential impact on decision-making because of the opportunity to generate high income and acquire a competitive advantage (Sylt, 2018). Moreover, the target audience of Star Wars had a high level of expectations because of multiple rumors about the creation of a new episode of a famous movie which contributed to the high box office sales.

Finally, another significant external factor that preconditioned the given decision was George Lucas’s readiness to sell the brand. Analyzing the market and the functioning of the most important actors, Disney concluded that Lucasfilm experiences a period of stagnation because of the lack of new products and the impossibility to engage in competition (McLauchlin, 2015). For this reason, negotiations were successful, and parties managed to come to an agreement. George Lucas was provided with high compensation while Disney became able to make products belonging to the Star Wards universe.

Nevertheless, there are also internal factors impacting decision-making and this strategic step. Regardless of visible successes and the company’s value of $180 billion, there was a set of internal problems. First of all, its televised sports network ESPN failed and lost about seven million subscribers which can be considered a significant problem for the company (Cowley, 2012). Additionally, shares of the corporation fell more than 9% which also became a great disappointment for the company (McLauchlin, 2015). The combination of these factors evidenced the existence of a need for the introduction of an effective solution that would help to improve the situation and make the position of Disney stronger.

The company’s CEO, Robert Iger, also correctly realized the danger of the given situation because of the possibility to lose leadership in the sphere and connection with the target audience because of the inability to follow the popular trends (McLauchlin, 2015). For this reason, the purchase can be considered regarding the reconsideration of Disney’s functioning and attempts to select a new course that would satisfy the new demands.

Another internal problem that preconditioned the purchase of Lucasfilm was a limited diversity of products and demographics affected by Disney’s products. In the last two decades, the corporation has been successful at creating material for children (Russel, 2012). Disney princesses and fairies were popular among girls while some other characters such as Pixar’s cars inspired boys. However, there was a critical need to extend the target audience to attract male and female consumers of all ages. Acquisition of Marvel was the first step to achieve this goal, but having bought Lucasfilm, Disney created the basis for capturing new market segments characterized by a broad sweep of demographic appeal (Kober, 2017). That is why today Disney’s target population is characterized by the increased diversity as all people regardless of their age or sex are interested in Star Wars globally and wait for new movies or products labeled by the famous trademark.

The company’s CEO Robert Iger was also sure that to reacquire the leading positions, the company should create a new value. Speaking about Disney’s purchase of Lucasfilm, he outlined the necessity to ensure both the publicity and corporation’s employees the conglomerate can launch large scale projects that will attract public attention and alter the balance of power in the world of media and movies (The Walt Disney Company, 2018). For this reason, the deal promoted by Iger also resulted from the internal need for a new project that would serve as the stimuli for further improvement and achievement. The inclusion of Lucasfilm into the company’s structure also meant the emergence of new ideas due to the diversification of the staff composition and new CEOs who will be responsible for supporting the project and monitoring the state of the market.

Finally, the decision to buy Lucasfilm can also be explained by the necessity to create a new ideology and utilize it to overcome the closest rivals. The fact is that regardless of Disney’s leading positions at that moment, there was no clear understanding of how the company should evolve and what qualities cultivate. At the same time, the major competitors managed to create a successful concept that devoted significant attention and promoted as one of the factors guaranteeing better positions (Bondic, 2012). That is why, the strategic decision to make this deal can be a result of Iger’s attempts to create the atmosphere and ideology of exclusiveness as the conglomerate acquired the unique rights for the distribution of popular products and their utilization to interest the target audience, which can be considered a serious advantage resulting in a better position at the market.

Stakeholders’ Theory

In such a way, a set of factors mentioned above, both external and internal, shows that Disney’s strategic incentive to buy Lucasfilm was not spontaneous. It was preceded by the in-depth investigation of the market, main competitors, company’s main goals, and stakeholders’ interests. For this reason, the application of Stakeholders’ theory can help to understand the nature of this solution better. In accordance with this perspective, the functioning of any company and its decisions can be taken as a result of the impacts of all actors affecting its rise and evolution (Bernstein, 2015). In other words, the nature of all strategic solutions is preconditioned by the assemblage of current aspects associated with stakeholders and their needs (Freeman, Harrison, & Zyglidopoulos, 2018). The ground for the introduction of change lies in the necessity to satisfy their interests and contribute to the further development of the company.

Applying the model to the investigated case, the decision to purchase Lucasfilm comes from both internal and external stakeholders:

As it has already been mentioned, the impact of internal stakeholders such as the owners’ demand for increased income, managers’ need for the generation of new value and better functioning, and the necessity to provide employees with a new ideology that will help to promote the further rise became critical aspects preconditioning the solution (Duyne, 2016). At the same time, external shareholders’ impact such as the ability of creditors to provide the needed sum, customers’ interest in new products, and the tendency towards the alteration of the societal demands also contributed to the decision to buy a franchise.

Altogether, Disney’s decision to purchase Lucasfilm can be considered one of the most significant deals in the sphere of entertainment and media as the company acquired the rights for the production and distribution of products belonging to the Star Wars Universe. The investigation of the main aspects preconditioning this change and application of the stakeholders’ theory shows that the deal was made because of the need for the further expansion, diversification of products, and such factors as a high level of rivalry, the decrease of the popularity of brand’s products, narrow target audience, lack of value and new ideology to cultivate the competitive environment.

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Home » Management Case Studies » Case Study: Marketing Strategy of Walt Disney Company

Case Study: Marketing Strategy of Walt Disney Company

What started out to be nothing more than a dream of Walter Elias Disney , with the release of Alice in Wonderland, a series of short film comedies, the beginning of a world renowned global corporation Walt Disney had evolved. Walter and his brother Roy were equal partners in what was originally the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio in 1923 and with the suggestion of Roy, it soon was renamed The Walt Disney Studio. After four years of success and profit, Walter and Roy experienced a business set back when they found their film distributor M.J. Winkler had stolen their cartoon characters and animators in attempt to undercut them. With the help from their chief and loyal animator, Ub Iwerks, Walt created Mortimer Mouse, which was renamed Mickey Mouse by his wife. The first cartoon with synchronized sound was released at the Colony Theater in New York, November 18, 1928. Walt Disney won its first Academy Award for Best Cartoon in 1932 and continued to be honored with an Oscar every year for a decade. Walt Disney consumer products started when Walt and Roy accepted $300.00 from a man that insisted Mickey should be applied to paper towels for school children. The company became public in 1940 and followed with the release of five successful feature films, including Snow White, Fantasia, Pinocchio, Bambi and Dumbo. In turn they revolutionized animation forever. In 1955, the first of many Disneyland theme parks were opened. At the same time, television became a new, huge, and successful avenue for its fans.

“I can never stand still. I must explore and experiment. I am never satisfied with my work. I resent the limitations of my own imagination.” -Walt Disney

Due to this dream with determination, The Walt Disney Corporation became an international powerhouse. Today, the company has four main business ventures: consumer products, theme parks and resorts, media networks and studio entertainment. The first being consumer products encompasses the development, advertising, promoting, licensing and selling of products that represents all of the new and old Disney characters. The theme parks and resorts that once started in California grew to one of the most profitable and loved venues internationally. Television, radio, and cable properties are the core of the media network. The driving force of the entire enterprise is the motion pictures and animated cartoons which are managed by Touchstone, Pixar, Walt Disney Pictures, Buena Vista, and Miramax.

The Walt Disney Company’s Target Market

Before a company even begins to look at its objectives, and marketing strategy, they must first decide what they are selling, and who they want to sell it to. A successful marketing plan requires a clearly defined and well researched target market, without knowing the desires and needs of the people you are selling to, you can not create a product that meets those needs. The well defined target market represents one reason why the Walt Disney Company has been so successful since their public start in 1940. Walt and Roy Disney started this company not to satisfy every consumer’s needs, but simple “To make people happy.” This quickly segmented the Walt Disney Company’s market into children till the age of about twelve. After many years, it was soon realized that the target market is not only young children, but often includes the decision makers. These are usually the parents that take their kids to the movies and buy the merchandise. Disney knows that it’s one thing to make a great movie that kids are excited about but the efforts often fall short if parents don’t approve of it.

The Walt Disney Company’s most recent, slight change in the target market has come from their new ideas of marketing and expanding. To reach kids and teens to promote Disneyland’s 50th anniversary this year, Walt Disney Co. will use one of the hottest – and most controversial – gimmicks in the media business: “advergaming.” Seeing as how the age-range of people that play video games are a little older than kids, they will be targeting at a teenager level. The attempt to expand Disney into a wireless network also stems the interest of an almost different type of target market. “The Walt Disney Co.’s decision to launch a wireless service aimed at its best customers – pre-teen children and their families – have focused a spotlight on two significant industry trends: the growing segmentation of services marketing and a fascination with the hottest of those segments, the youth market.”

The Walt Disney Company’s Marketing Objectives

Every company, whether a service enterprise, a retail shop, a restaurant, or a theme park must have one objective in order to be in business. It is the sole reason one goes into business, no matter how much they may have wanted to improve the lives of others. The foremost goal of every business is to make money . In an article published by the London Times, former Chief Executive Officer Michael Eisner was quoted as saying, “We [The Walt Disney Company] have no obligation to make art. To make money is our only objective”. At the time Eisner was CEO of Disney; from 1984-2005 he nurtured Disney from a $3 billion company to a $60 billion dollar company, a testament to the primary goal of the business.

Even though when Walt Disney first opened Disney Land in 1955 he coined the phrase, “The happiest place on earth,” the real reason for opening his entertainment park was to attract fans of Disney Studio Productions, promote his characters, and make money. Without a profit the Walt Disney Company, or any other company for the matter, would not be in business for long. Companies, especially large, well established companies like the Walt Disney Company, use their profits to do many things: expand their market share; research and development; expansion; new product lines; and various activities that help attract more customers. The Walt Disney Company has many fields in which they participate to make money: television; studio productions; theme parks; consumer products; and cruise lines, to name a few.

Disney consumer products and theme parks are very essential to Disney’s ultimate goal of making money. The placement of Disney products on school supplies, lunchboxes and backpacks, in malls across the country, and within the walls of their marketing-giant theme parks themselves is, “a daily advertisement for our cartoons, [that] keeps them all [consumers] Mickey Mouse minded,” as stated by Walt’s brother Roy Disney. No matter the means behind the ultimate goal, the goal never changes.

As stated in the Walt Disney Company’s Mission Statement, another of their goals is to be, “one of the world’s leading producers and providers of entertainment and information”. For the accomplishment of this goal Disney already has a substantial foot in the door with organizations in studio entertainment and theatrical productions for children, teens and adults of all ages; television stations targeting a wide variety of audiences – ABC for news and families, the Disney Channel for children, ESPN, ESPN2, ESPNEWS, and ESPNU for the sports fanatics and even SOAPnet for the stay at home mothers and fathers; theme parks like Disneyland, Disneyworld and the Disney World Resort to attract families with younger children looking for a good vacation; and one of their newest additions is the Disney Cruise Line that tour the Bahamas and Caribbean Islands and even make a stop at Disney’s privately owned Castaway Cay Island.

Disneyland in particular, the first park ever to construct rides, shows and attractions around separate themes-the themes of Walt Disney’s motion pictures -was constructed and dedicated by Walt Disney to those people who want to “relive memories of the past and [that] youth may savor”. Disneyland itself was not just built to entertain young children, but also to give their parents a vacation in a place that they could remember from their pasts and relate to in a way for them to enjoy the experience.

With this impressive display lineup and many more to support the Walt Disney Company’s goal of being a leader in entertainment it is safe to say they are well on their way to accomplishing this feat. Disney’s reach is global, with theme parks in China, France, Japan, and all around the United States. They also have Disney stores across the globe selling Disney consumer products throughout the United States and also globally, both within their Disney resorts and theme parks and in globally placed retailers. The Disney trademark is recognized all over the world, once again keeping consumers “Mickey Mouse minded,” and showing what kind of a leader Disney can be simply through the reach of its grasps.

To become a leader in information Disney has constructed a team of people and engineers and tasked them for this assignment. They call the process of developing new technology Disney Imagineering. This is basically the research and development section of Disney which thinks up, designs, and implements all aspects of the Walt Disney Company. From developing rides and attractions of Disney’s theme parks, water parks, and cruise ships to their Disney resorts, Disney Imagineering is involved in all development.

The goal of the Disney Imagineering section is to continuously design and implement new, fun and exciting products for the Disney Company that will attract, amaze, and excite their customers. By developing fun new rides for Disneyland parks that drop you faster than gravity, new movie technologies offering cutting edge visual effects, or even combining the two into one gut wrenching, heart stopping, scream-of-a-good-time they have realized their goal.

The latest example of innovation at the Walt Disney Company is discussed in an issue of Business Week on November 12, and it outlines plans by Disney to release a mobile phone service in Japan. Disney will be involved in the phone from the ground up, from developing the handsets to dealing with subscriptions. In order to stay true to Disney practices, they will be offering content dealing with their characters and distributing cartoons to their subscribers. The cell phone market is one of the fastest growing markets in the world, growing in leaps and bounds–from 110,000,000 people in the United States in the year 2000 to 159,000,000 people in just 2003. As the use of cell phones continues to increase at an exponential rate it becomes more clear how important it is to have a stake in them, and Disney, realizing this, has become a player in the market and is using cell phones to spread their company name. To do this they offer many things that are popular among cellphone users, such as ringtones, graphics for wallpapers, games, and text message updates. Disney offers a cellphone in the United States, however Disney has recently announced it will be discontinuing their cellphone service as of the end of the year, December 31, 2007. They did not give any specific reasons for the cessation.

The utilization Disney has made of the mobile phone service brings to light their trend of target marketing. Cellphone users continue to grow younger as the devices become more popular and easier to afford, and Disney is trying to reach them. For years Disney has attracted young girls through the Disney Princesses Belle, Ariel, Sleeping Beauty, Snow White, Cinderella, and Jasmine. Now Disney is under continuous pressure to continue growing their Disney Princess Sector, and the result is the targeting of even younger girls – girls still in the crib. To accomplish this Disney will be making products such as cribs and various infant products picturing the various princesses and even some new princesses who are due to make their appearances in the near future.

The Walt Disney Company’s Industry Analysis

The Walt Disney Company is in the entertainment industry. This is a very simple way of saying something much more complicated: The Walt Disney Company is in business to produce entertaining theatrical productions that are family oriented and family friendly; they are in business to create products and toys that will promote their theatrical productions that are both entertaining and safe for children, and also stimulating enough to attract new customers; they are in business to entertain families with children who are looking for a fun, interactive and safe vacation spot both with resorts and parks, and also cruise lines; and finally they are in the business in keeping their name reputable and substantial in a growing business.

