critical thinking teacher guide

The Will to Teach

Critical Thinking in the Classroom: A Guide for Teachers

In the ever-evolving landscape of education, teaching students the skill of critical thinking has become a priority. This powerful tool empowers students to evaluate information, make reasoned judgments, and approach problems from a fresh perspective. In this article, we’ll explore the significance of critical thinking and provide effective strategies to nurture this skill in your students.

Why is Fostering Critical Thinking Important?

Strategies to cultivate critical thinking, real-world example, concluding thoughts.

Critical thinking is a key skill that goes far beyond the four walls of a classroom. It equips students to better understand and interact with the world around them. Here are some reasons why fostering critical thinking is important:

Making Informed Decisions: Critical thinking enables students to evaluate the pros and cons of a situation, helping them make informed and rational decisions.
Developing Analytical Skills: Critical thinking involves analyzing information from different angles, which enhances analytical skills.
Promoting Independence: Critical thinking fosters independence by encouraging students to form their own opinions based on their analysis, rather than relying on others.

Creating an environment that encourages critical thinking can be accomplished in various ways. Here are some effective strategies:

Socratic Questioning: This method involves asking thought-provoking questions that encourage students to think deeply about a topic. For example, instead of asking, “What is the capital of France?” you might ask, “Why do you think Paris became the capital of France?”
Debates and Discussions: Debates and open-ended discussions allow students to explore different viewpoints and challenge their own beliefs. For example, a debate on a current event can engage students in critical analysis of the situation.
Teaching Metacognition: Teaching students to think about their own thinking can enhance their critical thinking skills. This can be achieved through activities such as reflective writing or journaling.
Problem-Solving Activities: As with developing problem-solving skills , activities that require students to find solutions to complex problems can also foster critical thinking.

As a school leader, I’ve seen the transformative power of critical thinking. During a school competition, I observed a team of students tasked with proposing a solution to reduce our school’s environmental impact. Instead of jumping to obvious solutions, they critically evaluated multiple options, considering the feasibility, cost, and potential impact of each. They ultimately proposed a comprehensive plan that involved water conservation, waste reduction, and energy efficiency measures. This demonstrated their ability to critically analyze a problem and develop an effective solution.

Critical thinking is an essential skill for students in the 21st century. It equips them to understand and navigate the world in a thoughtful and informed manner. As a teacher, incorporating strategies to foster critical thinking in your classroom can make a lasting impact on your students’ educational journey and life beyond school.

1. What is critical thinking? Critical thinking is the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment.

2. Why is critical thinking important for students? Critical thinking helps students make informed decisions, develop analytical skills, and promotes independence.

3. What are some strategies to cultivate critical thinking in students? Strategies can include Socratic questioning, debates and discussions, teaching metacognition, and problem-solving activities.

4. How can I assess my students’ critical thinking skills? You can assess critical thinking skills through essays, presentations, discussions, and problem-solving tasks that require thoughtful analysis.

5. Can critical thinking be taught? Yes, critical thinking can be taught and nurtured through specific teaching strategies and a supportive learning environment.

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Classroom Q&A

With larry ferlazzo.

In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

Eight Instructional Strategies for Promoting Critical Thinking

(This is the first post in a three-part series.)

The new question-of-the-week is:

What is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom?

This three-part series will explore what critical thinking is, if it can be specifically taught and, if so, how can teachers do so in their classrooms.

Today’s guests are Dara Laws Savage, Patrick Brown, Meg Riordan, Ph.D., and Dr. PJ Caposey. Dara, Patrick, and Meg were also guests on my 10-minute BAM! Radio Show . You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

You might also be interested in The Best Resources On Teaching & Learning Critical Thinking In The Classroom .

Current Events

Dara Laws Savage is an English teacher at the Early College High School at Delaware State University, where she serves as a teacher and instructional coach and lead mentor. Dara has been teaching for 25 years (career preparation, English, photography, yearbook, newspaper, and graphic design) and has presented nationally on project-based learning and technology integration:

There is so much going on right now and there is an overload of information for us to process. Did you ever stop to think how our students are processing current events? They see news feeds, hear news reports, and scan photos and posts, but are they truly thinking about what they are hearing and seeing?

I tell my students that my job is not to give them answers but to teach them how to think about what they read and hear. So what is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom? There are just as many definitions of critical thinking as there are people trying to define it. However, the Critical Think Consortium focuses on the tools to create a thinking-based classroom rather than a definition: “Shape the climate to support thinking, create opportunities for thinking, build capacity to think, provide guidance to inform thinking.” Using these four criteria and pairing them with current events, teachers easily create learning spaces that thrive on thinking and keep students engaged.

One successful technique I use is the FIRE Write. Students are given a quote, a paragraph, an excerpt, or a photo from the headlines. Students are asked to F ocus and respond to the selection for three minutes. Next, students are asked to I dentify a phrase or section of the photo and write for two minutes. Third, students are asked to R eframe their response around a specific word, phrase, or section within their previous selection. Finally, students E xchange their thoughts with a classmate. Within the exchange, students also talk about how the selection connects to what we are covering in class.

There was a controversial Pepsi ad in 2017 involving Kylie Jenner and a protest with a police presence. The imagery in the photo was strikingly similar to a photo that went viral with a young lady standing opposite a police line. Using that image from a current event engaged my students and gave them the opportunity to critically think about events of the time.

Here are the two photos and a student response:

F - Focus on both photos and respond for three minutes

In the first picture, you see a strong and courageous black female, bravely standing in front of two officers in protest. She is risking her life to do so. Iesha Evans is simply proving to the world she does NOT mean less because she is black … and yet officers are there to stop her. She did not step down. In the picture below, you see Kendall Jenner handing a police officer a Pepsi. Maybe this wouldn’t be a big deal, except this was Pepsi’s weak, pathetic, and outrageous excuse of a commercial that belittles the whole movement of people fighting for their lives.

I - Identify a word or phrase, underline it, then write about it for two minutes

A white, privileged female in place of a fighting black woman was asking for trouble. A struggle we are continuously fighting every day, and they make a mockery of it. “I know what will work! Here Mr. Police Officer! Drink some Pepsi!” As if. Pepsi made a fool of themselves, and now their already dwindling fan base continues to ever shrink smaller.

R - Reframe your thoughts by choosing a different word, then write about that for one minute

You don’t know privilege until it’s gone. You don’t know privilege while it’s there—but you can and will be made accountable and aware. Don’t use it for evil. You are not stupid. Use it to do something. Kendall could’ve NOT done the commercial. Kendall could’ve released another commercial standing behind a black woman. Anything!

Exchange - Remember to discuss how this connects to our school song project and our previous discussions?

This connects two ways - 1) We want to convey a strong message. Be powerful. Show who we are. And Pepsi definitely tried. … Which leads to the second connection. 2) Not mess up and offend anyone, as had the one alma mater had been linked to black minstrels. We want to be amazing, but we have to be smart and careful and make sure we include everyone who goes to our school and everyone who may go to our school.

As a final step, students read and annotate the full article and compare it to their initial response.

Using current events and critical-thinking strategies like FIRE writing helps create a learning space where thinking is the goal rather than a score on a multiple-choice assessment. Critical-thinking skills can cross over to any of students’ other courses and into life outside the classroom. After all, we as teachers want to help the whole student be successful, and critical thinking is an important part of navigating life after they leave our classrooms.

‘Before-Explore-Explain’

Patrick Brown is the executive director of STEM and CTE for the Fort Zumwalt school district in Missouri and an experienced educator and author :

Planning for critical thinking focuses on teaching the most crucial science concepts, practices, and logical-thinking skills as well as the best use of instructional time. One way to ensure that lessons maintain a focus on critical thinking is to focus on the instructional sequence used to teach.