The Walt Disney Company has a long history and an established name, not only in the United States but throughout the world. Walt and Roy Disney founded the Walt Disney Studios in 1923, produced its first full length animated feature film, Snow White, in 1937, and the rest is history. From there they grew into an entertainment powerhouse acquiring TV channels, building theme parks based on their animated films and youthful dreams, and growing into one of the most recognizably-named companies in the world.

As generations change so do their goals and views of life. For example, the Baby Boomer generation is very work oriented and dedicated to their professional life, and sometimes their family lives suffered because of it. On the other hand, Generation X are more family oriented than their parents generation. Generation X like to take spur of the moment trips and are not necessarily as worried about the completion of their job tasks, which not only makes them more attractive to travel providers but also to companies who provide vacation resorts, or, more specifically, theme parks.

Because the generations are changing and families are more prone to taking vacations, the entertainment industry is a hot commodity. This produces a demand for entertainment and many opportunities for new players to enter the mix. This also creates a lot of competition, even for Disney, a well-established entertainment company. In Disney’s case, a lot of their competitors for their vacation spots are the same as their competitors for their theatrical productions: Universal Studios has theme parks and, like Disney, is a global organization with operations in the United States, Japan, Singapore, Dubai, and Korea; Paramount Parks is a more local example with many parks situated throughout the United States and one in Canada; and Disney’s most adverse competitor, and the leader in numbers in the industry of theme parks and amusement parks, is Six Flags Theme Parks who is also associated with Warner Brothers Studios. Disney however has the advantage in its global reach, where Six Flags is domestic. Also, industry wide, Disney’s name and history in the entertainment industry supersedes all of their competitors.

The history and name of Disney are very important when it comes to competition in terms of positioning their products and services in the minds of their consumers. The Walt Disney Company utilizes multiple positioning bases to their advantage, due to their long, successful history.

The attribute base is employed within Disney by the customer benefit–a family-friendly, safe, fun environment that is open for business all year. Disney offers specials for families, such as discounts on flights, car rentals and hotel rooms-many are seasonal-to attract more people to their parks, and this tactic is considered in the price and quality base indicating a value bargain to their potential customers. But the most important positioning base utilized by the Walt Disney Company is the one that distinctly sets them apart from any of their competitors: Emotion .

Emotion is, “how the product makes customers feel”. This is where the Disney history comes into play in a huge part because, being founded as a cartooning company in 1923 that produced widely popular children’s videos, the name Disney has been a part of people’s lives for a very long time. Entering a place called Disneyland, which embodies the characters every child has enjoyed since 1923, can have the effect of bringing the fond memories of their childhood back to them, producing a sense of eternal youth. Another advantage for Disney is that not only can it have an attracting effect on adults, but because Disney is now a powerhouse in the entertainment industry and recognized throughout the world, they can attract children of various ages. Disney can attract younger children who identify with the Disney characters and enjoy seeing them in full life form. Disney can also attract the older children who still identify with the characters in the form of knowing them and enjoying the movies they have seen them in, but also enjoy the themed rides that feature their favorite movies and characters in them.

To conclude the industry analysis the entertainment business is a growing business due to the change in demographics and the orientations of today’s generations. Disney has a strong foothold in the industry, a feat accomplished mainly due to their history and roots in the American culture. Their reach to the four corners of the United States and beyond has aided Disney’s stronghold on the entertainment industry.

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Disney Case Study Questions

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• Why has Disney been successful for so long?

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At the beginning of the Disney Kingdom, success was contributed to Walt Disney. Walt Disney was such an artist who had a creative mind and innovative ideas all the time. He was the first-ever person to make an animation that targeted at family. Also, Walt Disney did create value for customers by producing quality animation. He had been creating a lot of famous cartoons, for example, Mickey Mouse, Pluto, and Donald Duck. These Disney characters were essential memories for the people at that time. Those people who grew up with Disney cartoons then developed into loyal fans of Disney. This laid the foundation for developing Disneyland at a later time. Walt Disney was the most significant factor that contributed to the success of Disney for so long.

Second, the strong teamwork among the whole company made good collaboration. In the beginning, the company was in a non-hierarchical structure; Walt and his brother both did not own a title in the company. Walt concentrated on creative and innovation while his brother did the finance. Besides, Walt trusted his employees and enabled his employees to do the part Walt was not adept at. The flat structure enabled all the employees to communicate and cooperate, and it developed into teamwork. Later in the Eisner time, all employees must attend a three0day training program to immerse themselves in the Disney history and culture, as well as the legacy of Walt Disney. In addition, according to the Disney tradition, employees, including executives, were required to dress as characters at Disneyland to develop a sense of belonging. In this way, the sense of belonging pushed the employees to collaborate with their colleagues and do the best for Disney (Rukstad & Collis, 2013). Therefore, strong teamwork was one of the reasons that Disney has been successful for a long time.

Question 2: What did Michael Eisner do to rejuvenate Disney? Specifically, how did he increase net income in his first four years?

Michael Eisner took up the CEO of the Walt Disney in 1984, while Disney was faded and on the verge of being a takeover. Eisner must help Disney to get rid of the dilemma as soon as possible. After taking over Disney, Eisner implemented various strategies to rejuvenate Disney, and it succeeded. In specific, he resurrected Disney by quintupling the net income in his first four years. The rebirth of Disney i n a short time was mainly contributed to the economies of scope that enabled Disney to make profit rapidly.

First, in terms of studio entertainment, Eisner revitalized D isney’s TV and movies. Creative and prominent animation had been the feature of Disney, and it had languished after Walt Disney died. Therefore, the main priority Eisner did was to highly promote Disney’s renewed commitment to quality programming through network shows. According to Exhibit 2, Disney entered a new market segment that is mainly targeting adults. Disney established Touchstone studios to create movies for adults in 1984. Next, Disney produced an adult TV serial for NBC in 1985. Then began to syndicate TV programs in 1986 which was followed by purchasing a TV station in 1987. In addition, the volume of annual movie output hit the record high by producing 18 films in 1988. Disney soon accumulated revenue from earning a small profit on a great quantity of low-cost products. In Eisner’s first four years, the revenue of studio entertainment increased threefold. This increase was the largest contribution to Disney revenue.

Second, Eisner maximized theme park profitability. Disney theme parks remained profitable due to continuous popularity. Thus, Eisner raised the ticket price and limited the number of visitors into the park. According to Exhibit 1, the revenue received from theme parks and resorts rose 86% from 1984 to 1988. In addition, the attendance of the majority theme parks grew to a different extent based on Exhibit 4. The price elasticity of demand for the guests was relatively low since the visitor felt they got their money’s worth. Disney gained a larger amount of revenue from theme parks through maximizing the consumer surplus in Eisner time. It was a quite effective strategy to drive revenue in a short period of time (Rukstad & Collis, 2013).

In addition, Eisner expanded and diversified the consumer products in his third year. The first-ever Disney Store launched in 1987, which targeted at children. The store began with selling various toys and apparel as well as high-quality collector’s items for Disney fans, followed by publishing. According to Exhibit 1, the revenue from selling consumer products rose 48% to $247 million in a year and kept rising afterward. It was one of the effective strategies that helped to earn a rapid profit.

Question 3: What are Disney′s core competencies?

One of the central core competencies of Disney is its marketing ability. Its brand has been time and again listed on Best Global Brand list of Interbrand. The film was ranked #13 in 2014 and #14 in 2013. Interbrand explained that the lasting success of Disney’s brand could be attributed to the ability of the company to emphasize technology, creativity, and global growth within its long-term business strategy. The company’s capacity to understand what the clients need and how to personalize their experiences is another factor that contributes to the success of the firm (Rukstad & Collis, 2013).

Question 4: Has Disney diversified too far in recent years?

The Disney established itself as the King in the animation industry for family entertainment in the beginning. There was no everlasting company but only a company that was able to adapt and grow with time. With the advancement of technology and growing competitors, Disney developed itself into a brand rather than merely a production company. Such a large enterprise inevitably would diversify into various businesses to enter new segments, fully-utilize the resource, and even satisfy derived demands from the customers. Although Disney diversified into film production, broadcasting, retailing and theme parks and resorts, it did not diversify too far in recent years.

First of all, from animation to movies and broadcasting, they were indeed targeted and served the same type of viewing entertainment. Television and movies became a convenient choice for entertainment. There was necessary for Disney to improve its business scope into TV. Besides, Disney widened the genre of the production, for example, homosexual and racist. Somebody claimed that the Disney deviated from the traditional family value and also involved racism. However, Disney must grow with the time to strike a chord with the audience, especially in the information age. Therefore, Disney did not diversify too far in terms of entertainment production.

Secondly, regarding retailing, Disney did not indeed diversify itself into the toys and other consumer productions. In recent years, we could see that various items of the Disney characters and even appliances shown in the movie were available in the Disney stores and other official partnerships. For example, Disney Princess dolls, weapons in the Marvel collection and clothes of the characters. Some people said Disney diversified into the retaining segment (Rukstad & Collis, 2013).

However, Disney itself did not own a manufacturing factory to produce its products herself. Instead, Disney offered its title to the manufacturing partners for providing ‘Disney’ products. In this way, Disney did not distract from the retail segment and still be concentrated on creating characters and a magic world. Therefore, Disney has not diversified too far in recent years.

In conclusion, Disney has not diversified itself too far recently. Although the company has enriched the genre and increases the outlet channels for its products, Disney has been developing itself according to its principle, to create a family entertainment and everyone could benefit from it.

Rukstad, M. G., & Collis, D. J. (2013). The Walt Disney Company: The Entertainment King (Abridged).

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Case Study: Disney World – A pioneer in seamless travel

We’ve written extensively about creating a more seamless and connected travel experience – but what exactly are the real world examples of this? Have a look below at a case study detailing Disney’s move towards a seamless travel experience compiled by Oxford Economics for our report Shaping the Future of Travel .

Walt Disney World, in late 2013, took a bold step in the direction of seamless travel. Before this move, Disney, by virtue of its multiple offerings across the entertainment, accommodation, and dining spheres in one area, was already able to offer a somewhat seamless travel experience.

Disney has now taken this concept a step further with the introduction of MyMagic+. MyMagic+, via the provision of special wrist bands and a specialised mobile app, allows travellers to plan and execute their Disney vacation in a seamless way. Travel between Disney hotels, attractions, and the airport had already been made seamless by the provision of a transportation network combining monorails, trams, buses, and boats to take travellers between different Disney destinations and the airport. In addition, travellers at Disney hotels can check in for their flights at the hotel, get a boarding pass, and drop off their luggage before hopping on Disney-provided transport to the airport.

Personalising your journey

MagicBands and Disney’s mobile app, however, give travellers an extra degree of personalisation and convenience for their journeys. MagicBands, specialised wristbands for each traveller, have multiple functions in the provision of a seamless travel experience. They allow travellers to gain access to the theme parks they have booked tickets for; they serve as a room key for Disney hotels; they store any dining reservations scheduled at Disney properties during the stay; they store the traveller’s credit or debit card details so that purchases can be made using the band, essentially serving as a virtual wallet; they store FastPasses for certain theme park attractions, allowing travellers to skip the queues for attractions they pre-book; and they store any photos taken by Disney at attractions can be stored on the band, allowing the traveller to later access their holiday photos.

The My Disney Experience mobile app is used to tie the entire experience together, giving travellers the ability to pre-plan their vacations by exploring travel options and booking them via the app. Then, during their travels, they can use the geo-linked app to pinpoint their location, along with schedules and times of nearby attractions in the parks, access dining reservations and FastPass tickets, and share travel plans with family and friends.

How do Disney make it so efficient?

This is an example of economies of scope, where the average cost for a firm of producing two or more products is lower, making product diversification economically efficient. Disney is able to offer this seamless travel experience because it provides a wide array of travel products in the same geographical space, which means it does not experience the same coordination problems that multiple travel providers would experience in organising themselves to provide a joint seamless experience.

Together, the mobile app and the MagicBands allow travellers an unparalleled degree of customisation for their holidays. In addition, they combine that with the convenience of a wristband that holds all travel bookings, payment card details to make purchases, and collects personal mementos from the trip for later access; and a mobile app that provides up to the minute information on all attractions and geo-enabled services to navigate between attractions.

What do you think? How could travel players implement some of Disney’s practices to make travel more seamless and connected? Let us know!

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Basic Information about Disney – Case Study

Disney Studio has been known to children and adults for decades. It has come a long way from simple animated cartoons to large blockbusters. The history and business of this corporation can be an excellent topic for a case study.Before writing a Walt Disney case study, ask your curator what size your work should be, what needs your attention, and what topic you should write about. This information allows you to plan your work better and determine how big the essay will be, what is required of you.

Basic Information about Disney

There were also popular TV programs for children that were broadcasted around the world and are well known to many of us.Over time, the network expanded to other countries. Since the ’90s, it buys movie corporations, some of which are quite large. Under the brand of the corporation, many feature films were filmed.The media network is still the main activity. It brings the bulk of income.

The Disney’s share in the filmmaking companies market is quite large; it occupies a leading position in its scope.To date, Disney is interesting to many researchers as a successful media corporation. It managed not only to grow in the early stages but also to the later stages, with the participation of various managers and producers. This is a large corporation, which includes many acquired film companies.

What to Write in the Walt Disney Company Case Study?

To begin with, you need to highlight the questions that should be answered in your study. The essay can show the success story of the corporation, its growing process, expanding its market, creating amusement parks, and shooting feature films.

Despite today’s success, you can also pay attention to the company’s losses, weaknesses, and other issues. Studying the history of this corporation allows us to understand how it became what it is now.It is not necessary to describe the complete history since it is difficult to place it on several pages. Mention the basic points of history, as well as those that are related to the main topic of the case study.You should also look at the business from different sides, pay attention to the major strategic decisions and their results for the corporation.

Many years ago, Disney began to expand and shoot more films, so even then it had a complicated structure. Over time, managers have had to expand staff, and there are also ways to manage effectively, in order to continue getting needed results.

What Points can be Described on the Pages of the Disney Essay?

Choose from the whole story the most important points that also correspond the title. You should pay attention to the following:

• The success of the company in early stages and how it was used later
• Opening of the first amusement parks and complaints of their visitors, the role of Disneyland for visitors from different countries
• How managers selected strategies based on their experience and market realities?
• What is Walt Disney’s corporate strategy case study?
• Distribution around the world, opening of its networks
• Running channels and making money on the known characters
• Competition with other companies that produce cartoons and all kinds of films
• Cooperation and transactions with other companies, how they influenced the success of Disney
• What investments were made and what were the results?