Explore-before-explain teaching is all about promoting critical thinking for learners to better prepare students for the reality of their world. What having an explore-before-explain mindset means is that in our planning, we prioritize giving students firsthand experiences with data, allow students to construct evidence-based claims that focus on conceptual understanding, and challenge students to discuss and think about the why behind phenomena.

Just think of the critical thinking that has to occur for students to construct a scientific claim. 1) They need the opportunity to collect data, analyze it, and determine how to make sense of what the data may mean. 2) With data in hand, students can begin thinking about the validity and reliability of their experience and information collected. 3) They can consider what differences, if any, they might have if they completed the investigation again. 4) They can scrutinize outlying data points for they may be an artifact of a true difference that merits further exploration of a misstep in the procedure, measuring device, or measurement. All of these intellectual activities help them form more robust understanding and are evidence of their critical thinking.

In explore-before-explain teaching, all of these hard critical-thinking tasks come before teacher explanations of content. Whether we use discovery experiences, problem-based learning, and or inquiry-based activities, strategies that are geared toward helping students construct understanding promote critical thinking because students learn content by doing the practices valued in the field to generate knowledge.

An Issue of Equity

Meg Riordan, Ph.D., is the chief learning officer at The Possible Project, an out-of-school program that collaborates with youth to build entrepreneurial skills and mindsets and provides pathways to careers and long-term economic prosperity. She has been in the field of education for over 25 years as a middle and high school teacher, school coach, college professor, regional director of N.Y.C. Outward Bound Schools, and director of external research with EL Education:

Although critical thinking often defies straightforward definition, most in the education field agree it consists of several components: reasoning, problem-solving, and decisionmaking, plus analysis and evaluation of information, such that multiple sides of an issue can be explored. It also includes dispositions and “the willingness to apply critical-thinking principles, rather than fall back on existing unexamined beliefs, or simply believe what you’re told by authority figures.”

Despite variation in definitions, critical thinking is nonetheless promoted as an essential outcome of students’ learning—we want to see students and adults demonstrate it across all fields, professions, and in their personal lives. Yet there is simultaneously a rationing of opportunities in schools for students of color, students from under-resourced communities, and other historically marginalized groups to deeply learn and practice critical thinking.

For example, many of our most underserved students often spend class time filling out worksheets, promoting high compliance but low engagement, inquiry, critical thinking, or creation of new ideas. At a time in our world when college and careers are critical for participation in society and the global, knowledge-based economy, far too many students struggle within classrooms and schools that reinforce low-expectations and inequity.

If educators aim to prepare all students for an ever-evolving marketplace and develop skills that will be valued no matter what tomorrow’s jobs are, then we must move critical thinking to the forefront of classroom experiences. And educators must design learning to cultivate it.

So, what does that really look like?

Unpack and define critical thinking

To understand critical thinking, educators need to first unpack and define its components. What exactly are we looking for when we speak about reasoning or exploring multiple perspectives on an issue? How does problem-solving show up in English, math, science, art, or other disciplines—and how is it assessed? At Two Rivers, an EL Education school, the faculty identified five constructs of critical thinking, defined each, and created rubrics to generate a shared picture of quality for teachers and students. The rubrics were then adapted across grade levels to indicate students’ learning progressions.

At Avenues World School, critical thinking is one of the Avenues World Elements and is an enduring outcome embedded in students’ early experiences through 12th grade. For instance, a kindergarten student may be expected to “identify cause and effect in familiar contexts,” while an 8th grader should demonstrate the ability to “seek out sufficient evidence before accepting a claim as true,” “identify bias in claims and evidence,” and “reconsider strongly held points of view in light of new evidence.”

When faculty and students embrace a common vision of what critical thinking looks and sounds like and how it is assessed, educators can then explicitly design learning experiences that call for students to employ critical-thinking skills. This kind of work must occur across all schools and programs, especially those serving large numbers of students of color. As Linda Darling-Hammond asserts , “Schools that serve large numbers of students of color are least likely to offer the kind of curriculum needed to ... help students attain the [critical-thinking] skills needed in a knowledge work economy. ”

So, what can it look like to create those kinds of learning experiences?

Designing experiences for critical thinking

After defining a shared understanding of “what” critical thinking is and “how” it shows up across multiple disciplines and grade levels, it is essential to create learning experiences that impel students to cultivate, practice, and apply these skills. There are several levers that offer pathways for teachers to promote critical thinking in lessons:

1.Choose Compelling Topics: Keep it relevant

A key Common Core State Standard asks for students to “write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.” That might not sound exciting or culturally relevant. But a learning experience designed for a 12th grade humanities class engaged learners in a compelling topic— policing in America —to analyze and evaluate multiple texts (including primary sources) and share the reasoning for their perspectives through discussion and writing. Students grappled with ideas and their beliefs and employed deep critical-thinking skills to develop arguments for their claims. Embedding critical-thinking skills in curriculum that students care about and connect with can ignite powerful learning experiences.

2. Make Local Connections: Keep it real

At The Possible Project , an out-of-school-time program designed to promote entrepreneurial skills and mindsets, students in a recent summer online program (modified from in-person due to COVID-19) explored the impact of COVID-19 on their communities and local BIPOC-owned businesses. They learned interviewing skills through a partnership with Everyday Boston , conducted virtual interviews with entrepreneurs, evaluated information from their interviews and local data, and examined their previously held beliefs. They created blog posts and videos to reflect on their learning and consider how their mindsets had changed as a result of the experience. In this way, we can design powerful community-based learning and invite students into productive struggle with multiple perspectives.

3. Create Authentic Projects: Keep it rigorous

At Big Picture Learning schools, students engage in internship-based learning experiences as a central part of their schooling. Their school-based adviser and internship-based mentor support them in developing real-world projects that promote deeper learning and critical-thinking skills. Such authentic experiences teach “young people to be thinkers, to be curious, to get from curiosity to creation … and it helps students design a learning experience that answers their questions, [providing an] opportunity to communicate it to a larger audience—a major indicator of postsecondary success.” Even in a remote environment, we can design projects that ask more of students than rote memorization and that spark critical thinking.

Our call to action is this: As educators, we need to make opportunities for critical thinking available not only to the affluent or those fortunate enough to be placed in advanced courses. The tools are available, let’s use them. Let’s interrogate our current curriculum and design learning experiences that engage all students in real, relevant, and rigorous experiences that require critical thinking and prepare them for promising postsecondary pathways.

Critical Thinking & Student Engagement

Dr. PJ Caposey is an award-winning educator, keynote speaker, consultant, and author of seven books who currently serves as the superintendent of schools for the award-winning Meridian CUSD 223 in northwest Illinois. You can find PJ on most social-media platforms as MCUSDSupe:

When I start my keynote on student engagement, I invite two people up on stage and give them each five paper balls to shoot at a garbage can also conveniently placed on stage. Contestant One shoots their shot, and the audience gives approval. Four out of 5 is a heckuva score. Then just before Contestant Two shoots, I blindfold them and start moving the garbage can back and forth. I usually try to ensure that they can at least make one of their shots. Nobody is successful in this unfair environment.

I thank them and send them back to their seats and then explain that this little activity was akin to student engagement. While we all know we want student engagement, we are shooting at different targets. More importantly, for teachers, it is near impossible for them to hit a target that is moving and that they cannot see.

Within the world of education and particularly as educational leaders, we have failed to simplify what student engagement looks like, and it is impossible to define or articulate what student engagement looks like if we cannot clearly articulate what critical thinking is and looks like in a classroom. Because, simply, without critical thought, there is no engagement.

The good news here is that critical thought has been defined and placed into taxonomies for decades already. This is not something new and not something that needs to be redefined. I am a Bloom’s person, but there is nothing wrong with DOK or some of the other taxonomies, either. To be precise, I am a huge fan of Daggett’s Rigor and Relevance Framework. I have used that as a core element of my practice for years, and it has shaped who I am as an instructional leader.

So, in order to explain critical thought, a teacher or a leader must familiarize themselves with these tried and true taxonomies. Easy, right? Yes, sort of. The issue is not understanding what critical thought is; it is the ability to integrate it into the classrooms. In order to do so, there are a four key steps every educator must take.

Integrating critical thought/rigor into a lesson does not happen by chance, it happens by design. Planning for critical thought and engagement is much different from planning for a traditional lesson. In order to plan for kids to think critically, you have to provide a base of knowledge and excellent prompts to allow them to explore their own thinking in order to analyze, evaluate, or synthesize information.
SIDE NOTE – Bloom’s verbs are a great way to start when writing objectives, but true planning will take you deeper than this.

QUESTIONING

If the questions and prompts given in a classroom have correct answers or if the teacher ends up answering their own questions, the lesson will lack critical thought and rigor.
Script five questions forcing higher-order thought prior to every lesson. Experienced teachers may not feel they need this, but it helps to create an effective habit.
If lessons are rigorous and assessments are not, students will do well on their assessments, and that may not be an accurate representation of the knowledge and skills they have mastered. If lessons are easy and assessments are rigorous, the exact opposite will happen. When deciding to increase critical thought, it must happen in all three phases of the game: planning, instruction, and assessment.

TALK TIME / CONTROL

To increase rigor, the teacher must DO LESS. This feels counterintuitive but is accurate. Rigorous lessons involving tons of critical thought must allow for students to work on their own, collaborate with peers, and connect their ideas. This cannot happen in a silent room except for the teacher talking. In order to increase rigor, decrease talk time and become comfortable with less control. Asking questions and giving prompts that lead to no true correct answer also means less control. This is a tough ask for some teachers. Explained differently, if you assign one assignment and get 30 very similar products, you have most likely assigned a low-rigor recipe. If you assign one assignment and get multiple varied products, then the students have had a chance to think deeply, and you have successfully integrated critical thought into your classroom.

Thanks to Dara, Patrick, Meg, and PJ for their contributions!

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

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Helping Students Hone Their Critical Thinking Skills

Used consistently, these strategies can help middle and high school teachers guide students to improve much-needed skills.

Middle school students involved in a classroom discussion

Critical thinking skills are important in every discipline, at and beyond school. From managing money to choosing which candidates to vote for in elections to making difficult career choices, students need to be prepared to take in, synthesize, and act on new information in a world that is constantly changing.

While critical thinking might seem like an abstract idea that is tough to directly instruct, there are many engaging ways to help students strengthen these skills through active learning.

Make Time for Metacognitive Reflection

Create space for students to both reflect on their ideas and discuss the power of doing so. Show students how they can push back on their own thinking to analyze and question their assumptions. Students might ask themselves, “Why is this the best answer? What information supports my answer? What might someone with a counterargument say?”

Through this reflection, students and teachers (who can model reflecting on their own thinking) gain deeper understandings of their ideas and do a better job articulating their beliefs. In a world that is go-go-go, it is important to help students understand that it is OK to take a breath and think about their ideas before putting them out into the world. And taking time for reflection helps us more thoughtfully consider others’ ideas, too.

Teach Reasoning Skills

Reasoning skills are another key component of critical thinking, involving the abilities to think logically, evaluate evidence, identify assumptions, and analyze arguments. Students who learn how to use reasoning skills will be better equipped to make informed decisions, form and defend opinions, and solve problems.

One way to teach reasoning is to use problem-solving activities that require students to apply their skills to practical contexts. For example, give students a real problem to solve, and ask them to use reasoning skills to develop a solution. They can then present their solution and defend their reasoning to the class and engage in discussion about whether and how their thinking changed when listening to peers’ perspectives.

A great example I have seen involved students identifying an underutilized part of their school and creating a presentation about one way to redesign it. This project allowed students to feel a sense of connection to the problem and come up with creative solutions that could help others at school. For more examples, you might visit PBS’s Design Squad , a resource that brings to life real-world problem-solving.

Ask Open-Ended Questions

Moving beyond the repetition of facts, critical thinking requires students to take positions and explain their beliefs through research, evidence, and explanations of credibility.

When we pose open-ended questions, we create space for classroom discourse inclusive of diverse, perhaps opposing, ideas—grounds for rich exchanges that support deep thinking and analysis.

For example, “How would you approach the problem?” and “Where might you look to find resources to address this issue?” are two open-ended questions that position students to think less about the “right” answer and more about the variety of solutions that might already exist.

Journaling, whether digitally or physically in a notebook, is another great way to have students answer these open-ended prompts—giving them time to think and organize their thoughts before contributing to a conversation, which can ensure that more voices are heard.

Once students process in their journal, small group or whole class conversations help bring their ideas to life. Discovering similarities between answers helps reveal to students that they are not alone, which can encourage future participation in constructive civil discourse.

Teach Information Literacy

Education has moved far past the idea of “Be careful of what is on Wikipedia, because it might not be true.” With AI innovations making their way into classrooms, teachers know that informed readers must question everything.

Understanding what is and is not a reliable source and knowing how to vet information are important skills for students to build and utilize when making informed decisions. You might start by introducing the idea of bias: Articles, ads, memes, videos, and every other form of media can push an agenda that students may not see on the surface. Discuss credibility, subjectivity, and objectivity, and look at examples and nonexamples of trusted information to prepare students to be well-informed members of a democracy.

One of my favorite lessons is about the Pacific Northwest tree octopus . This project asks students to explore what appears to be a very real website that provides information on this supposedly endangered animal. It is a wonderful, albeit over-the-top, example of how something might look official even when untrue, revealing that we need critical thinking to break down “facts” and determine the validity of the information we consume.

A fun extension is to have students come up with their own website or newsletter about something going on in school that is untrue. Perhaps a change in dress code that requires everyone to wear their clothes inside out or a change to the lunch menu that will require students to eat brussels sprouts every day.

Giving students the ability to create their own falsified information can help them better identify it in other contexts. Understanding that information can be “too good to be true” can help them identify future falsehoods.

Provide Diverse Perspectives

Consider how to keep the classroom from becoming an echo chamber. If students come from the same community, they may have similar perspectives. And those who have differing perspectives may not feel comfortable sharing them in the face of an opposing majority.

To support varying viewpoints, bring diverse voices into the classroom as much as possible, especially when discussing current events. Use primary sources: videos from YouTube, essays and articles written by people who experienced current events firsthand, documentaries that dive deeply into topics that require some nuance, and any other resources that provide a varied look at topics.

I like to use the Smithsonian “OurStory” page , which shares a wide variety of stories from people in the United States. The page on Japanese American internment camps is very powerful because of its first-person perspectives.

Practice Makes Perfect

To make the above strategies and thinking routines a consistent part of your classroom, spread them out—and build upon them—over the course of the school year. You might challenge students with information and/or examples that require them to use their critical thinking skills; work these skills explicitly into lessons, projects, rubrics, and self-assessments; or have students practice identifying misinformation or unsupported arguments.

Critical thinking is not learned in isolation. It needs to be explored in English language arts, social studies, science, physical education, math. Every discipline requires students to take a careful look at something and find the best solution. Often, these skills are taken for granted, viewed as a by-product of a good education, but true critical thinking doesn’t just happen. It requires consistency and commitment.

In a moment when information and misinformation abound, and students must parse reams of information, it is imperative that we support and model critical thinking in the classroom to support the development of well-informed citizens.