It is important to understand that now it is much more than a company for the production of cartoons. Under this brand, toys and souvenirs are produced, full-length films are shot, television channels are working. There is a variety of printed products based on stories from Disney.

The wider the view of the company, the more complex aspects of its activities can be seen. Before writing your essay, you need to figure out which branches of this company you will explore.Would you like us to help you write this case study ? We will make it unique and all work will be confidential and anonymous!

What are the Common Walt Disney Case Study Questions?

Your essay should help in finding answers to the asked questions. You can get them when you understand what you need to investigate. Students may be interested in the following:

• How the company managed not only to get the success but also to use it for further expansion?
• How the approach of the first leader and his successors differed from the approach other companies’ heads?
• What decisions were the most beneficial for Disney and why they were accepted?
• What solutions helped the company to remain popular under competitive conditions?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the company now?
• What was the reason for the purchase of the Marvel and Lucasfilm studios? How did these purchases affect the main work of these companies?

Where to Get Information for Disney Case Study

Many students turn to the Internet to get such information, and only after it, they look for paper sources.

This is really convenient because information on the Internet is easy to find and analyze but not all sources have open access nor are truthful.Due to the fact that Disney has been the object of many studies, it is easy to find information about its activities. To find similar essays, use the common search sites or research databases. Many research websites are open to all students. Be careful when searching for sources because not all of them are reliable.

If you are interested in the company’s strategy and its business, as well as the results of its activities, you should view financial reports for certain periods. This allows understanding what solutions of company leaders were successful.You can use sources like scientific articles, articles from newspapers and magazines, books on the history of Disney, interviews, and reports of its leaders. It is important to be able to recognize the information that corresponds to the topic of the study.It is also important to be able to analyze information. Simple facts and numbers do not demonstrate your point of view, but your analysis does.

It is data analysis that allows your readers understanding your opinion, what you are going to say

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How Disney created a PR nightmare with its response to a wrongful-death lawsuit

• A doctor died in 2023 of a severe allergic reaction after eating at Disney Springs in Florida.
• Disney faced backlash for how it handled her widower's wrongful-death lawsuit.
• A media expert said the company's Disney+ argument was a misstep.

Earlier this month, Disney walked itself into a PR nightmare.

Jeffrey J. Piccolo named the entertainment giant in a wrongful-death lawsuit in February after his wife, Kanokporn Tangsuan, died at a restaurant in Disney Springs in Florida. Piccolo is representing Tangsuan's estate.

Tangsuan, a doctor from New York, experienced a "severe acute allergic reaction" in October 2023 after dining at Raglan Road Irish Pub and Restaurant.

Court documents said that Tangsuan had severe dairy and nut allergies, so her family decided to dine at that restaurant because they believed it would have "proper safeguards." Piccolo and Tangsuan asked a restaurant employee on "numerous occasions" if the establishment served allergen-free options, which the employee confirmed.

Tangsuan was then transported to the hospital after collapsing in Planet Hollywood, according to the lawsuit. A medical examiner's investigation determined that her cause of death resulted from "anaphylaxis due to elevated levels of dairy and nut in her system."

Piccolo requested in excess of $50,000 in damages from Disney and the restaurant's operator, Great Irish Pubs Florida, Inc.

Disney's response

Disney's motion to compel arbitration might have been to avoid a jury trial, which could have attracted more media attention. But its response had the opposite effect.

In May, Disney argued that Piccolo could not make his case before a a jury because he accepted a Subscriber Agreement when registering for a Disney+ free trial in 2019 . Registering for an account includes agreeing to the Subscriber Agreement and Terms of Use , which include a "binding arbitration clause."

Arbitration is when parties involved in a dispute have a neutral third party resolve the matter instead of a court jury.

"The Terms of Use, which were provided with the Subscriber Agreement, include a binding arbitration clause. The first page of the Subscriber Agreement states, in all capital letters, that 'any dispute between You and Us, Except for Small Claims, is subject to a class action waiver and must be resolved by individual binding arbitration,'" court documents said.

Related stories

Disney said Piccolo agreed to those terms again in September 2023 when he booked tickets to visit one of its theme parks.

Piccolo's lawyers responded to Disney earlier this month by calling the argument "fatally flawed" and "preposterous." Consumers thought so, too.

The surprising legal argument also captured the media's attention, causing the story to go viral.

Disney backtracks

One X user called the Disney+ argument "very dystopian," while others encouraged people to cancel their subscriptions in retaliation. One such X post was liked 93,000 times, while another gained 96,000 likes. Media outlets like The Associated Press published articles describing Disney's argument as a cautionary tale for consumers who click "agree" without reading the fine print.

A Disney spokesperson soon attempted to quell the masses with a statement distancing the company from Raglan Road Irish Pub and Restaurant.

"We are deeply saddened by the family's loss and understand their grief. Given that this restaurant is neither owned nor operated by Disney, we are merely defending ourselves against the plaintiff's attorney's attempt to include us in their lawsuit against the restaurant," the statement said.

David Triana, director of media relations at Axia Public Relations, a top national PR agency, told Business Insider that the Disney+ argument, in tandem with the arbitration request, was a misstep on the company's part.

"I'm honestly surprised that this was even entertained by Disney," Triana said. "We're not talking about losing a little money on a park ticket or sharing a password for your Disney+ account. Somebody died."

Triana said that although Disney might have been thinking from a legal perspective, it lost sight of the human perspective.

"You have to be very empathetic and cautious in a situation like this. Not only toward the people in the situation but also people who plan on going to Disney and will sign the same terms," he said.

Triana said Disney's argument could cause would-be park guests to rethink their decision.

"It might give people pause if they're coming to the parks for the first time or if they are planning on signing up for Disney+," he said. "They'll say, 'Okay, I've signed this. Does that now put me at a disadvantage?'"

Disney's first statement didn't curb the criticism from consumers online. So, less than a week later, Disney said in another statement that it would prioritize "humanity" and reverse course, waiving its right to arbitration .

"At Disney, we strive to put humanity above all other considerations. With such unique circumstances as the ones in this case, we believe this situation warrants a sensitive approach to expedite a resolution for the family who have experienced such a painful loss," Josh D'Amaro, chairman of Disney Experiences, said. "As such, we've decided to waive our right to arbitration and have the matter proceed in court."

Disney likely wanted to avoid a jury trial

Natela Shenon, a business law attorney in California, told BI that Disney could have changed its legal strategy for two reasons.

Shenon pointed out that Disney neither owns nor operates Raglan Road Irish Pub and Restaurant, so its legal team might be banking on that detail.

Another reason could be that Disney hoped to avoid a jury trial, where sympathy for a multibillion-dollar corporation could be scarce. Shenon said it's not uncommon for large companies to suggest arbitration rather than a jury trial.

"Look at it from Disney's perspective. Let's say that you're on a jury and this case comes up in front of you," Shenon said. "You're like, 'Okay, but this is Disney. They have all this money. Who cares?''

Shenon added, "A layperson might glaze over something like this and say, 'Oh, Disney is a big company. They're not being fair to the small guys.'"

Shenon told BI that arbitration is similar to litigation.

"People still get their day in court, so to speak. It moves faster, and it's more efficient," Shenon said.

When asked if Disney's argument could hold up in a courtroom, Shenon said it depended.

"I think that an argument as far as Disney+ goes would probably be very far-fetched," she said. "Buying tickets through the website would hold water."

Legal proceedings for the lawsuit are still ongoing, but Triana said Disney has the opportunity to mend its public image now through transparency.

"Disney, in my opinion, would need to show in good faith that they've learned from the situation by either removing the arbitration clause or modifying the arbitration clause," he said.

A representative for Disney said it has no additional comments at this time.

Watch: DeSantis vs. Disney: Who are the winners and losers?

• Main content

• Resources and Development Class 10 Case Study Social Science Geography Chapter 1

Last Updated on September 3, 2024 by XAM CONTENT

Hello students, we are providing case study questions for class 10 social science. Case study questions are the new question format that is introduced in CBSE board. The resources for case study questions are very less. So, to help students we have created chapterwise case study questions for class 10 social science. In this article, you will find case study for CBSE Class 10 Social Science Geography Chapter 1 Resources and Development. It is a part of Case Study Questions for CBSE Class 10 Social Science Series.

Table of Contents

Case Study Questions on Resources and Development Class 10

Read the following passage and answer the questions:

We have shared our land with the past generations and will have to do so with the future generations too. Ninety five per cent of our basic needs for food, shelter and clothing are obtained from land.

Human activities have not only brought about degradation of land but have also aggravated the pace of natural forces to cause damage to land. Some human activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, mining and quarrying too have contributed significantly in land degradation. Mining sites are abandoned, after excavation work is complete, leaving deep scars and traces of over burdening. In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha, deforestation due to mining have caused severe land degradation. In states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, over-grazing is one of the main reasons for land degradation. In the states like Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation is responsible for land degradation due to water logging leading to increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.

Q 1. How does human activities have brought about land degradation? Ans. Human activities have brought about land degradation through the factors like deforestation, over-grazing, mining and quarrying.

Q 2. How is over irrigation responsible for land degradation? Ans. Over irrigation is responsible for land degradation due to water logging leading to increase in salinity in soil.

Q 3. Why is human considered as the main culprit for land degradation? Ans. Human is considered as the main culprit for land degradation due to the following reasons: (i) His excavation work at mining sites. (ii) His significant contribution to deforestation. (iii) He has aggravated the pace of natural forces causing damage to land. (Any two)

Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources. It has importance in a country like India, which has enormous diversity in the availability of resources. There are regions which are rich in certain types of resources but are deficient in some other resources. There are some regions which can be considered self-sufficient in terms of the availability of resources and there are some regions which have acute shortage of some vital resources. For example, the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh are rich in minerals and coal deposits. Arunachal Pradesh has abundance of water resources but lacks in infrastructural development. The state of Rajasthan is very well endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks in water resources. The cold desert of Ladakh is relatively isolated from the rest of the country. It has very rich cultural heritage, but it is deficient in water, infrastructure and some vital minerals. This calls for balanced resource planning at the national, state, regional and local levels.

Q. 1. Which of the following statements correctly describes about resource planning? a. Identification and quantification of available resources. b. Development of available resources. c. Both a. and b. d. Uneven distribution of resources.

Ans. Option (c) is correct.

Q. 2. Resource planning is important in a country like India due to: a. enormous diversity in availability of resources b. deficiency in certain types of resources c. abundance of water resources d. rich cultural heritage

Ans. Option (a) is correct.

Q. 3. The state(s) which is/are rich in minerals and coal deposits is/are: a. Jharkhand b. Chhattisgarh c. Madhya Pradesh d. All of these

Ans. Option (d) is correct.

Q. 4. The states like Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh are rich in coal and minerals but have less development in resources as: a. they are economically less developed b. they have rich cultural heritage c. they lack water resources d. they lack technological and institutional support

• Power Sharing Class 10 Case Study Social Science Political Science Chapter 1
• Forest and Wildlife Resources Class 10 Case Study Social Science Geography Chapter 2
• The Making of a Global World Class 10 Case Study Social Science History Chapter 3

Nationalism in India Class 10 Case Study Social Science History Chapter 2

The rise of nationalism in europe class 10 case study social science history chapter 1, topics from which case study questions may be asked.

• Types – natural and human
• Need for resource planning
• Natural resources
• Land as a resource
• Soil types and distribution
• Changing land-use pattern
• Land degradation and conservation measures.

Everything available in our environment which can be used to satisfy our needs, provided it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable, can be termed as ‘resource’.

The first International Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 endorsed global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21 for achieving sustainable development.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) on Resources and Development Class 10 Case Study

Q1: what are case study questions.

A1: Case study questions are a type of question that presents a detailed scenario or a real-life situation related to a specific topic. Students are required to analyze the situation, apply their knowledge, and provide answers or solutions based on the information given in the case study. These questions help students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

Q2: How should I approach case study questions in exams?

A2: To approach case study questions effectively, follow these steps: Read the case study carefully: Understand the scenario and identify the key points. Analyze the information: Look for clues and relevant details that will help you answer the questions. Apply your knowledge: Use what you have learned in your course to interpret the case study and answer the questions. Structure your answers: Write clear and concise responses, making sure to address all parts of the question.

Q3: What are the benefits of practicing case study questions from your website?

A3: Practicing case study questions from our website offers several benefits: Enhanced understanding: Our case studies are designed to deepen your understanding of historical events and concepts. Exam preparation: Regular practice helps you become familiar with the format and types of questions you might encounter in exams. Critical thinking: Analyzing case studies improves your ability to think critically and make connections between different historical events and ideas. Confidence: Practicing with our materials can boost your confidence and improve your performance in exams.

Q4: What are the important keywords in this chapter “Resources and Development”?

A4: Important keywords for CBSE Class 10 Resources and Development are given below: Land Use Pattern: Use of land for different purposes like forests, cultivation, fallow land, etc. Ecological Balance: The balance in our physical and cultural environment. Man’s activities cause disturbances in this balance. For example, two important aspects are balance of gases in air and balance of constituents in soil. Land Degradation: Depletion of the resources of the land through soil erosion, mining, deforestation, etc. Khadar: The new alluvium. Kankar: Substance now containing calcium carbonates. Laterite: Soils from which silicates have been leached out and iron and aluminium predominate. Bangar: The old alluvium. Conservation: Preservation and protection of natural or man-made resources. Regur: Black soil of extremely fine clayey material. Basin: A wide depression or an area drained by a river. Sub-soil: Part of the soil below the top layer, normally used for cultivation to the depth to which most plant roots grow. Fallow Land: Agricultural land left uncultivated after two-three crops to restore its natural fertility. Marginal Land: Land which is difficult to cultivate and yields little profit. Net Sown Area: The total land under crop production excluding wasteland or land left fallow. Soil: Top layer of earth containing humus.

Q5: When and why was the Rio-de-Janeiro Earth summit held?

A5: Rio-de-Janeiro summit was held in 1992 in Brazil. Earth Summit: To achieve sustainable development in order to combat environment damage, poverty and disease, it laid emphasis on global cooperation, mutual needs and shared responsibilities.

Q6: What type of soil is found in the river deltas of the eastern coast? Write three main features of this type of soil.

A6: Alluvial Soil: Its main features are: (i) Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion of potash and lime which are ideal for the growth of sugarcane, paddy, wheat, etc. (ii) Such a soil is the result of deposits of river. (iii) Very fertile soil

Q7: What do you mean by land use pattern? Name the factors that determine the use of land.