All of our Thinker's Guides are now published by Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. In this section, you find samples sections from each guide. For the full guides, visit Rowman and Littlefield, (rowman.com)

The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools
The Thinker's Guide to Analytic Thinking
The Thinker's Guide to the Human Mind
The Thinker's Guide for Students on How to Study & Learn a Discipline
The Thinker's Guide to Ethical Reasoning
Student Guide to Historical Thinking
The Aspiring Thinker's Guide to Critical Thinking
How to Read a Paragraph: The Art of Close Reading
How to Write a Paragraph: The Art of Substantive Writing
A Glossary of Critical Thinking Terms and Concepts
The Art of Asking Essential Questions
The Nature and Functions of Critical & Creative Thinking
The Thinker's Guide to Scientific Thinking
Fact over Fake: A Critical Thinker's Guide to Media Bias and Political Propaganda
The Thinker's Guide to Fallacies: The Art of Mental Trickery
The Thinker's Guide to Clinical Reasoning
The Thinker's Guide to Engineering Reasoning
The Thinker's Guide to Intellectual Standards
How to Improve Student Learning
A Guide for Educators to Critical Thinking Competency Standards
The Thinker's Guide to Socratic Questioning
The International Critical Thinking Reading and Writing Test
The Miniature Guide for Those Who Teach on Practical Ways to Promote Active & Cooperative Learning
A Critical Thinker's Guide to Educational Fads
Instructor's Guide to Historical Thinking
From Argument and Philosophy to Critical Thinking Across the Curriculum
Reflections on the Nature of Critical Thinking, Its History, Politics, and Barriers, and on Its Status across the College & University Curriculum Part I
Reflections on the Nature of Critical Thinking, Its History, Politics, and Barriers, and on Its Status across the College & University Curriculum Part II
Reflections on the Nature of Critical Thinking, Its History, Politics, and Barriers, and on Its Status across the College/University Curriculum Part I
Reflections on the Nature of Critical Thinking, Its History, Politics, and Barriers, and on Its Status across the College/University Curriculum Part II
Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines
Mass Media and Critical Thinking: Reasoning for a Second-Hand World
Critical Thinking and Emotional Intelligence
Critical Thinking and Command of Language
The Need For Comprehensiveness In Critical Thinking Instruction
A "Third Wave" Manifesto: Keynotes of the Sonoma Conference
Critical Thinking and the State of Education Today
Thinking Critically About Identities
Introductions to the Memorial Issue by Guest Editors Linda Elder and Gerald Nosich
Richard Paul's Contributions to the Field of Critical Thinking Studies and to the Establishment of First Principles in Critical Thinking
Richard Paul and the Philosophical Foundations of Critical Thinking
Truth-seeking Versus Confirmation Bias: How Richard Paul's Conception of Critical Thinking Cultivates Authentic Research and Fairminded Thinking
Portaging Richard Paul's Model to Professional Practice: Ideas that Integrate
Richard Paul's Approach to Critical Thinking: Comprehensiveness, Systematicity, and Practicality
Making a Campus-Wide Commitment to Critical Thinking: Insights and Promising Practices Utilizing the Paul-Elder Approach at the University of Louisville
Defining Critical Thinking
Critical Societies: Thoughts from the Past
Sumner's Definition of Critical Thinking
Our Concept and Definition of Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking: Basic Questions & Answers
A Brief History of the Idea of Critical Thinking
Distinguishing Between Inert Information, Activated Ignorance, Activated Knowledge
Critical Thinking: Identifying the Targets
Distinguishing Between Inferences and Assumptions
Critical Thinking Development: A Stage Theory
Becoming a Critic of Your Thinking
Bertrand Russell on Critical Thinking
Content Is Thinking, Thinking is Content
Critical Thinking in Every Domain of Knowledge and Belief
Using Intellectual Standards to Assess Student Reasoning
Open-Minded Inquiry
Valuable Intellectual Traits
Universal Intellectual Standards
Thinking With Concepts
The Role of Socratic Questioning in Thinking, Teaching, and Learning
The Analysis & Assessment of Thinking
Intellectual Foundations: The Key Missing Piece in School Restructuring
Pseudo Critical Thinking in the Educational Establishment
Research Findings and Policy Recommendations
Why Students and Teachers Don't Reason Well
Critical Thinking in the Engineering Enterprise: Novices Typically Don't Even Know What Questions to Ask
Critical Thinking Movement: 3 Waves
University of Louisville Faculty Speak About Critical Thinking QEP (Video)
An Overview of How to Design Instruction Using Critical Thinking Concepts
Recommendations for Departmental Self-Evaluation
College-Wide Grading Standards
Sample Course: American History: 1600 to 1800
CT Class Syllabus
Syllabus - Psychology I
A Sample Assignment Format
Grade Profiles
Critical Thinking Class: Student Understandings
Structures for Student Self-Assessment
Critical Thinking Class: Grading Policies
Socratic Teaching
Critical Thinking and Nursing
A Logic of an Introductory Business Ethics Course
Radio Show and Podcast: Critical Thinking for Everyone!
Teaching Tactics that Encourage Active Learning
The Art of Redesigning Instruction
Making Critical Thinking Intuitive
Remodeled Lessons: K-3
Remodeled Lessons: 4-6
Remodeled Lessons: 6-9
Remodeled Lessons: High School
Strategy List: 35 Dimensions of Critical Thought
Introduction to Remodeling: Components of Remodels and Their Functions
John Stuart Mill: On Instruction, Intellectual Development, and Disciplined Learning
Complex Interdisciplinary Questions Exemplified: Ecological Sustainability
Newton, Darwin, & Einstein
The Critical Mind is A Questioning Mind: Learning How to Ask Powerful, Probing Questions
Three Categories of Questions: Crucial Distinctions
Ethical Reasoning Essential to Education
Ethics Without Indoctrination
Engineering Reasoning
Accelerating Change
Critical Thinking, Moral Integrity and Citizenship
Natural Egocentric Dispositions
Diversity: Making Sense of It Through Critical Thinking
Global Change: Why C.T. is Essential To the Community College Mission
Applied Disciplines: A Critical Thinking Model for Engineering
Critical Thinking in Everyday Life: 9 Strategies
Developing as Rational Persons: Viewing Our Development in Stages
How to Study and Learn (Part One)
How to Study and Learn (Part Two)
How to Study and Learn (Part Three)
How to Study and Learn (Part Four)
The Art of Close Reading (Part One)
The Art of Close Reading (Part Two)
The Art of Close Reading (Part Three)
Looking To The Future With a Critical Eye: A Message for High School Graduates
Becoming a Critic Of Your Thinking
Reading Backwards: Classic Books Online
Liberating the Mind: Overcoming Sociocentric Thought and Egocentric Tendencies
The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking for Children
Fairminded Fran and the Three Small Black Community Cats
Teacher's Manual Part 1 for the Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking for Children
Teacher's Manual Part 2 for the Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking for Children
Critical Thinking Handbook K-3rd Grades
Teacher's Handbook for 'Critical Thinking for Children'
Think About Fran & Sam
Critical Thinking Handbook 4th-6th Grades
Critical Thinking Handbook 6th-9th Grades
Critical Thinking Handbook High School
Critical Thinking - Basic Theory & Instructional Structures Handbook
1 Table of Contents
2 Garbage and Powerful Ideas
3 Elements and Standards
4 Questions
5 Socratic Questioning
6 Designing Structures
7 Content as Thinking
8 Affective Dimension of Thinking....Ego and Non
9 Where Do We Stand
Card 1 - Teach for Depth of Understanding
Card 2 - The Elements of Thought
Card 3 - Questions for Socratic Dialogue
Card 4 - Intellectual Standards
Card 5 - Dimensions of Critical Thought
Card 6 - Intellectual Virtues
Poster 1 - Analysis of Thought
Poster 2 - Intellectual Standards
Poster 3 - Elements of Thought
Poster 4 - Elements, Standards, and Traits
Poster 5 - Parts of Thinking
Chapter 1 - The Critical Thinking Movement in Historical Perspective
Chapter 2 - Critical thinking Basic Questions and Answers
Chapter 3 - The Logic of Creative and Critical Thinking
Chapter 4 - Critical Thinking in North America
Chapter 5 - Background Logic, Critical Thinking, and Irrational Language Games
Chapter 6 - A Model for the National Assessment of Higher Order Thinking
Chapter 7 - Using Intellectual Standards to Assess Student Reasoning
Chapter 8 - Why Students - and Teachers - Don't Reason Well
Chapter 9 - Critical Thinking Fundamentals to Education for a Free Society
Chapter 10 - Critical Thinking and the Critical Person
Chapter 11 - Critical Thinking and the Nature of Prejudice
Chapter 12 - Ethics Without Indoctrination
Chapter 13 - Critical Thinking, Moral Integrity, and Citizenship Teaching for the Intellectual Virtues
Chapter 14 - Dialogical Thinking Critical Thinking Thought Essential to the Acquisition of Rational Knowledge and Passions
Chapter 15 - Power, Vested Interest, and Prejudice On the Need for Critical Thinking in the Ethics of Social and Economic Development
Chapter 16 - The Critical Connection Higher Order Thinking that Unifies Curriculum, Instruction, and Learning
Chapter 17 - Dialogical and Dialectical Thinking
Chapter 18 - The Art of Redesigning Instruction
Chapter 19 - Using Critical Thinking to Identify National Bias in the News
Chapter 20 - Socratic Questioning
Chapter 21 - Strategies Thirty-Five Dimensions of Critical Thinking
Chapter 22 - Critical Thinking in the Elementary Classroom
Chapter 23 - Critical Thinking in Elementary Social Studies
Chapter 24 - Critical Thinking in Elementary Language Arts
Chapter 25 - Critical Thinking in Elementary Science
Chapter 26 - Teaching Critical Thinking in the Strong Sense A Focus on Self-Deception, World Views, and a Dialectical Mode of Analysis
Chapter 27 - Critical Thinking Staff Development The Lesson Plan Remodeling Approach
Chapter 28 - The Greensboro Plan A Sample Staff Development Plan
Chapter 29 - Critical Thinking and Learning Centers
Chapter 30 - McPeck's Mistakes Why Critical Thinking Applies Across Disciplines and Domains
Chapter 31 - Bloom's Taxonomy and Critical Thinking Instruction Recall is Not Knowledge
Chapter 32 - Critical and Cultural Literacy Where E.D. Hirsch Goes Wrong
Chapter 33 - Critical Thinking and General Semantics On the Primacy of Natural Languages
Chapter 34 - Philosophy and Cognitive Psychology Contrasting Assumptions
Chapter 35 - The Contribution of Philosophy to Thinking
Chapter 36 - Critical Thinking and Social Studies
Chapter 37 - Critical Thinking and Language Arts
Chapter 38 - Critical Thinking and Science
Chapter 39 - Critical Thinking, Human Development, and Rational Productivity
Chapter 40 - What Critical Thinking Means to Me The Views of Teachers
Chapter 41 - Glossary An Educators Guide to Critical Thinking Terms and Concepts
Arabic - The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools
Bulgarian - The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools
French - Asking Questions
French - Elements of Thought
French - How Skilled Is Your Thinking
French - Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools
French - Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking for Children
French - Scientific Thinking
French - Stages of Development
French - Strategic Thinking
French - Thinker's Guide to Engineering Reasoning
French - Tools for Taking Charge
French - Universal Intellectual Standards
German - Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools
Persian - Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools
Spanish - Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools
Spanish - Active and Cooperative Learning
Spanish - Critical Thinking Competency Standards
Spanish - Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking for Children
Spanish - Teacher's Manual to the Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking for Children
Spanish - Thinker's Guide to Analytic Thinking
Spanish - Thinker's Guide to Asking Essential Questions
Spanish - Thinker's Guide to How to Improve Student Learning
Spanish - Thinker's Guide to How to Read a Paragraph
Spanish - Thinker's Guide to How to Study and Learn a Discipline
Spanish - Thinker's Guide to How to Write a Paragraph
Thai - Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools
Thai - The Aspiring Thinker's Guide to Critical Thinking
Turkish - Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts & Tools
Turkish - Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking for Children
Turkish - Thinker's Guide on How to Detect Media Bias and Propaganda
Korean - Thinker's Guide to Analytic Thinking
Korean - How to Read a Paragraph
Korean - How to Write a Paragraph
Persian - The Thinker's Guide to Clinical Reasoning

CTL Guide to the Critical Thinking Hub Area

Guidance for designing or teaching a Critical Thinking (CRT) course, including assignment resources and examples.

From the BU Hub Curriculum Guide

“The ability to think critically is the fundamental characteristic of an educated person. It is required for just, civil society and governance, prized by employers, and essential for the growth of wisdom. Critical thinking is what most people name first when asked about the essential components of a college education. From identifying and questioning assumptions, to weighing evidence before accepting an opinion or drawing a conclusion—all BU students will actively learn the habits of mind that characterize critical thinking, develop the self-discipline it requires, and practice it often, in varied contexts, across their education.” For more context around this Hub area, see this Hub page .

Learning Outcomes

Courses and cocurricular activities in this area must have all outcomes.

Students will both gain critical thinking skills and be able to specify the components of critical thinking appropriate to a discipline or family of disciplines. These may include habits of distinguishing deductive from inductive modes of inference, methods of adjudicating disputes, recognizing common logical fallacies and cognitive biases, translating ordinary language into formal argument, distinguishing empirical claims about matters of fact from normative or evaluative judgments, and/or recognizing the ways in which emotional responses or cultural assumptions can affect reasoning processes.
Drawing on skills developed in class, students will be able to critically evaluate, analyze, and generate arguments, bodies of evidence, and/or claims, including their own.

If you are proposing a CRT course or if you want to learn more about these outcomes, please see this Interpretive Document . Interpretive Documents, written by the General Education Committee , are designed to answer questions faculty have raised about Hub policies, practices, and learning outcomes as a part of the course approval process. To learn more about the proposal process, start here .

Area Specific Resources

Richard Paul , Center for Critical Thinking ( criticalthinking.org ). Includes sample lessons, syllabi, teaching suggestions, and interdisciplinary resources and examples.
John Bean ’s Engaging Ideas – The Professor’s Guide to integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active learning in the Classroom is an invaluable resource for developing classroom activities and assignments that promote critical thinking and the scaffolding of writing.

Assignment Ideas

Weekly writing assignments.

These assignments are question-driven, thematic, and require students to integrate disciplinary and critical thinking literature to evaluate the validity of arguments in case studies, as well as the connections among method, theory, and practice in the case studies. Here, students are asked to utilize a chosen critical thinking framework throughout their written responses. These assignments can evolve during the semester by prompting students to address increasing complex case studies and arguments while also evaluating their own opinions using evidence from the readings. Along the way, students have ample opportunities for self-reflection, peer feedback, and coaching by the instructor.

Argument Mapping

A visual technique that allows students to analyze persuasive prose. This technique allows students to evaluate arguments–that is, distinguish valid from invalid arguments, and evaluate the soundness of different arguments. Advanced usage can help students organize and navigate complex information, encourage clearly articulated reasoning, and promote quick and effective communication. To learn more, please explore the following resources:

Carnegie Mellon University’s Open Learning Initiative course on this topic provides an excellent i ntroduction to exploring and understanding arguments. The course explains what the parts of an argument are, how to break arguments into their component parts, and how to create diagrams to show how those parts relate to each other.
Philmaps.com provides a handout that introduces the concept of argument mapping to students, and also includes a number of sample activities that faculty can use to introduce students to argument mapping.
Mindmup’s Argument Visualization platform is an online mind map tool easily leveraged for creating argument maps.