A7: Utilisation of land for various purposes, such as cultivation, grazing of animals, mining, construction of roads, etc. Factors that determine land use pattern are: (i) Topography (ii) Climate (iii) Human Factor (iv) Accessibility

Q8: What does the term ‘sustainable economic development’ mean? How can we eradicate irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources?

A8: Sustainable economic development means ‘development should take place without damaging the environment’ and development in the present should not compromise with the needs of the future generations. We can eradicate irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources through conservation of resources. Irrational consumption and over-exploitation of resources lead to many socioeconomic and environmental problems. To overcome these problems and to preserve resources for our future generation as well, proper management and conservation of resources is essential

Q9: What is resource planning? Write three phases of resource planning.

A9: Resource planning is a proper and judicious planning of resources. Resources are put to use according to availability and needs for development of the economy. Three processes which are involved in resource planning are: (a) Identification and inventory of resources across various regions of the country. It involves surveying, mapping, qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources. (b) Evolving a planning structure, endowed with appropriate technological skill and institutional set up for implementing resource development plans. (c) Synchronizing the resource development with overall national development plans.

Q10: Explain the role of human in resource development

A10: Human is at the centre of resource development. Actually all resources become resources only when they are put to use by humans. It is human who makes natural things usable with the help of technology. Had no technology been there, development would not have been possible. There are regions where natural resources are in abundance but the regions are not developed, e.g., Africa. But if humans are developed, they make the region developed with technology, e.g., Japan.

Q11: Are there any online resources or tools available for practicing “ Resources and Development” case study questions?

A11: We provide case study questions for CBSE Class 10 Social Science on our  website . Students can visit the website and practice sufficient case study questions and prepare for their exams.

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25.1 Case Study: Modeling Fractional-Dose Emergency Vaccination Campaigns for Yellow Fever

• Open Access
• First Online: 31 August 2024

Cite this chapter

You have full access to this open access chapter

• Joseph T. Wu 7 &
• Corey M. Peak 8  

Yellow fever (YF) is a mosquito-borne disease with no specific treatment. The burden of YF was much reduced around the world in the 1950s, but many mosquito control programs were allowed to lapse thereafter, and the World Health Organization (WHO) has been warning for decades that explosive outbreaks of urban YF were likely. YF resurged and spread widely in urban Angola in late 2015, then to Kenya, China, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The existing WHO YF vaccine stockpile was insufficient, and WHO proposed using a fractional dose (one-fifth of that previously used) against the spreading epidemic. We used mathematical modeling to assess the impact of potentially reduced vaccine efficacy with fractional dosing on the infection attack rate. Our rapid risk assessment model showed that the proposed WHO dose-sparing strategy for the YF vaccination campaign in Kinshasa would be robust and effective and would prevent many more infections than using the available vaccine at standard dosage, even with a large margin for error in case fivefold fractional-dose vaccine efficacy turned out to be lower than expected. WHO implemented the strategy in August 2016, and subsequent studies found it to be a viable control strategy, with possible implications for other situations of vaccine shortage.

Learning Track Note: This chapter appears in Learning Tracks: Biostatistics

You have full access to this open access chapter,  Download chapter PDF

• Yellow fever
• Mass vaccination
• Emergency vaccination campaign
• Fractional vaccine dosing
• Mathematical modeling

This chapter should enable readers to understand and discuss:

Why WHO warned against cutting mosquito control programs when the incidence of yellow fever (YF) dropped around the world.

The basis of the proposal to provide one-fifth of the normally recommended YF vaccine dose in response to a 2016 YF outbreak in Central Africa.

How a dose-sparing immunization regimen could reduce the infection rate even if the smaller dose is less effective in preventing infection and disease.

The mathematical modeling used by the authors to assess the impact of potentially reduced vaccine efficacy with fractional dosing on the YF infection attack rate.

How the conclusions of the modeling study were applied in urban Kinshasa.

Conference recommendations for further research on the efficacy of fractional doses in outbreaks.

1 Modeling Fractional-Dose Emergency Vaccination Campaigns for Yellow Fever

Yellow fever (YF) is a mosquito-borne disease with no specific treatment (WHO 2019b ). During the 1950s, mass vaccination and intensive mosquito-control programs largely eliminated YF, except in sub-Saharan Africa and sporadic hotspots in South America. However, as the burden of YF subsided, many mosquito control programs were dismantled. The World Health Organization (WHO) has been warning for decades that such policy failure, together with changes in demography, land use patterns, and international air travel, would set the stage for explosive outbreaks of urban YF.

Dose-sparing yellow fever vaccination campaign underway near Kinshasa. (Courtesy of WHO/E. Photo: Soteras Jalil)

This premonition was realized when YF resurged and spread widely in urban Angola in late 2015 (Chan 2016 ). By May 2016, more than 2500 suspected cases, including 301 deaths, had been reported from all 18 provinces of Angola. Cases had been exported to Kenya, China, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and the risk of further international spread was escalating. Although WHO maintained a YF vaccine stockpile of about six million doses for emergency use in reactive campaigns, the stockpile was intended for responding to sylvatic spillovers and was therefore insufficient in size for controlling sustained urban outbreaks. Facing severe shortages of YF vaccines, WHO proposed dose fractionation for an emergency YF vaccination campaign in August 2016 to vaccinate eight million people in Kinshasa, three million in anterior Angola, and 4.3 million along the DRC-Angola corridor (Schnirring 2016 ).

Although empirical evidence suggested that a fivefold fractional dose was not inferior to a standard dose in terms of safety and immunogenicity (largely due to the excess of infectious viral particles in routine YF vaccine batches) (Visser 2019 ), it was not known whether equal immunogenicity implies equal vaccine efficacy (VE) for YF vaccines. To strengthen the evidence base for the public health benefit of dose fractionation of YF vaccines, we used mathematical modeling to assess the impact of reduced VE in fractional dose vaccines on the infection attack rate (IAR), defined as the proportion of the population infected over the course of an epidemic (Wu et al. 2016 ). Such an assessment would be particularly useful if the pathogen was not highly transmissible (e.g., the basic reproductive number R 0 of influenza is below 2 (Riley et al. 2007 )) because even if dose fractionation reduced VE, the resulting higher vaccine coverage (VC) might confer higher herd immunity, in which case the number of infections could be significantly reduced by the indirect effect of large-scale vaccination. However, the transmissibility of YF in urban settings had never been adequately characterized before due to limited data, and hence the importance of herd immunity for YF vaccination was unknown. As such, the first step of our study was to estimate the R 0 of YF in urban settings by analyzing the epidemic curve of YF in Luanda, Angola. We found that in the absence of interventions, the R 0 of YF was around 5–7, which suggested that the intrinsic transmissibility of YF was not low. Therefore, the herd effect would not likely be substantial unless the immunization coverage (VC x VE) was close to the control threshold \( 1-\frac{1}{R_0} \) .

Let VE( n ) and IAR( n ) be the VE and IAR under n-fold dose fractionation. We assumed that vaccine action was all-or-nothing, i.e., vaccines provided 100% protection against infection in a proportion VE( n ) of vaccinees and no protection in the remainder. Under this assumption,

where V was the vaccine coverage achievable with standard-dose vaccines, and S 0 and I 0 were the initial proportion of population that were susceptible and infectious. This simple model indicated that n-fold dose fractionation reduced IAR if and only if \( \mathrm{VE}(n)>\frac{\mathrm{VE}(1)}{n} \) regardless of the transmissibility of the pathogen and pre-existing population immunity.

Having established the minimum requirement on VE( n ) for n-fold dose fractionation to be non-inferior, we then considered VE(5) = 1, 0.9, 0.6 and 0.3 and compared the IAR when vaccines were administered in standard dose only versus according to the fivefold dose-fractionation proposed by the WHO for its vaccination campaign in Kinshasa. We parameterized the population demographics and pre-campaign vaccine coverage in the model using (1) the age distribution of Angola and Kinshasa from the World Factbook (CIA 2020 ); (2) the annual routine immunization coverage among children aged 12–23 months between 1997 and 2015 from WHO/United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) immunization estimates (WHO 2019a ); and (3) vaccine coverage conferred by the emergency vaccination of around one million people in Kinshasa during May–June 2016. We estimated that the dose-sparing strategy would avert 7.1, 7.1, 5.4, and 1.3 million infections if R 0 = 4, and around 7.9, 7.9, 4.0 and 1.0 million infections if R 0 = 8–12. These figures were based on the assumption of a sustained epidemic, such that transmission declined when the population of susceptible hosts was depleted.

In conclusion, our rapid risk assessment model, shared via preprint in May 2016, showed that the proposed WHO dose-sparing strategy for the YF vaccination campaign in Kinshasa, DRC, would be a robust and effective strategy for reducing infection attack rate; it would prevent many more infections than using the vaccine at standard dosage, even with a large margin for error in case fivefold fractional-dose vaccine efficacy turned out to be lower than expected. WHO formally recommended the dose-fractionation strategy in July 2016 (WHO 2016a ), and it was implemented in August 2016 (◘ Fig. 1 ), during which nearly 7.5 million residents of urban Kinshasa received fivefold fractional dose vaccines and nearly 0.5 million children under two and pregnant women received standard dose vaccines, achieving an estimated 98% coverage of the target population (WHO 2016b ). In June 2017, WHO published an addendum to its 2013 position paper on YF vaccine stating, “As a dose-sparing strategy, a fractional YF vaccine dose meeting the WHO minimum requirement for potency is expected to be equivalent to a standard YF vaccine dose with respect to safety, immunogenicity, and effectiveness” (WHO 2013 , 2017c ). Research conferences in 2017 and 2019 drew on several clinical studies that supported the efficacy of fractional doses in outbreak circumstances, while recommending further research on the duration of immunity and potential need for booster doses (WHO 2017a , 2020 ; Casey et al. 2019 ).

Here, mathematical modeling (► Chaps. 24 and 25 ) provided insights into the tradeoffs between individual-level vaccine efficacy and population-level herd immunity conferred by dose-sparing strategies. This approach bears relevance for questions of dose-sparing for other vaccines, e.g., inactivated polio vaccine (WHO 2017b ), as well as dose-spacing approaches, for example with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines (Kadire et al. 2021 ; Tuite et al. 2021 ). With respect to the latter, delaying the administration of the second dose of a two-dose vaccine regimen has been implemented in some countries as a means to accelerate population coverage with the first dose, at the potential, uncertain cost of lower and/or waning efficacy during the time between when the second dose would be administered under the standard regimen and the second injection under the dose-spacing regimen. In principle, if during this period the average vaccine efficacy of the first dose remains above one-half of the vaccine efficacy following the second dose, then a dose-spacing regimen may reduce the infection attack rate.

Discussion Questions

During the 1950s, mass vaccination and intensive mosquito-control programs largely eliminated YF except in sub-Saharan Africa and sporadic hotspots in South America. As the burden of YF subsided, WHO warned against dismantling many mosquito control programs. Why?

Following YF’s resurgence and spread in urban Angola in late 2015, cases were exported to Kenya, China, and the DRC, escalating the risk of further international spread. What prompted WHO to consider a fivefold fractional vaccine dose for an emergency YF vaccination campaign in August 2016?

The transmissibility of YF in urban settings had never been adequately characterized, so the importance of herd immunity in YF was also largely unknown. Briefly summarize the mathematical modeling used by the authors to assess the potential impact of vaccine efficacy being reduced by an uncertain amount by fractional dosing.

Briefly state the conclusions of this study and their application in urban Kinshasa.

Research conferences in 2017 and 2019 drew on several clinical studies that supported the efficacy of fractional doses in outbreak circumstances. What were some recommendations for further research?

The mathematical modeling of this study provided insights into the tradeoffs between individual-level vaccine efficacy and population-level herd immunity conferred by dose-sparing strategies. Beside YF, this approach also bears relevance for questions of dose-sparing for inactivated polio vaccine and dose-spacing for COVID-19 vaccines. How could a dose-spacing regimen reduce the infection attack rate?

Casey R, Harris J, Ahuka-Mundeke S, Dixon M, Kizito G, Nsele P, et al. Immunogenicity of fractional-dose vaccine during a yellow fever outbreak—final report. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(5):444–54. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1710430 .

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WHO. WHO vaccine-preventable diseases: monitoring system. 2019 global summary. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019a. http://apps.who.int/immunization_monitoring/globalsummary . Accessed 23 Jan 2020.

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WHO. Consultation on the research agenda for fractional yellow fever vaccination. Washington, DC/Geneva: World Health Organization; 2020.

Wu J, Peak C, Leung G, Lipsitch M. Fractional dosing of yellow fever vaccine to extend supply: a modelling study. Lancet. 2016;388(10062):2904–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31838-4 .

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It's a shark eat shark world. Researchers find evidence that large sharks may be hunting each other.

By Mary Cunningham

September 3, 2024 / 5:00 AM EDT / CBS News

In the ocean food chain, large sharks generally only have to worry about keeping orcas  at bay — but a new study suggests the apex predators may have to watch out for their own.

Researchers have discovered evidence pointing to the first known case of a porbeagle shark — which can grow up to 12 feet long and 500 pounds — being killed by a large shark predator. The findings were published  Tuesday in the biology journal Frontiers in Marine Science .

This isn't the first case of  "shark cannibalism,"   said Jon Dodd, executive director of the Atlantic Shark Institute, which helped lead the study. Larger sharks eating smaller sharks is a common occurrence, "in the open ocean, size matters, but there is always something bigger," he said. 

In some cases — bull sharks , mako sharks and  baby sand tiger sharks , for example — sharks will even eat their own species.

But cases of large sharks eating other large sharks, the subject of this study, are few and far between, said lead author Dr. Brooke Anderson, a marine biologist for the North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality. 

The fatality of the female porbeagle raises questions about whether this incident represents a wider trend among large predators, said Anderson. "With the advancements in technology, it's possible that this happens more frequently than we've just really been able to discover," said Anderson.  

The number of sharks eaten by other sharks is impossible to know, said Dodd adding, "but if our experiences at the Atlantic Shark Institute are an indicator, it might be more than we think."

A group of scientific researchers from across the U.S. discovered the porbeagle death while conducting a satellite tracking project in the Northwestern Atlantic to better understand the shark species' whereabouts, behaviors and environmental preferences. They were particularly curious about female porbeagles, which are known to traverse long swaths of the ocean to deliver their pups. 