Research Proposal and Final Research Paper

Demonstrates students’ ability to identify, distinguish, and assess ideological and evaluative claims and judgments about the selected research topic. Throughout the semester, students have the opportunity to practice their ability to evaluate the validity of arguments, including their own beliefs about the topic. Formative and summative assessments are provided to students at regular intervals and during each stage of the project.

Facilitating discussion that Presses Students for Accuracy and Expanded Reasoning . This resource is part of Harvard University’s Graduate School of Education “Instructional Moves” video series.

Additional sample assignments and assessments can be found throughout the selected Resources section located above.

Course Design Questions

As you are integrating critical thinking into your course, here are a few questions that you might consider:

What framework/vocabulary/process do you use to teach the key elements of critical thinking in your course?
What assigned readings or other materials do you use to teach critical thinking specifically?
Do students have opportunities throughout the semester to apply and practice these skills and receive feedback?
What graded assignments evaluate how well students can both identify the key elements of critical thinking and demonstrate their ability to evaluate the validity of arguments (including their own)?

You may also be interested in:

Thinking critically in college workshop, ctl guide to the teamwork/collaboration hub area, ctl guide to writing-intensive hub courses, ctl guide to the individual in community hub area, ctl guide to digital/multimedia expression, oral & signed communication hub guide, creativity/innovation hub guide, research and information literacy hub guide.

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Critical thinking and problem-solving, jump to: , what is critical thinking, characteristics of critical thinking, why teach critical thinking.

Teaching Strategies to Help Promote Critical Thinking Skills

References and Resources

When examining the vast literature on critical thinking, various definitions of critical thinking emerge. Here are some samples:

"Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action" (Scriven, 1996).
"Most formal definitions characterize critical thinking as the intentional application of rational, higher order thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, problem recognition and problem solving, inference, and evaluation" (Angelo, 1995, p. 6).
"Critical thinking is thinking that assesses itself" (Center for Critical Thinking, 1996b).
"Critical thinking is the ability to think about one's thinking in such a way as 1. To recognize its strengths and weaknesses and, as a result, 2. To recast the thinking in improved form" (Center for Critical Thinking, 1996c).

Perhaps the simplest definition is offered by Beyer (1995) : "Critical thinking... means making reasoned judgments" (p. 8). Basically, Beyer sees critical thinking as using criteria to judge the quality of something, from cooking to a conclusion of a research paper. In essence, critical thinking is a disciplined manner of thought that a person uses to assess the validity of something (statements, news stories, arguments, research, etc.).

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Wade (1995) identifies eight characteristics of critical thinking. Critical thinking involves asking questions, defining a problem, examining evidence, analyzing assumptions and biases, avoiding emotional reasoning, avoiding oversimplification, considering other interpretations, and tolerating ambiguity. Dealing with ambiguity is also seen by Strohm & Baukus (1995) as an essential part of critical thinking, "Ambiguity and doubt serve a critical-thinking function and are a necessary and even a productive part of the process" (p. 56).

Another characteristic of critical thinking identified by many sources is metacognition. Metacognition is thinking about one's own thinking. More specifically, "metacognition is being aware of one's thinking as one performs specific tasks and then using this awareness to control what one is doing" (Jones & Ratcliff, 1993, p. 10 ).

In the book, Critical Thinking, Beyer elaborately explains what he sees as essential aspects of critical thinking. These are:

Dispositions: Critical thinkers are skeptical, open-minded, value fair-mindedness, respect evidence and reasoning, respect clarity and precision, look at different points of view, and will change positions when reason leads them to do so.
Criteria: To think critically, must apply criteria. Need to have conditions that must be met for something to be judged as believable. Although the argument can be made that each subject area has different criteria, some standards apply to all subjects. "... an assertion must... be based on relevant, accurate facts; based on credible sources; precise; unbiased; free from logical fallacies; logically consistent; and strongly reasoned" (p. 12).
Argument: Is a statement or proposition with supporting evidence. Critical thinking involves identifying, evaluating, and constructing arguments.
Reasoning: The ability to infer a conclusion from one or multiple premises. To do so requires examining logical relationships among statements or data.
Point of View: The way one views the world, which shapes one's construction of meaning. In a search for understanding, critical thinkers view phenomena from many different points of view.
Procedures for Applying Criteria: Other types of thinking use a general procedure. Critical thinking makes use of many procedures. These procedures include asking questions, making judgments, and identifying assumptions.

Oliver & Utermohlen (1995) see students as too often being passive receptors of information. Through technology, the amount of information available today is massive. This information explosion is likely to continue in the future. Students need a guide to weed through the information and not just passively accept it. Students need to "develop and effectively apply critical thinking skills to their academic studies, to the complex problems that they will face, and to the critical choices they will be forced to make as a result of the information explosion and other rapid technological changes" (Oliver & Utermohlen, p. 1 ).

As mentioned in the section, Characteristics of Critical Thinking , critical thinking involves questioning. It is important to teach students how to ask good questions, to think critically, in order to continue the advancement of the very fields we are teaching. "Every field stays alive only to the extent that fresh questions are generated and taken seriously" (Center for Critical Thinking, 1996a ).

Beyer sees the teaching of critical thinking as important to the very state of our nation. He argues that to live successfully in a democracy, people must be able to think critically in order to make sound decisions about personal and civic affairs. If students learn to think critically, then they can use good thinking as the guide by which they live their lives.

Teaching Strategies to Help Promote Critical Thinking

The 1995, Volume 22, issue 1, of the journal, Teaching of Psychology , is devoted to the teaching critical thinking. Most of the strategies included in this section come from the various articles that compose this issue.

CATS (Classroom Assessment Techniques): Angelo stresses the use of ongoing classroom assessment as a way to monitor and facilitate students' critical thinking. An example of a CAT is to ask students to write a "Minute Paper" responding to questions such as "What was the most important thing you learned in today's class? What question related to this session remains uppermost in your mind?" The teacher selects some of the papers and prepares responses for the next class meeting.
Cooperative Learning Strategies: Cooper (1995) argues that putting students in group learning situations is the best way to foster critical thinking. "In properly structured cooperative learning environments, students perform more of the active, critical thinking with continuous support and feedback from other students and the teacher" (p. 8).
Case Study /Discussion Method: McDade (1995) describes this method as the teacher presenting a case (or story) to the class without a conclusion. Using prepared questions, the teacher then leads students through a discussion, allowing students to construct a conclusion for the case.
Using Questions: King (1995) identifies ways of using questions in the classroom:
Reciprocal Peer Questioning: Following lecture, the teacher displays a list of question stems (such as, "What are the strengths and weaknesses of...). Students must write questions about the lecture material. In small groups, the students ask each other the questions. Then, the whole class discusses some of the questions from each small group.
Reader's Questions: Require students to write questions on assigned reading and turn them in at the beginning of class. Select a few of the questions as the impetus for class discussion.
Conference Style Learning: The teacher does not "teach" the class in the sense of lecturing. The teacher is a facilitator of a conference. Students must thoroughly read all required material before class. Assigned readings should be in the zone of proximal development. That is, readings should be able to be understood by students, but also challenging. The class consists of the students asking questions of each other and discussing these questions. The teacher does not remain passive, but rather, helps "direct and mold discussions by posing strategic questions and helping students build on each others' ideas" (Underwood & Wald, 1995, p. 18 ).
Use Writing Assignments: Wade sees the use of writing as fundamental to developing critical thinking skills. "With written assignments, an instructor can encourage the development of dialectic reasoning by requiring students to argue both [or more] sides of an issue" (p. 24).
Written dialogues: Give students written dialogues to analyze. In small groups, students must identify the different viewpoints of each participant in the dialogue. Must look for biases, presence or exclusion of important evidence, alternative interpretations, misstatement of facts, and errors in reasoning. Each group must decide which view is the most reasonable. After coming to a conclusion, each group acts out their dialogue and explains their analysis of it.
Spontaneous Group Dialogue: One group of students are assigned roles to play in a discussion (such as leader, information giver, opinion seeker, and disagreer). Four observer groups are formed with the functions of determining what roles are being played by whom, identifying biases and errors in thinking, evaluating reasoning skills, and examining ethical implications of the content.
Ambiguity: Strohm & Baukus advocate producing much ambiguity in the classroom. Don't give students clear cut material. Give them conflicting information that they must think their way through.
Angelo, T. A. (1995). Beginning the dialogue: Thoughts on promoting critical thinking: Classroom assessment for critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 6-7.
Beyer, B. K. (1995). Critical thinking. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.
Center for Critical Thinking (1996a). The role of questions in thinking, teaching, and learning. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univlibrary/library.nclk
Center for Critical Thinking (1996b). Structures for student self-assessment. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univclass/trc.nclk
Center for Critical Thinking (1996c). Three definitions of critical thinking [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univlibrary/library.nclk
Cooper, J. L. (1995). Cooperative learning and critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 7-8.
Jones, E. A. & Ratcliff, G. (1993). Critical thinking skills for college students. National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, University Park, PA. (Eric Document Reproduction Services No. ED 358 772)
King, A. (1995). Designing the instructional process to enhance critical thinking across the curriculum: Inquiring minds really do want to know: Using questioning to teach critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22 (1) , 13-17.
McDade, S. A. (1995). Case study pedagogy to advance critical thinking. Teaching Psychology, 22(1), 9-10.
Oliver, H. & Utermohlen, R. (1995). An innovative teaching strategy: Using critical thinking to give students a guide to the future.(Eric Document Reproduction Services No. 389 702)
Robertson, J. F. & Rane-Szostak, D. (1996). Using dialogues to develop critical thinking skills: A practical approach. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 39(7), 552-556.
Scriven, M. & Paul, R. (1996). Defining critical thinking: A draft statement for the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/univlibrary/library.nclk
Strohm, S. M., & Baukus, R. A. (1995). Strategies for fostering critical thinking skills. Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 50 (1), 55-62.
Underwood, M. K., & Wald, R. L. (1995). Conference-style learning: A method for fostering critical thinking with heart. Teaching Psychology, 22(1), 17-21.
Wade, C. (1995). Using writing to develop and assess critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 24-28.

On the Internet

Carr, K. S. (1990). How can we teach critical thinking. Eric Digest. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://ericps.ed.uiuc.edu/eece/pubs/digests/1990/carr90.html
The Center for Critical Thinking (1996). Home Page. Available HTTP: http://www.criticalthinking.org/University/
Ennis, Bob (No date). Critical thinking. [On-line], April 4, 1997. Available HTTP: http://www.cof.orst.edu/cof/teach/for442/ct.htm
Montclair State University (1995). Curriculum resource center. Critical thinking resources: An annotated bibliography. [On-line]. Available HTTP: http://www.montclair.edu/Pages/CRC/Bibliographies/CriticalThinking.html
No author, No date. Critical Thinking is ... [On-line], April 4, 1997. Available HTTP: http://library.usask.ca/ustudy/critical/
Sheridan, Marcia (No date). Internet education topics hotlink page. [On-line], April 4, 1997. Available HTTP: http://sun1.iusb.edu/~msherida/topics/critical.html

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Pathways: Listening, Speaking, and Critical Thinking

Pathways Listening, Speaking, and Critical Thinking, Second Edition uses compelling National Geographic stories, photos, video, and infographics to bring the world to the classroom. Authentic, relevant content and carefully sequenced lessons engage learners while equipping them with the skills needed for academic success.

NEW in Pathways Listening, Speaking, and Critical Thinking :

Explicit instruction and practice of note-taking, listening, speaking, grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation develop language proficiency and build academic skills.
Slide shows of lectures and presentations enhance listening activities and develop presentation skills.
Exam-style tasks prepare students for a range of international exams, including TOEFL and IELTS.

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Pathways 3 : listening, speaking, and critical thinking ; teacher's guide

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2. Critical Reading: Developing Critical Thinking Through Reading

When people think of high-level reasoning skills, they don’t often think if being a critical reading. Instead, they think of mathematicians and scientists, who are seen as drawing strict conclusions that follow logically from dry analysis of statistical evidence.

To be sure, mechanical, purely logical thought is a vital part of reasoning and critical thinking. But it is not everything. Critical thinking involves skills in interpretation in contexts that are multi-layered and ambiguous.

Close and critical reading is one of the best ways for students to develop skills in this kind of interpretation. As teachers think about developing critical thinking through literature they should focus on interpretive skills. Through their discussions, reflections, and reading and writing on fiction and literature, students ideally learn to develop critical thinking skills like the following:

how to empathize with multiple perspectives;
how to interrogate and interpret the author’s perspective;
how to ask and engage with complex moral and philosophical questions;
how to recognize and reckon with ambiguity.

This kind of reflection can start young — younger than we might ordinarily think. There’s a lot teachers can do to develop skills in critical thinking and reading.

Critical Reading Through Open-Ended Discussion

To facilitate growth in critical reading, teachers can build in time for open-ended discussion and resist the urge to steer students toward “correct” answers.

A good literary text is rarely able to be captured by a single interpretation. It is, of course, important to ensure students are progressing in basic comprehension skills and reading at grade level.

But when it comes to critical reading — delving into the meaning of a particular text — teachers should be open to students’ initial reflections and encourage them to express and develop their views no matter how rudimentary they might be at first.

Before engaging in more well-defined exercises and discussion, therefore, instructors can give students practice with more open-ended reflection. This will help them gain comfort and experience articulating their immediate reactions and beginning to question texts in a more structured way.

Many teachers will begin a discussion of a text with a set of questions like:

What’s the author’s point of view or argument?
What’s the intended audience?
What’s the author’s purpose?
How do they use rhetorical devices or figurative language?

This kind of questioning is, of course, important, but it can be more powerful and worthwhile to students if it comes organically out of their immediate reactions, rather than being experienced as something imposed from the outside. Otherwise, these can seem like simple questions with right or wrong answers that preclude deeper critical engagement, instead of starting points for that engagement.

For example, if a teacher wants to talk about rhetorical devices, they might begin by asking students more simply:

What jumped out at them in the reading?
What did it make them feel?
What do you think produced that feeling?

A teacher can move from there to the devices that might be at work producing that effect.

Similarly, before initiating a conversation about point of view, teachers might ask:

Did you feel able to identify with the author?
What questions did the passage raise about the author’s identity and perspective?

Eventually, if this is well-modeled and scaffolded, the practice of interrogating point of view or rhetoric will become natural to students. They will practice critical reading organically, instead of a kind of algorithm that they are meant to apply to the text.

Critical Reading and Interpretation

Just because a text is open to interpretation doesn’t mean that there are not better and worse interpretations to offer or questions to raise. But a good interpretation cannot be measured by simply applying a preconceived standard. It shows its value in the manner in which it is backed up by evidence from the text and convincing argument.

A combination of written and spoken exercises can be useful here. Sometimes it can lead to improved contributions if students think over their views while writing before convening in small or large groups to discuss the issue. In particular, writing can help with what’s called metacognition, or thinking about thinking. Being forced to write down their views can help students step back and think about why they think what they think.

Engagement with the text should serve to broaden students’ horizons and get them to examine their own thinking and beliefs. Students have to, to a certain extent, drive this process. But teachers must facilitate discussion and exploration, and make sure it doesn’t go off the rails.