"We were really seeking to understand the habitats used by the pregnant females and try to figure out where they might be going to give birth," said Anderson.

The victim of the attack, nicknamed Penelope by researchers, was one of the 11 sharks scientists tagged off the coast of Cape Cod in 2020 and 2022. Tracking tags were placed on the dorsal fins of the sharks and used to collect information on water depth and temperature. The tags stored the data until they eventually fell off the sharks, at which point the data was transmitted back to the researchers via satellite.

The tracking devices were designed to stay on for a year, but five months into the experiment, Penelope's data had already come in. "As soon as I got the data from that tag, I immediately knew something weird had happened," Anderson said. 

A few days before Penelope's tag popped off along the coast of Bermuda, the temperature of the water suddenly spiked. It remained relatively high, even when it reached 600 meters below sea level, which is "very unusual," Anderson explained.

Anderson and her colleagues came to a harrowing conclusion: the porbeagle had been hunted and eaten by another behemoth of the sea. "The only explanation for that data is that this tab is now in the stomach of a predator," Anderson told CBS News.

Researchers don't know with 100% certainty what the culprit was, but the diving pattern of the predator, which researchers tracked by looking at the depth data collected by the tag, was similar to that of white sharks they've monitored in the past. "Based on that, it was likely, I'd guess, a mature female white shark," said Anderson.

Porbeagles, which have historically been overfished, are considered endangered in certain parts of the world . Given they are already at risk, Anderson said the loss of pregnant females and their babies could prove devastating to the population.

And sharks aren't the only ones that could feel the ripple effects of this change. The rulers of the deep maintain the balance of the underwater ecosystem by keeping smaller predator populations in check and adding vital nutrients to shallow waters . 

"Humans heavily rely on oceans for food and many other things and the oceans need healthy shark populations," Anderson said. 

• Great White Shark
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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• Published: 03 September 2024

Unveiling spatial variations in atmospheric CO 2 sources: a case study of metropolitan area of Naples, Italy

• Roberto M. R. Di Martino   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6435-2759 1 ,
• Sergio Gurrieri   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4085-0440 1 ,
• Antonio Paonita   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9124-5027 1 ,
• Stefano Caliro   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8522-6695 2 &
• Alessandro Santi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1549-9786 2  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  20483 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Atmospheric chemistry
• Atmospheric science
• Climate sciences
• Environmental sciences
• Geochemistry
• Natural hazards
• Solid Earth sciences
• Volcanology

In the lower atmosphere, CO 2 emissions impact human health and ecosystems, making data at this level essential for addressing carbon-cycle and public-health questions. The atmospheric concentration of CO 2 is crucial in urban areas due to its connection with air quality, pollution, and climate change, becoming a pivotal parameter for environmental management and public safety. In volcanic zones, geogenic CO 2 profoundly affects the environment, although hydrocarbon combustion is the primary driver of increased atmospheric CO 2 and global warming. Distinguishing geogenic from anthropogenic emissions is challenging, especially through air CO 2 concentration measurements alone. This study presents survey results on the stable isotope composition of carbon and oxygen in CO 2 and airborne CO 2 concentration in Naples’ urban area, including the Campi Flegrei caldera, a widespread hydrothermal/volcanic zone in the metropolitan area. Over the past 50 years, two major volcanic unrests (1969–72 and 1982–84) were monitored using seismic, deformation, and geochemical data. Since 2005, this area has experienced ongoing unrest, involving the pressurization of the underlying hydrothermal system as a causal factor of the current uplift in the Pozzuoli area and the increased CO 2 emissions in the atmosphere. To better understand CO 2 emission dynamics and to quantify its volcanic origin a mobile laboratory was used. Results show that CO 2 levels in Naples’ urban area exceed background atmospheric levels, indicating an anthropogenic origin from fossil fuel combustion. Conversely, in Pozzuoli's urban area, the stable isotope composition reveals a volcanic origin of the airborne CO 2 . This study emphasizes the importance of monitoring stable isotopes of atmospheric CO 2 , especially in volcanic areas, contributing valuable insights for environmental and public health management.

Introduction

The equilibrium among natural CO 2 emissions, biotic uptake on land, and ocean absorption regulates long-term fluctuations in airborne CO 2 , establishing the greenhouse effect essential for the biosphere's existence on Earth. Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion, vehicle mobility, house heating, and waste management, disrupt the carbon cycle, leading to an increase in airborne CO 2 levels 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 . Disruption of this equilibrium worsens the effects of global warming and climate changes.

Global temperature data from Copernicus ( https://climate.copernicus.eu/ accessed on 2024, January 10), shows that the mean near-surface temperature in 2023 was ~ 1.4 ± 0.12 °C above the 1850–1900 average. This marked the warmest year in the 174-year observational record, surpassing the joint warmest years of 2016 and 2020. Notably, the last decade (2014–2023) encompasses the nine warmest years on record. Real-time data from specific locations reveals a continued increase in CO 2 levels in 2023, while consolidated concentration datasets of CO 2 , methane, and nitrous oxide reached their highest records in 2022.

Several causes contribute to global warming and climate change 6 . Since the eighteenth century the industrialization has led to the gradual abandonment of rural areas and the concentration of people in urbanized zones. Industries, mainly relying on electrical power generated by hydrocarbon combustion, settled in suburban areas contribute significantly to CO 2 emissions 5 , 7 . Urban growth, characterized by skyscrapers and increased vehicle mobility, results in continuous large-scale carbon dioxide release, predominantly concentrated in urban areas, significantly impacting the global atmospheric composition.

Earth degassing, driven by natural sources like soil respiration, volcanic degassing, and photosynthesis, contributes to atmospheric CO 2 concentrations 8 . Regions of active volcanism, responsible for a significant portion of natural gas emissions, release CO 2 of magmatic origin, particularly during eruptions, accounting for ~ 1% of global CO 2 emissions annually 9 , 10 , 11 . Although this percentage is modest on a global scale, locally, natural emissions may have a more substantial environmental impact, raising hazards for local populations 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 . For example, during the recent outgassing crisis at Vulcano, Italy 16 , 17 , gas hazards increased due to either diffuse degassing or crater plume emissions, though human health risk threshold value was not exceeded 18 , 19 , 20 .

Naples, with around 1 million residents, ranks third in population among Italian cities and is the most densely populated city in Europe. Its strategic location in Mediterranean shipping routes and heavy ship traffic in the harbour make it a potential major source of anthropogenic CO 2 . The city is located in a volcanic area with active volcanic and hydrothermal zones, making it an ideal study area to investigate the coexistence of human-related and natural CO 2 emissions.

This study presents the results of a spatial survey on airborne CO 2 in the metropolitan area of Naples. The survey aimed to collect measurements of airborne CO 2 concentration and stable isotopes of CO 2 to differentiate between volcanic and anthropogenic sources, identifying sources that elevate airborne CO 2 concentrations above the background. The study area includes Naples’ downtown and a broad urbanized zone extending from the western edge of Vesuvius volcano to Bacoli and Cuma in the east, and Agnano crater in the north, encompassing the active volcanic/hydrothermal zone of Campi Flegrei (Fig.  1 a). The Campi Flegrei area has experienced significant volcanic activity, including supereruptions, the oldest one dating back 40,000 years 21 , 22 . This area exhibits continuous degassing and seismic activity (i.e., Solfatara and Pisciarelli in the municipality of Pozzuoli). Anomalies in CO 2 emissions occur from soils via diffuse degassing and from fumaroles 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , particularly in the Solfatara area (Zone A in Fig.  1 a). The most recent eruption originated from Monte Nuovo in 1538 A.D. Since then, this system has been in a state of persistent degassing and fluctuating seismic activity, leading to ground motion known as bradiseism. The study area has also increased the degassing since 2005 and is currently in unrest 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 . Human-related and geologic CO 2 emissions have distinct stable isotopic signatures, allowing differentiation in the air at the district scale through a combination of concentrations and isotopic measurements 12 , 13 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 37 , 38 , 39 . The results of the spatial survey enable a comparison between volcanic CO 2 emissions and those of anthropogenic origin in the urbanized area of Naples.

Study area, the route used during survey and dataset distribution. The survey was conducted in May 2023. ( a ) The blue line represents the route used during the survey. The selected subsets for Solfatara area (orange zone A), downtown Naples (green zone B), and airport (ice blue zone C) are shown. ( b ) Probability plot for concentration dataset. Global average value of airborne CO 2 concentration is reported as reference. (blue line indicates 423 ppm vol) for a comparison with the average CO 2 concentration over the target area (50% cumulative probability). ( c ) Histograms for both the oxygen isotope (δ 18 O–CO 2 ) and carbon isotope (δ 13 C–CO 2 ) compositions. ( d ) Three-dimensional view of the study area showing the atmospheric CO 2 concentration measurements at their respective locations. The height of the vertical bars is proportional to the concentration levels. The colour scale and bar height indicate that the highest CO 2 concentration was detected near the port. ( e ) Placement of the measurements within the study area. The colour scale is identical to that in subplot ( d ) and indicates the CO 2 concentration measured in the air. The maps ( a ), ( d ), and ( e ) were generated in Qgis 3.34 environment ( https://qgis.org/download/ ).

We developed a measurement program to detect and quantify the spatial variability of CO 2 concentration and its stable isotopes in the near-surface air of the Naples metropolitan area (Fig.  1 a). The dataset enables a better determination of the influence of meteorological factors and multiple greenhouse gas sources on the nature of the urban CO 2 dome 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , which is considerably more challenging to identify than its mere presence. For this study, the wind direction was selected as the meteorological factor influencing CO 2 dispersal, while other meteorological factors (e.g., temperature, atmospheric pressure, relative humidity) can be averaged over the survey's completion time (11.4 h of acquisition during daytime over 24 h), as variations at the meteorological station from National Research Counsil (i.e., C.N.R. Long: 432,409; Lat: 4,520,399 UTM) are likely suitable for the entire Naples metropolitan area. Throughout the survey period, the weather remained consistently sunny. Table 1 presents the statistics of both environmental variables and atmospheric measurements.

Figure  1 b–c shows statistical distributions of measurements collected during the survey. The dataset collected in the Naples metropolitan area shows airborne CO 2 concentrations higher than 423 ppm vol (Fig.  1 b), which is the global reference for airborne CO 2 concentration for May 20, 2023 ( https://www.climate.gov/climatedashboard accessed on July 2, 2024). The probability plot 44 reveals three independent subsets of CO 2 concentrations. The 50% cumulative distribution indicates that the average value for the background CO 2 concentration in the urban area of Naples is 448.1 ± 1.0 ppm vol. The background population comprises more than 98.9% of the cumulative dataset, while the anomalous subset constitutes less than 0.1% of the cumulative dataset, with CO 2 concentrations exceeding 1300 ppm vol (Fig.  1 b).

Regarding stable isotopes, the carbon isotope composition of airborne CO 2 (reported in delta notation δ 13 C–CO 2 against the Vienna Pee Dee isotopic ratio-VPDB) shows values more 13 C-depleted than the theoretical background air (δ 13 C–CO 2  =  − 8‰ vs VPDB). This result indicates that a source of CO 2 forces airborne CO 2 concentration above background values. This gas source has a 13 C-depleted isotopic signature and establishes an urban CO 2 dome in the Naples metropolitan area. Furthermore, the statistical parameters of the data distribution (skewness =  − 2.27, kurtosis = 15.74) indicate that the dataset has a peak at δ 13 C–CO 2  =  − 10.40‰, which is more 13 C-depleted than the theoretical atmospheric CO 2 value 45 .

The range of values for δ 18 O-CO 2 is wide compared to the spatial and temporal scales of the collected measurements. The oxygen isotope composition of airborne CO 2 depends on both the hydrology of the region and oxygen isotope fractionation in plant leaves during photosynthesis 46 , 47 , 48 . These factors change over spatial and temporal scales different from those of the measurement acquisition (i.e., ~ 10 4 –10 5  m and approximately 24 h, respectively). The oxygen isotope values are almost normally distributed (skewness =  − 1.50, kurtosis = 7.3) throughout the study area (Fig.  2 b). Gaussian fitting of the oxygen values has a peak at δ 18 O–CO 2  =  − 3.16‰ versus VPDB, which is more 18 O-depleted than the expected value for a coastal area of the Mediterranean region 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 .

Spatial variations of the CO 2 measurements collected during survey throughout the target area (cell size 10 m). The maps were generated in Qgis 3.34 environment ( https://qgis.org/download/ ) using Measurement interpolation generated in SAGA GIS environment ( https://saga-gis.sourceforge.io/en/index.html ). ( a ) Spatial variation of the airborne CO 2 concentration. ( b ) Spatial variation of the oxygen isotope composition of the airborne CO 2 . ( c ) Spatial variation of the carbon isotope composition of the airborne CO 2 . Traces of the concentration profiles are reported (black lines). See text for description.

The collected dataset was utilized to investigate the spatial variation of airborne CO 2 (Fig.  2 ). These data allow investigation of whether urban CO 2 sources affect atmospheric chemistry at a district scale or over the urban area (i.e., at the local scale, ~ 10 4 –10 5  m). The results illustrate a heterogeneous distribution of airborne CO 2 concentration over the Naples metropolitan area, with a concentration gradient from the coast to the inland, likely influenced by local atmospheric circulation. Granieri et al. 14 , who conducted detailed micrometeorological studies on atmospheric circulation in the Naples area for gas dispersal simulations, noted a diurnal sea breeze blowing from SW to NE, pushing clean air inland from the seaside during morning hours. A supply of clean air from the sea would dilute CO 2 concentration at relatively low levels. However, measured CO 2 concentrations in the urban area of Naples suggest that atmospheric circulation is insufficient to reduce atmospheric CO 2 concentrations to background levels, at least on days with similar weather conditions to the ones of the day of measurements. Further research should address the issue concerning the critical atmospheric circulation conditions that help to reduce the concentration level of CO 2 . The implementation of atmospheric CO 2 monitoring programs in urban areas, particularly when integrated with stable isotope composition analyses, is posited as an effective method for detecting anthropogenic or natural forcings influencing atmospheric CO 2 levels. Elevated atmospheric CO 2 concentrations are frequently correlated with increased levels of other pollutants, suggesting that these monitoring programs can significantly enhance public health management strategies. Additionally, in urbanized regions located within volcanic zones, atmospheric CO 2 monitoring is crucial for mitigating volcanic risks associated with gas emissions (i.e., the gas hazard) 19 . Examination of the dataset reveals areas with high airborne CO 2 concentrations, notably near Naples' harbour, where the highest CO 2 concentration was measured (Fig.  1 d,e), and the district of Museo square, among others (Zone B in Fig.  1 a).

Figure  2 illustrates additional zones with high concentrations of airborne CO 2 . The airborne CO 2 concentrations achieve 572 ppm vol in a zone situated in the northeastern sector of the investigated area. While this level does not surpass any established risk threshold for human health 53 , it exceeds the reference value recorded at NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory for the investigated time frame (424 ppm by volume) by > 33%. A land use survey in the metropolitan area of Naples reveals the presence of the airport, particularly the runways and aircraft parking areas adjacent to the route used for data collection. Another zone exhibiting elevated concentrations of airborne CO 2 is identified on the western side of downtown Naples, within the municipality of Pozzuoli (i.e., transect B–B′ in Fig.  3 b). This area is renowned for its evidence of the underlying volcanic hydrothermal system of Campi Flegrei 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , with airborne CO 2 concentrations reaching 567 ppm vol. The spatial distribution of airborne CO 2 concentrations in this zone appears more heterogeneous compared to other areas, attributable to the presence of several high concentration nuclei near Bagnoli and Baia (Figs.  2 a and 3 a), eastward and westward of Solfatara, respectively.

Transects through selected zones of the study area to inspect lateral variations of airborne CO 2 concentration (blue line), δ 18 O–CO 2 (red line), and δ 13 C-CO 2 (blue line). ( a ) A–A′ transect (Bacoli). ( b ) B–B′ transect (Solfatara). ( c ) C–C′ transect (Downtown). ( d ) D–D′ transect (Portici).

The δ 18 O–CO 2 has been recognized as a tracer of photosynthesis and the hydrologic cycle's effects on airborne CO 2 . These processes play a pivotal role in the fractionation of oxygen in airborne CO 2 at vastly different spatiotemporal scales. While the hydrologic cycle exhibits seasonal effects at the regional scale, notable changes in vegetation (e.g., transition from C3 to C4 or CAM plant dominant types) account for variations in the oxygen isotope composition due to differences in photosynthesis. Since the survey was completed in a few hours, the spatial variations in the oxygen isotope composition resulting from these processes are expected to have negligible effects on the spatial variations of δ 18 O–CO 2 , which constitutes an ancillary factor for identifying variations in the source of CO 2 at the district scale 12 , 13 , 18 , 20 , 51 , 54 .

The kriging interpolation of the δ 18 O-CO 2 dataset reveals a zone with slightly 18 O-depleted airborne CO 2 westward of downtown Naples, where the δ 18 O–CO 2  =  ~  − 2‰. Near Baia, where high concentrations of CO 2 were measured (Fig.  2 a), the airborne CO 2 exhibits more 18 O-depleted values, reaching δ 18 O–CO 2  =  − 5.38‰ through a steep isotopic gradient (e.g., transect A–A′ in Fig.  3 a). The δ 18 O–CO 2 abruptly increases to approximately − 2‰ northwestwardly along the transect A–A′ (Fig.  3 a). Airborne CO 2 shows less 18 O-depleted values near Solfatara. A concentration profile across the Pozzuoli area (Fig.  3 b) depicts the least 18 O-depleted CO 2 in the air, having δ 18 O–CO 2  =  − 0.06‰ in the vicinity of Solfatara and toward the northeast (Fig.  3 b). The δ 18 O-CO 2 values decrease to an average of − 2.5‰ northeast of Astroni. Downtown Naples has been identified as an area where airborne CO 2 exhibits more 18 O-depleted values, although zones with δ 18 O–CO 2  <  − 6.5‰ are heterogeneously distributed between Pianura and Capodimonte, where CO 2 exhibits more 18 O-depleted CO 2 (i.e., transect C–C′ in Fig.  3 c). In this zone, heavily 18 O-depleted CO 2 (δ 18 O–CO 2  <  − 16.0‰) was measured in the harbour district.

Additionally, a wide zone elongated NW–SE exhibits δ 18 O–CO 2  <  − 5.3‰, extending from the eastern edge of downtown Naples to the west of Torre del Greco, coinciding with a densely urbanized area and a widespread industrialized area (i.e., Area Est-Centro direzionale). Figure  3 d illustrates a step gradient of δ 18 O–CO 2 that separates the coastal zone where δ 18 O–CO 2  =  ~  − 5.06‰ from the inland area where δ 18 O–CO 2  =  ~  − 2.85‰. The ∆ 18 O–CO 2  = 2.21 represents an order of magnitude greater than the accuracy of the oxygen isotope determination (± 0.25‰). In summary, the spatial variations of the measurements show strong fluctuations of δ 18 O–CO 2 in different zones. Kriging interpolation of the δ 18 O–CO 2 dataset reveals areas with slightly 18 O-depleted airborne CO 2 westward of Naples' downtown, and more 18 O-depleted values eastwards of downtown Naples. Similarly, wide variations in δ 13 C–CO 2 values correspond to spatial variations in the carbon isotopic signature of airborne CO 2 (Fig. six). Dataset statistics indicate that airborne CO 2 is 13 C-depleted compared to standard air. Cross-sections show trends indicating potential CO 2 sources with 13 C-depleted or enriched signatures in different areas, with notable variations near Baia and downtown Naples. These results suggest considerable variability in emission sources at the scale of the urbanized zone, and a dominant source of CO 2 with a 13 C-depleted signature. This expectation arises because the carbon isotope signature of airborne CO 2 can track the source of the gas 55 , 56 .

The cross-section through the urbanized areas of Bacoli (Figs.  2 a and 3 a) shows an average value of δ 13 C–CO 2  =  − 10.5‰, indicating airborne CO 2 to be more 13 C-depleted than theoretical air and global reference values recorded by NOAA ( https://www.climate.gov/climatedashboard accessed on July 2, 2024). A significant change in the carbon isotope composition of airborne CO 2 is evident at Baia, where a decrease to a value of δ 13 C–CO 2  <  − 14‰ was measured, coinciding with concentration values higher than those measured at Bacoli (Fig.  2 c). Low values of δ 13 C-CO 2 indicates that a heavily 13 C-depleted source of CO 2 is responsible for forcing airborne CO 2 above background levels and is the main contributor to increased CO 2 concentration. The carbon isotope composition increases to less 13 C-depleted values north of Cuma and achieves δ 13 C–CO 2  =  ~  − 9‰ in the northern zone of the target area. The B–B′ cross-section shows a different trend compared to the A–A′ profile (Fig.  3 a,b respectively). Specifically, δ 13 C–CO 2 decreases from approximately − 9 to − 11‰. Continuing along the Solfatara profile (Fig.  3 b), a sudden increase in δ 13 C–CO 2 value is observed, reaching values of approximately − 8‰ at the highest concentration values observed along the same profile.

This trend appears to be clearly opposite to that observed in the A–A′ profile, suggesting the presence of potential CO 2 sources with a less 13 C-depleted signature compared to those forcing airborne CO 2 concentration in adjacent areas. The alternative hypothesis, suggesting that clean air with δ 13 C–CO 2  =  − 8‰ produces the observed values, can be dismissed based on the evidence that 13 C-enrichment correlates with an increase in CO₂ concentration. This trend contradicts the expectation of a decrease in CO₂ concentration, which would be consistent with the clean air hypothesis. Furthermore, the A–A′, C–C′, and D–D′ profiles demonstrate that CO₂ concentrations exhibit opposite trends in comparison with δ 13 C–CO 2 . Specifically, these transects reveal that increases in CO₂ concentration coincide spatially with decreases in δ 13 C–CO 2 , indicating that the effective source of CO₂ in these zones is more 13 C-depleted. In the surrounding area, δ 13 C–CO 2 values average around − 10‰ regardless of CO 2 concentration in the air. These 13 C-depleted values reduce evidences of spatial 13 C-enrichment in airborne CO 2 . Therefore, the gas source which causes rise in CO 2 concentration above background levels in the area of Solfatara has a carbon isotope composition only slightly 13 C-depleted compared to the VPDB standard. Accordingly, to the northeast of the Astroni crater, δ 13 C–CO 2 decrease sharply to values ranging between − 10 and − 11‰. Moreover, zones with high airborne CO 2 concentrations near both Bagnoli and Posillipo also show heavily 13 C-depleted isotopic composition (i.e., δ 13 C–CO 2  =  − 14.69‰ and δ 13 C–CO 2  =  − 13.85‰, respectively).

The C–C′ profile (Fig.  3 c) crosses Naples’ downtown (Fig.  2 ), which is busiest by vehicle during morning hours. The airborne CO 2 has δ 13 C–CO 2 values from − 17.65 to − 8.54‰ with an average δ 13 C–CO 2  =  ~  − 11‰. High CO 2 concentrations along this profile occur at the harbour district (Fig.  3 c and Fig.  2 a), which coincides with the zone having the most 13 C-depleted values of airborne CO 2 (Fig.  2 c). A comparison with other profiles reveals that a 13 C-depleted source of CO 2 forces the airborne CO 2 concentration in downtown Naples more efficiently than in peripheral zones to the west (i.e., Bacoli, Baia, and Posillipo). This source is less effective in forcing CO 2 concentration in the zone near Pozzuoli (B–B′ profile), where the source of CO 2 has a less 13 C-depleted carbon isotope composition. This northwest-oriented profile shows a zone with less 13 C-depleted values of airborne CO 2 to northwest (Fig.  2 c), consistent with a decrease in airborne CO 2 concentrations (Fig.  2 a).

Remarkable variations in the stable isotope composition of airborne CO 2 can be identified east of the urban area of Naples (Fig.  2 c). In concordance with δ 18 O–CO 2 , δ 13 C–CO 2 shows remarkable variations along the seaside compared to the inland along the D–D′ profile (Fig.  3 d). Airborne CO 2 concentrations fluctuate, superimposed on a decrease from the seaside to the inland. According to this trend, the carbon isotope composition shows an opposite trend from the most 13 C-depleted values in the coastal zone to the less 13 C-depleted CO 2 inland, revealing that potential sources of CO 2 with heavily 13 C-depleted signatures force airborne CO 2 concentration in the coastal zone near Portici and Torre del Greco. These sources are less effective in forcing CO 2 concentration inland, near San Giorgio a Cremano.

Measurements of CO 2 concentration, combined with stable isotope compositions of airborne CO 2 , provide relevant data for distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic CO 2 emissions in the atmosphere, and potentially tracking the gas dispersal from various sources of greenhouse gases at the urban spatial scale (i.e., 10 4 –10 5  m). This method overcomes the inherent difficulty of studying CO 2 dispersion caused by its high background level and subtle spatial variations of airborne CO 2 concentration. Indeed, various sources of CO 2 have different isotopic signatures for both carbon and oxygen.

There are several methods for tracking the dispersion of gases emitted from a source into the atmosphere. The methods commonly used to track gas dispersion are based on models that require a priori knowledge of the source, the amount of gas emitted, and the geometry of the dispersion area. Isotopic studies combined with atmospheric chemistry follow a different paradigm. The data collected from field measurements underwent analysis utilizing the Keeling plot method mass balance models for oxygen and carbon isotopes 49 , 50 , 57 . The Keeling plot method facilitates the determination of the primary CO 2 source at the local level using observational data.

At the same time, the mass balance model for oxygen and carbon isotopes allows an assessment of the influences of the individual CO 2 sources on the local air composition. The mathematical expressions governing this model were developed within the framework of previous studies 20 and are expounded concisely upon in the method section dedicated to assessing additional CO 2 in the atmosphere. This method allows for detecting the forcing effects introduced by the gas sources on the composition of the atmosphere. The measurements utilized in the theoretical model results (see Eq. ( 11 ) in this study) furnish point-by-point estimates of additional CO 2 concentration (i.e., the C fs ) along the trajectory.

Subsequently, the interpolation of C fs values employing the Kriging algorithm model facilitates the simulation of CO 2 dispersion. This algorithm generates a predictive layer for δ 13 C–CO 2 , δ 18 O–CO 2 , CO 2 concentration, and C fs. This method has been successfully applied to detect chemical and isotopic effects on the air in the La Fossa caldera on the island of Vulcano, both during periods of quiescent outgassing and during the recent period of increased volcanic outgassing in 2021 20 .

The Keeling plot illustrates a correlation between the carbon isotope composition of CO 2 and the inverse of airborne CO 2 concentration. Figure  4 shows the concentration dataset normalized by the global reference for airborne CO 2 concentration (i.e., 423 ppm vol). Each straight line on this plot represents binary mixing between the atmospheric background and an additional CO 2 source. The intercept on the isotopic axis provides the carbon isotopic signatures, facilitating the identification of the CO 2 emission source.

The correlation between δ 13 C–CO 2 and the inverse of airborne CO 2 concentration (i.e., Keeling plot). Data were normalized against the Global reference values recorded by NOAA (a https://www.climate.gov/climatedashboard accessed on July 2, 2024. ( a ) Dataset collected over the target area. ( b ) Urbanized areas of Naples. Green circles distinguish the subset of measurement collected near the airport (zone C in Fig.  1 a) from those collected in downtown Naples (zone B in Fig.  1 a). ( c ) Pozzuoli–Solfatara–Agnano area (zone A in Fig.  1 a) Yellow circles distinguish the subset of magmatic origin from that of anthropogenic origin in the area (blue circles).

Figure  4 a displays several mixing lines between background air and various potential sources of CO 2 , including natural (e.g., soil and plant respiration or volcanic degassing) and anthropogenic origins (e.g., combustion of fossil fuels or natural gas and landfill CO 2 emissions), whose isotopic signatures were retrieved from previous studies 37 . A geometric mean regression is recommended for the analysis of a scattered dataset (i.e., R 2  < 0.980) in the Keeling plot due to the inherent bias associated with determining the carbon isotopic signature through the utilization of a linear regression model 58 . The line representing the isotopic signature of the forcing source can be derived by applying a standard regression and subsequently dividing by the r-coefficient. This corrective approach aims to approximate the geometric mean regression through the utilization of a standard estimate obtained from a linear regression model.

The dataset collected over the target area reveals a variety of mixing lines, highlighting the inherent complexity of identifying a single CO 2 source. The alignments of δ 13 C–CO 2 in the Keeling plot suggests that fossil fuel combustion is a significant source of greenhouse gases, resulting in airborne CO 2 concentrations ranging from > 600 to ~ 1410 ppm vol (i.e., normalized values are from 0.7 to 0.3, respectively). However, multiple CO 2 sources can influence airborne CO 2 concentrations in the target area, especially at low to intermediate values (i.e., from 423 to 600 ppm vol, corresponding to normalized values ranging 0.7–1). These results support findings that human-related activities, such as urban mobility by vehicles and household heating, predominantly based on the combustion of fossil fuels, contribute significantly to rise the airborne CO 2 concentration. Nonetheless, natural CO 2 emissions, such as those from volcanic outgassing, which is estimated on the synoptic scale to account for approximately 1% of total annual emissions, can locally play a pivotal role in the amount of CO 2 injected into the atmosphere.

A sector in Naples’ downtown (i.e., Zone B in Fig.  1 a), distinct from Zone A, which includes the Campi Flegrei volcanic/hydrothermal zone and the western suburbs of Naples (i.e., Bagnoli and Posillipo), can serve as a test site to quantify the specific contribution to increasing airborne CO 2 concentrations caused by human-related emissions. Figure  4 b illustrates δ 13 C–CO 2 against CO 2 concentrations, showing good agreement with the mixing line between background air and CO 2 produced by fossil fuel combustion, characterized by a heavily 13 C-depleted signature (i.e., δ 13 C–CO 2  =  − 29.94‰). Furthermore, data collected in the airport zone (i.e., Zone C in Fig.  1 a), where high levels of airborne CO 2 concentrations have been measured, indicate that the CO 2 source affecting both concentration and isotope composition of airborne CO 2 is of anthropogenic origin (i.e., δ 13 C–CO 2  =  − 29.31 ‰).

Figure  4 c illustrates the complex distribution of concentration and carbon isotope composition values detected in the study area, predominantly located in the urban area of Pozzuoli, in the western suburbs of Naples. Results of cluster analysis applied to a subset of measurements collected in the Zone A (Fig.  1 a) reveal that multiple CO 2 sources play an almost equivalent role in elevating the concentration of airborne CO 2 above background levels. One subset of measurements, with CO 2 concentrations in the range 423–700 ppm vol, exhibits an isotopic signature in good agreement with the mixing line between background air and CO 2 produced by the combustion of fossil fuels (i.e., δ 13 C–CO 2  =  − 32.93‰). Another subset of measurements indicates that δ 13 C–CO 2 of the air increases as CO 2 concentrations rise due to the influence of a less 13 C-depleted CO 2 source, with δ 13 C–CO 2 ≈ − 1.97‰. Although slightly lower, this value aligns with the carbon isotopic signature of CO 2 emitted from Pisciarelli and Bocca Grande fumaroles.

Those data retrieved from application of laboratory techniques to condensed fumarolic fluids have accuracy ± 0.1‰ 26 . Differences in the range Δ 13 C < 0.4‰ can be neglected because of the accuracy of the measurements with Deltaray (i.e., ± 0.25‰ according to 12 , 13 , 18 , 37 , 58 ).

Equation ( 11 ), included in the method section, facilitates the calculation of additional CO 2 in the air owing to either natural (i.e., volcanic/hydrothermal CO 2 ) or anthropogenic (i.e., produced by the combustion of fossil fuels) emissions. This calculation is based on input parameters in a theoretical model and measurements of airborne CO 2 concentration, δ 13 C–CO 2 , and δ 18 O–CO 2 in the field. C fs provides the concentration of the forcing source of CO 2 , exceeding local background levels in the atmosphere. A combination of the positioning of the endogenous sources of CO 2 and results of the Keeling plot helps distinguish the application of the mass balance model to the dispersal of volcanic CO 2 in the zone Solfatara (i.e., Zone A in Fig.  1 a) and the dispersal of CO 2 produced by the combustion of fossil fuels downtown Naples (i.e., Zone B in Fig.  1 a).

Figure  5 shows dispersions of CO 2 from anthropogenic origin in Naples’ downtown. In particular, the excess CO 2 concentrations in air produced by hydrocarbon combustion, which has a 13 C-depleted isotope composition compared to standard air (Fig.  4 b). For the calculation of the additional amount of CO 2 in the air, an anthropogenic source of CO 2 with the isotopic signature δ 13 C =  − 31.00‰ and δ 18 O =  − 16.00‰ has been adopted as the model parameters. Figure  5 a shows the fossil fuel-derived CO 2 has a heterogeneous distribution across the target area. A CO 2 dome 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 appears irregular and has numerous lobulations. The dome encloses islands where hydrocarbon combustion forces the CO 2 above the atmospheric background and generates concentration peaks even greater than + 300 ppm above the airborne CO 2 background (Fig.  5 b). One such island of high CO 2 concentration is well delineated in the harbour area, which is renowned for being among the Mediterranean's major harbours. In fact, the burning of hydrocarbons sustains the majority of the ship traffic in these areas. Another area with high CO 2 concentrations is located in the western downtown, near one of the most densely populated areas of Naples.

Dispersal of anthropogenic CO 2 in downtown Naples (cell size 10 m). The maps were generated in Qgis 3.34 environment ( https://qgis.org/download/ ) using Measurement interpolation generated in SAGA GIS environment ( https://saga-gis.sourceforge.io/en/index.html ). ( a ) CO 2 concentration map that shows the CO 2 concentration excess above the reference background. The concentration excess value of 83 ppm vol has been set as the threshold for transparency. ( b ) Vertical profile (black line in subplot a) of the excess CO 2 concentration across downtown Naples. ( c ) Wind vectors and speed recorded at C.N.R. station. ( d ) Wind direction frequency during survey.

The results of isotopic investigations prove the anthropogenic origin of atmospheric CO 2 . It is reasonable to assume that most of the anthropogenic CO 2 found in downtown Naples is the result of hydrocarbon combustion produced by urban mobility, given that the average air temperature during measurement collection was 22 °C (with an air temperature range of 19–23 °C). Within the one-day measurement acquisition timescale, variations in wind intensity and direction affecting the dispersion of CO 2 cannot be ruled out. This is particularly expected in Zone B, where the wind can influence the dispersion of emitted plumes near Naples' harbour. However, the data on wind direction (Fig.  5 c) and speed indicate that during the acquisition time window, the atmospheric circulation brought in SSW air, which is generally less enriched in anthropogenic CO 2 . Given the morphology of the study area and the local effects of densely built environments (Fig.  5 d), it is reasonable to assume a dilution effect of anthropogenic CO 2 due to the influence of less CO 2 —rich air from the sea. Accordingly, the anthropogenic CO 2 concentration along the C–C′ profile (Fig.  5 c) shows a notable increase in airborne CO 2 near the harbour and above a pedestrian area, suggesting that proximal sources of greenhouse gas emissions in the nearby areas are responsible for the increase in CO 2 above background levels.

Measurements collected at Pozzuoli (Zone A in Fig.  1 a) reveal multiple origins for CO 2 present in the air, namely volcanic and anthropogenic. Although human-related activities cause high concentrations of airborne CO 2 , a comparison with downtown can be made concerning the dispersal of geogenic CO 2 in the Pozzuoli area because the Campi Flegrei volcanic/hydrothermal system was in a state of unrest at the time of measurement collection 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 . Results of the cluster analysis provide a subset for calculating the amount of geogenic CO 2 that the main degassing zones at Campi Flegrei discharge into the atmosphere. The isotope composition and the airborne CO 2 concentration values of this subset were used in Eq. ( 11 ), with the values for the isotopic signatures of both carbon and oxygen for CO 2 emitted at Solfatara and Pisciarelli in May 2023 serving as model parameters (i.e., δ 13 C–CO 2  =  − 1.67‰ vs VPDB and δ 18 O–CO 2  =  − 7.85‰ vs VPDB) to obtain point-to-point calculations of volcanic CO 2 dispersal. These values provide insight into the dispersal of volcanic CO 2 from the main degassing vents at Campi Flegrei based on direct measurements and model parameters (Fig.  6 a). A comparison with the downtown map (Fig.  5 a) shows a more homogeneous dispersal of volcanic CO 2 along an N–S oriented dispersal zone. Furthermore, the volcanic CO 2 concentration is higher than 124 ppm vol above background levels in the area lying between Pozzuoli and Pisciarelli alone. Considering a background air CO 2 concentration of 423 ppm vol and the volcanic input calculated in the present study, this result is in good agreement with dispersal simulations averaged over a whole diurnal cycle obtained using the DISGAS software 14 . Measurements of concentration, corroborated by isotopic determinations, reveal volcanic CO 2 dispersion in the area of Bagnoli and eastward towards the urbanized area of Naples. In this area, measurements of airborne CO 2 concentrations alone are not able to track the dispersal of volcanic CO 2 because comparable absolute concentration values are found throughout the urban areas, where the additional CO 2 has anthropogenic origins. According to Granieri et al. 14 , inland air circulation prevails during nighttime in the Gulf of Naples, when volcanic CO 2 dispersal occurs towards the sea.

Dispersal of volcanic CO 2 in Pozzuoli-Solfatara zone (cell size 10 m). The maps were generated in Qgis 3.34 environment ( https://qgis.org/download/ ) using Measurement interpolation generated in SAGA GIS environment ( https://saga-gis.sourceforge.io/en/index.html ). ( a ) CO 2 concentration map that shows the CO 2 concentration excess above the reference background. The concentration excess value of 75 ppm vol has been set as the threshold for transparency. ( b ) Wind vectors and speed recorded at C.N.R. station. ( c ) Wind direction frequency during survey. ( d ) Vertical profile (black line in subplot a) of the excess CO 2 concentration across Pozzuoli-Solfatara area.

At the time of the survey, weather datasets reveal that NW winds blew from Solfatara towards the sea, even during the early morning (i.e., by ~ 8:00 UTC), after which sea breeze dominated air circulation from the SE throughout the daytime hours (Figura 6b,c). Arguably, the dispersal of volcanic CO 2 results from a combination of volcanic CO 2 dispersal and the residual layer that develops during nighttime and has not yet been disrupted by diurnal atmospheric turbulence. These results show that spatial surveys for studying airborne CO 2 helps in identifying multiple sources of greenhouse gases at the district scale of urban areas. Furthermore, stable isotope measurements allow an assessment of the impact of either volcanic degassing or anthropogenic emissions on airborne CO 2 concentrations.

The results of this study illustrate that integrating measurements of carbon and oxygen isotopic composition with those of CO 2 concentration aids in elucidating the genesis and development of CO 2 dome in urbanized areas. This represents a step forward in evaluating the impact of specific carbon dioxide sources, whether anthropogenic or natural, on the progression of climate change, as it facilitates the discernment of the underlying causes of urban domes through direct investigations.

The findings of this study also suggest that surveys conducted in urban areas such as Naples can be utilized to identify the primary regions for continuous monitoring of both natural and anthropogenic CO 2 emissions against global warming. Climate change has reached a global scale and threatens the stability of various vital sectors, including infrastructure, the economy, electricity production, international relations, biodiversity, and freshwater and food resources. Climate change affects all regions of the world, and its macroscopic effects manifest through extreme weather events, producing vast damage in cities and rural areas.

The international community is implementing a series of measures to combat ongoing climate change, which significantly impacts economic and social systems globally. For instance, several ambitious plans aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, mainly CO 2 . To achieve such ambitious goals, it is crucial to estimate and monitor CO 2 emissions, especially in urban areas where most CO 2 is produced through hydrocarbon combustion. Currently, no monitoring tools are available to detect near-real-time CO 2 emissions for individual countries. Therefore, efforts to monitor CO 2 in the air on a regional scale (synoptic ~ 10 6  m) with low latency (through the publication of hourly, daily, weekly, and annual data) via networks of stations installed in densely urbanized areas are becoming increasingly relevant. However, monitoring CO₂ in the atmosphere is not straightforward due to the high background concentration (approximately 400 ppm vol), which limits the potential for spatial variability. Consequently, monitoring the concentration alone may not always provide sufficient data for real-time estimation. Various studies demonstrate that integrating isotopic and concentration data provides information on the origin of CO 2 emissions 12 , 13 , 16 , 18 , 20 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 58 , 59 , 60 .

The δ 18 O–CO 2 largely depends on the CO 2 partitioning among the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere and can be deciphered through isotopic fractionation processes. Recent studies 12 , 18 , 19 , 20 show that it is possible to quantify atmospheric CO 2 emissions from natural and anthropogenic sources, isotopically characterized by δ 13 C–CO 2 and δ 18 O–CO 2 values, through integrated monitoring of atmospheric CO 2 concentration, isotopic composition, and meteorological data (direct investigations).

Therefore, the implementation of an active monitoring system is urgent and represents a paradigm shift in quantifying atmospheric CO 2 emissions at the scale of individual urbanized areas, compared to the currently applied methods based on statistical data at the national level for countries that are signatories to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 61 .

Instrument setup

The instrument employed for data acquisition in this study is a Delta Ray–Thermo Fisher Scientific. It measures the concentration of the isotopologues 13 COO, 12 COO, and CO 18 O based on the adsorption strength of light in the mid-infrared region (~ 4.3 μm) following the Lambert–Beer law. The 13 C/ 12 C and 18 O/ 16 O ratios are calculated using different concentration ratios of the isotopologues, while the total CO 2 concentration is determined by summing the concentrations of the three CO 2 isotopologues. Stable isotope ratios are expressed in agreement with the VPDB scale using the δ-notation (i.e., δ 13 C–CO 2 and δ 18 O–CO 2 , respectively) within the CO 2 concentration range of 200–3500 ppm vol.

The Delta Ray instrument is equipped with the QTegra software. A specially designed template includes protocols for recording δ 13 C–CO 2 , δ 18 O–CO 2 , and CO 2 concentration values, along with information on the sample list, acquisition parameters, referencing, evaluation settings, and sample definition. Instrument calibration and referencing against two working standards ensure an accuracy of ± 0.25‰ for isotope determinations and ± 1 ppm vol for CO 2 concentration measurements.

The instrument records each measurement of δ 13 C–CO 2 and δ 18 O–CO 2 at a frequency of 1 Hz. Before data acquisition, the instrument conducts isotope ratio referencing on the working standards at a fixed CO 2 concentration (i.e., CO 2  = 400 ppm vol) approximating background airborne CO 2 . After purging the unknown air sample for 60 s, the instrument skips the purge and measures the concentration of CO 2 isotopologues in the air. Once the air has purged the gas inlet, the instrument calculates δ 13 C–CO 2 and δ 18 O–CO 2 , as well as CO 2 concentration.

Measurement strategies

An off-road vehicle housed the instrument, and the equipment for measuring δ 13 C–CO 2 , δ 18 O–CO 2 , and airborne CO 2 concentrations during the studies across the urbanized zone of Naples. The positioning of the vehicle was recorded by a global positioning system device (GARMIN GPSMAP® 64 s), time-synchronized with the Delta Ray's internal clock. In specific urban environments 12 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 55 , 56 , 62 and, more recently, in volcanic regions 18 , 20 , investigations have been conducted utilizing mobile laboratories to analyze the spatial variability of CO 2 .

An inverter (12 V input–output, pure sine wave) was connected to the car's electrical system, supplying power to the instrument (~ 300 W). A stainless-steel capillary (1/16 in.; Swagelok-typeTM, 3 m long) was connected to the instrument's inlet, with the other end attached to the front of the car roof (~ 2.3 m above the ground) to avoid potential contamination from the gasoline engine exhaust. The air passed through a filter (2 μm, 1/16 in, capillary aperture) to prevent contamination from dust on the roads. Considering the volume of the sampling capillary, the instrument's flow rate (approximately 100–110 ml min −1 ), and the average speed of the mobile laboratory (approximately 3.5 m s −1 ), the delay between measurements and their corresponding positions is approximately 25 m. This delay is comparable to the GPS positioning.

A route of approximately 170 km (Table 1 ) was designed in the laboratory to obtain a continuous, non-overlapping path, covering various environments in the wide urbanized area of Naples (Fig.  1 a). The route includes Miseno, Bacoli, Agnano, Campi Flegrei caldera, Pozzuoli, Capodimonte, Bagnoli, Posillipo to the east of Naples' downtown, and Portici, Ercolano, Torre del Greco, and San Giorgio a Cremano to the west, respectively. The route was planned to ensure that segments did not overlap, preventing an increase in the statistical weight of some route segments over others. The route was meticulously followed using a routing application (e.g., Google Maps). The survey was completed in thirteen hours at an average speed of 13 km h −1 , with the spatial density of measurements corresponding to the metric order (~ 4 m average distance between measurements). The dataset encompasses ~ 41,000 georeferenced measurements for δ 13 C–CO 2 , δ 18 O–CO 2 , and CO 2 concentration, respectively 63 . This method was already employed for a simultaneous airborne CO 2 spatial survey at Vulcano and revealed the dispersion of volcanic CO 2 through direct measurements 18 , 20 .

Data processing approach

The data acquired from onsite measurements underwent processing utilizing the Keeling plot approach and mass balance models for oxygen and carbon isotopes. The Keeling plot enables the identification of the predominant CO 2 source at the local scale through observational data. The mass balance model for oxygen and carbon isotopes aims to quantify the impact of the CO 2 source on the local air. The algebraic equations for the model were developed as part of a previous study 18 and are detailed in the following paragraph of this paper, addressing the assessment of either volcanic or anthropogenic CO 2 in the air at Naples’ urban area. This methodology integrates measurements of stable CO 2 isotopes in the air with isotopic signatures of both the local CO 2 source, determined through the Keeling plot method 49 , 50 , and CO 2 in the background air. The theoretical outcomes of the model facilitate the partitioning of CO 2 in the air between the local background air and the CO 2 source.

The Keeling plot 49 , 50 , is the method broadly used to identify the isotopic signature of the gas source that increases CO 2 concentrations at the atmospheric background. The Keeling plot method facilitates the examination of the primary origin of atmospheric CO 2 by analyzing the δ 13 C–CO 2 against the reciprocal of CO 2 concentration. This method relies on mass balance principles, wherein a local CO 2 source alters the concentration from the atmospheric baseline. Mathematically, this is expressed by equations:

where C and δ 13 C denote CO 2 concentration and δ 13 C–CO 2 , respectively. Subscripts denote measured values (m), atmospheric background (a), and local source (fs). The linear combination of these equations generates a straight line in the δ 13 C versus 1/C plot 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 as delineated by equation

Equation ( 3 ) provides insight into the carbon isotope composition of the local CO 2 source under constant background and CO 2 source conditions.

To identify the main CO 2 source downtown Naples, a subset of measurements was selected. This subset encompasses measurements collected in an area of 24.60 km 2 centred in the Plebiscito square district of Naples (436,676.0 E and 4,520,817.0 N). Another subset, with its centre in the Pozzuoli area (Lat: 428,058.0 E; Long: 4,520,131.0 N, UTM), was selected for comparative purposes with data collected in Naples’ downtown. Specifically focusing on Pozzuoli (Zone A), the assessment focused on volcanic CO 2 as the primary source of CO 2 in the air. The measurements used in the theoretical model results (Eq. ( 11 ) reported below in this study) provide the concentration of the isotopically marked CO 2 source (e.g., volcanic or anthropogenic), causing the airborne CO 2 concentration to exceed the background concentration, point by point within the area. In the case of the Solfatara-Pisciarelli degassing area (Zone A in Fig.  1 ), the circular area is 47.28 km 2 , and the theoretical model provides the concentration of volcanic CO 2 (C V ). Following this calculation, the interpolation of C V values using the Kriging algorithm generates simulations of CO 2 from the forcing source (volcanic or anthropogenic for Solfatara-Pisciarelli and Naples' downtown, respectively). This algorithm produces the prediction layer for δ 13 C–CO 2 , δ 18 O–CO 2 , CO 2 concentration, and concentration (C V or C F , respectively) based on the assumption that each interpolating variable changes linearly with the distance between adjacent measurements. This assumption aligns with the expected homogeneity of spatial variations in atmospheric variables at the local scale 7 . Kriging interpolation is a geostatistical method used to estimate unknown values of each spatial variable based on known measurements of δ 13 C–CO 2 , δ 18 O–CO 2 , and CO 2 concentration at specific measurement points. The spatial correlation of the data is modeled using a Gaussian variogram, a standard variogram model defined by the equation:

where γ(h) is the semivariance at lag distance h, C 0 is the nugget, C is the partial sill, and a is the range. The kriging system of equations is set up using the Gaussian variogram model to determine the weights assigned to each known data point. These weights are calculated to minimize the estimation variance for the unknown points. The Gaussian model ensures smooth interpolation with continuous and differentiable transitions between estimated values, reflecting the assumed autocorrelation structure of the data.

Based on variogram analysis, CO 2 concentration measurements (Supplementary Fig. S1 online) are spatially dependent up to 700 m (i.e., the range), beyond which they become substantially independent. The range for δ 13 C–CO 2 , indicating the distance at which spatial correlation between carbon isotope measurements becomes negligible, has also been set to 700 m for kriging interpolation. For δ 18 O–CO 2 measurements, the range was determined to be 800 m. The partial sill was calculated as 1780 for CO₂ concentration, 1.62 for δ 13 C–CO 2 , and 1.65 for δ 18 O–CO 2 , indicating the variance attributable to the spatial structure for each variable. Simulations of stable isotope variables, airborne CO 2 concentration, and volcanic CO 2 dispersion were executed using the SAGA GIS software package ( https://saga-gis.sourceforge.io/en/index.html ).

Quantification of the CO 2 input in the atmosphere

An appropriate mass balance model for airborne CO 2 incorporates both isotopic parameters and concentration. Utilizing literature values for δ 13 C–CO 2 and δ 18 O–CO 2 of standard air (e.g., δ 13 C–CO 2  =  − 8‰ and δ 18 O–CO 2  =  − 0.1‰ 50 ) alongside values specific to CO 2 of external sources (e.g., either volcanic/hydrothermal or fossil fuel derived CO 2 ), an isotopic mass balance model incorporates four unknowns: background air CO 2 concentration, CO 2 concentration in the forcing source of gas, air CO 2 mixing fraction, and volcanic CO 2 mixing fraction.

The model is expressed by Eq. ( 5 ), which represents the CO 2 concentration in the air:

where C represents the CO 2 concentration and X denotes the mixing fraction between forcing source and atmospheric CO 2 , with subscripts m, a, and fs referring to measured, background, and local forcing source of CO 2 , respectively. This model operates under the assumptions that external source (i.e., volcanic or fossil fuel derived CO 2 ) significantly elevates CO 2 concentration relative to background levels.

The binary mixing equation to determine the relative weights of CO 2 from volcanic and atmospheric sources is given by Eq. ( 6 ):

Similarly, Eqs. ( 7 )

describe the isotopic mass balance models for carbon and oxygen isotopes of CO 2 , respectively. The combination of Eq. ( 6 ) and ( 7 ) provides Eq. ( 9 ), which allows for the calculation of X a

Using Eq. ( 9 ) in Eq. ( 8 ) yields Eq. ( 10 ), enabling the determination of X FS

By employing both Eqs. ( 9 ) and ( 10 ) and rearranging Eq. ( 5 ), we derive Eq. ( 11 )

which provides the concentration of CO 2 produced by the local effective gas source in the air C fs .

Airborne CO 2 partitioning of between volcanic and human related components

Cluster analysis was conducted to explore the relationships between airborne CO 2 concentrations and carbon isotope composition. Cluster analysis facilitates the classification of observational datasets into distinct classes based on specified similarity criteria. The objective of this analysis is to discern several groups of data that exhibit internal homogeneity (i.e., similarity criteria) while displaying heterogeneity among themselves concerning both CO 2 concentration and stable isotope compositions (i.e., δ 13 C–CO 2 and δ 18 O–CO 2 values). Various clustering methods are available for partitioning datasets (e.g., k-means, hierarchical, and two-way clustering), each differing in the requirement of preselecting the number of clusters, statistical properties of the dataset, or computational complexity.

Hierarchical clustering enables the grouping of objects such that those within a group are similar to each other and distinct from objects in other groups. Hierarchical clustering holds an advantage over alternative methods as it obviates the necessity of specifying the number of clusters a priori. The hierarchical structure of clusters can be formed using partitioning algorithms, initially considering all objects as individual clusters. Subsequently, through an iterative process, objects are assigned to different clusters based on principles maximizing the inter-cluster distances. One variant of hierarchical clustering is agglomerative clustering, where each object begins as its own cluster, and pairs of smaller clusters are successively merged until all data is encompassed within a single cluster. Essentially, hierarchical clustering assesses object similarity (i.e., distance) to form new clusters. Cluster merging is predicated on the Euclidean distance metric, reflecting the sum of squares of object coordinates in Euclidean space. Calculation of Euclidean distances leads to the updating of the distance matrix, with the iterative process culminating in the merging of the last two clusters into a final cluster encompassing the entire dataset.

Multiple approaches exist for computing inter-cluster distances and updating the proximity matrix, with some (e.g., single linkage or complete linkage) assessing minimum or maximum distances between objects from different clusters. In the cluster analysis of our dataset, we employed the Ward approach, which evaluates cluster variance rather than directly measuring distances, aiming to minimize variance among clusters. In Ward's method, the distance between two clusters is contingent upon the increase in the sum of squares when the clusters are combined. Ward's method implementation seeks to minimize the sum of squares distances of points from cluster centroids. In contrast to other distance-based methods, Ward's method exhibits less susceptibility to noise and outliers. Hence, in this paper, the Ward method is preferred over alternative methods for clustering.

Conclusions

This study presents findings from a spatial survey conducted in the metropolitan area of Naples, Italy, aimed at examining potential variations in atmospheric CO 2 sources. The urban zone of Naples was chosen due to its diverse CO 2 sources, including those from both geological (e.g., volcanic/hydrothermal emissions) and anthropogenic (e.g., combustion-related) origins. Situated within the extensive volcanic zone hosting Vesuvius, Campi Flegrei, and active volcano on Ischia, Naples provides a compelling location for such investigation owing to its dense urban population compared to other urban areas in the European continent.

Identification of CO 2 sources was facilitated through a combination of stable isotopic analysis and concentration measurements. Stable isotopic composition (i.e., carbon and oxygen isotopic ratios) and airborne CO 2 concentration were measured using a high-precision laser-based analyzer installed in an SUV vehicle. Measurements, recorded at 1 Hz, were synchronized with GPS data to ascertain spatial positioning, achieving a spatial resolution on a metric scale.

Spatial variations in both isotopic composition and concentration were derived from the dataset using the kriging algorithm with Gaussian autocorrelation. Resulting maps delineated three zones characterized by elevated CO 2 concentrations exhibiting distinct stable isotopic signatures. The zone with the highest CO 2 concentration encompassed Naples’ downtown and harbour district, while intermediate concentrations were observed inland across the urban area. Spatial simulations indicated lower CO 2 concentrations along the seaside to the west of downtown, consistent with local morning atmospheric circulation patterns oriented from SW to NE. Additional zones of heightened CO 2 concentrations were identified near the airport, situated northeast of downtown, and in proximity to inhabited areas such as Pozzuoli and Pisciarelli, near Solfatara to the west. These last areas (Pozzuoli and Pisciarelli) exhibit manifestations of a broad hydrothermal/magmatic system beneath the Campi Flegrei, constituting a geological source of airborne CO 2 . Anthropogenic CO 2 emissions, primarily from vehicular engine combustion, were found to elevate CO 2 concentrations above background levels in downtown Naples, near the airport, and in the vicinity of Solfatara.

A mixing model incorporating stable isotope composition and airborne CO 2 concentration allowed quantification of CO 2 contributions from different sources. Geochemical modeling based on this approach revealed spatial dispersal patterns of additional CO 2 near Solfatara and downtown Naples, with volcanic CO 2 dispersing northeastward under prevailing morning winds northeast oriented. This volcanic CO 2 extends beyond the hydrothermal zone, supplementing anthropogenic CO 2 emissions from vehicular traffic.

This study underscores the utility of combining isotopic and CO 2 concentration data for discerning the dispersion of both endogenous greenhouse CO 2 and emissions from anthropogenic activities. Particularly relevant in densely populated volcanic/hydrothermal regions, this methodology effectively distinguishes between natural and anthropogenic gas emissions in the atmosphere, overcoming challenges associated with high background levels and subtle spatial variations of the airborne CO 2 . Measurements in Naples were collected within a single day, during the diurnal phase of the planetary boundary layer (PBL) evolution, under turbulent conditions and mixing of the atmospheric layer closest to the ground. Consequently, the CO 2 dispersal maps represent average conditions for the urban area of Naples. Establishing monitoring programs for the concentration and isotopic composition of airborne CO 2 in Naples and other cities is crucial for studying the impact of the daily evolution of the PBL on potential variations in airborne CO 2 . This is particularly important in areas where geogenic sources (i.e., volcanic or hydrothermal) coexist with anthropogenic CO 2 emissions (e.g., from fossil fuel combustion) resulting from high population density.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available in the ZENODO repository, https://zenodo.org/records/11300873 .

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Di Martino, R.M.R., Gurrieri, S., Paonita, A. et al. Unveiling spatial variations in atmospheric CO 2 sources: a case study of metropolitan area of Naples, Italy. Sci Rep 14 , 20483 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-71348-9

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