This takes skill and experience, of course, as well as confidence. Teachers must be willing to let the reins go a little bit and see where the conversation takes students. They must also be adept at facilitating: resisting the urge to intervene too forcefully or reinterpret students’ comments and, instead, encouraging other students to enter the conversation and begin responding to each other.

Finally, developing critical thinking through reading involves fostering an ability to draw connections between disparate fields. This means examining the significance of texts for one’s own experience and for broader issues in history and everyday life.

When students learn to do this, they extend some of the habits of thinking they learn through the study of literature into their daily lives. The goal is more reflective thoughtful people, who develop problem-solving skills, make better decisions and, ultimately, live more meaningful lives.

The goal is more reflective thoughtful people, who develop problem-solving skills, make better decisions and, ultimately, live more meaningful lives.

An Example of a Discussion Around Fantastic Mr. Fox

What follows is an example of a critical thinking oriented discussion and close reading exercise around Roald Dahl’s Fantastic Mr. Fox . It’s geared toward younger grades, but teachers of all levels may find ideas for how to build discussion around appropriate texts.

Toward the middle of Dahl’s story, Mr. Fox is hiding out in his foxhole with his family from three farmers (Boggis, Bunce, and Bean), who wait with guns outside the hole, attempting to starve the Foxes out.

Mr. Fox comes up with a plan to outlast them. Along with his children, he digs into the farmers’ storehouses from underneath and steals food so his family can survive. As he’s in the process of stealing he meets up with Badger, who has reservations about stealing.

Remember, again, that students shouldn’t be pushed toward any right answers, but instead prompted to dig deeper. As researcher Judith Langer puts it, when it comes to critical thinking and literature, “musing itself is the goal.”

As researcher Judith Langer puts it, when it comes to critical thinking and literature, “musing itself is the goal.”

Text from Fantastic Mr. Fox

Suddenly Badger said, “Doesn’t this worry you just a tiny bit, Foxy?”

“Worry me?” said Mr Fox. “What?”

“All this… this stealing .”

Mr. Fox stopped digging and stared at Badger as though he had gone completely dotty. “My dear old furry friend, he said, “Do you know anyone in the whole world who can refuse to steal a few chickens if his children are starving to death?”

There was a short silence while Badger thought deeply about this.

“You are far too respectable,” said Mr. Fox.

“There’s nothing wrong with being respectable,” Badger said.

“Look,” said Mr. Fox, “Boggis and Bunce and Ben are out to kill us. You realize that, I hope?”

“I do, Foxy, I do indeed,” said the gentle Badger.

“But we’re not going to be like them. We don’t want to kill them.”

“I hope not,” said Badger.

“We shall never do it,” said Mr. Fox. “We shall simply take a little food here and there to keep us and our families alive. Right?”

“I think we’ll have to,” said Badger.

Opening Discussion

After soliciting students immediate reactions, teachers might proceed by introducing more structured questions like:

How does Mr. Fox justify stealing? Does his justification seem right to you? Why?

Many students will find Mr. Fox’s justification perfectly sound. Educators can push the conversation forward, though, by making sure that they’re giving reasons they believe his justification, however. The teacher can also complicate things by introducing new questions like the following:

Was Mr. Fox’s stealing justified in the beginning of the book before Boggis, Bunce, and Bean attacked his foxhole? If not, what conditions would make the stealing unjustified?

Consider Perspectives

The next stage is to begin broadening perspective, and pushing students to consider more general and abstract questions:

Why does Badger have reservations? What do you think “being respectable” means to Badger? What does it mean to Mr. Fox?
What about the perspectives of the farmers? Should we have any sympathy for them in this situation?

Teachers can also ask students to consider their own experiences and perspectives, as well as those of their classmates.

Have you ever been in a situation where you felt doing something that is ordinarily wrong was justified? What made it right or wrong?

Finally, teachers can use the discussion of texts like Fantastic Mr. Fox as a launch point for more abstract discussions:

Is being “respectable” always right? When might it not be?
What does it mean that a moral rule (like “you shouldn’t steal”) seems like it can be broken for special circumstances?
Should we live according to principles or based on the particular context we face? Is there such a thing as being “too principled”?

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K. Venkat Reddy 3 &
G. Suvarna Lakshmi 4

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This chapter presents machine-generated summaries of research conducted on teaching critical thinking skills in various educational contexts. The first article in this chapter deals with teaching critical thinking to engineering students with the following objectives: improving vocabulary, fluency in speech, and presenting arguments and opinions. The Gen-Z learners who are known to be digital natives and their other defining features are taken into account while undertaking the research. The results have shown that the cognitive tools used as input for teaching-learning vocabulary and thinking critically have positively influenced their learning of vocabulary, reading and writing skills. The second article summary in this chapter presents the results of teaching critical thinking to high school students using three different approaches viz. a viz., general, immersion, and mixed where the effects were large, moderate, and small respectively on the groups. The third auto-summary is about a study conducted on teaching critical thinking skills to high school learners. This study states that it is the lack of competence of the teachers in teaching the required skill set to the students is the reason for students lacking that skill paradigm. The students were then exposed to and trained in communication, critical thinking, and problem-solving. The study proposes that all students be given explicit instruction in these skills prior to graduation which should also be the goal of education. The next summary is of the article that is based on a study on the constructs of CT disposition: ability, sensitivity, and inclination to engage in critical and mindful thought. The details on teaching CT techniques form a major part of the study on Undergraduate (UG) students of contemporary arts. The teaching of CT strategies and classroom content were integrated. The students were encouraged to use CT beyond the classroom.

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Reddy, K.V., Lakshmi, G.S. (2024). Teach Critical Thinking. In: Reddy, K.V., Lakshmi, G.S. (eds) Critical Thinking for Professional and Language Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37951-2_2

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Teaching Critical Thinking

47 pages • 1 hour read

Teaching Critical Thinking: Practical Wisdom

A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.

Chapter Summaries & Analyses

Introduction-Teaching 6

Teachings 7-12

Teachings 13-19

Teachings 20-26

Teachings 27-32

Key Figures

Index of Terms

Important Quotes

Essay Topics

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Summary and Study Guide

Teaching Critical Thinking: Practical Wisdom by bell hooks is an exploration of education and best practices for promoting engagement and critical thinking . In each chapter, hooks responds to essential questions about educational practices and how other concepts intersect with teaching, including spirituality, feminism, touch, and sexuality. She examines the way dominator culture influences how and what educators teach, and she carefully dismantles these practices to expose their problems and to replace them with more meaningful and engaging strategies. hooks views critical thinking as a form of radical openness that can be encouraged through a shared community of learning in the classroom. By inviting teachers and students to share in a process of discussion, mutuality, and love, the classroom community becomes a space of wonder, discovery, and self-actualization . hooks was a prominent culture critic and educator whose work focused on the intersectionality of sexuality, gender, race, class, and culture.

This guide uses the 2010 paperback edition by Routledge.

Teaching Critical Thinking: Practical Wisdom is a collection of short essays on various topics relating to education. hooks, a renowned cultural critic and educator, uses the work to explore how teachers and students engage in the process of learning. She presents engaged pedagogy as a form of teaching that requires students and educators to participate in a shared community and to acknowledge the innate power disparity of modern education. hooks believes that teachers and students can build a future together through mutuality, active listening, and love. The work centers on engaged pedagogy, a methodology that invites students to bring their personal stories and backgrounds to the material. hooks centers her work on three major themes: Learning as Liberation , Engaged Pedagogy and a Community of Learning , and Critical Thinking as Radical Openness . Each essay, or chapter, is referred to as a “teaching.”

In Introduction-Teaching 6, hooks defines critical thinking and describes how students are taught to fear it. Young children soon learn to abandon their penchant for innovative thinking and imagination to embrace conformity. As a child, hooks was influenced by teachers who instilled in her the value of a democratic education and the importance of thinking. They saw education as a pathway to freedom. When she entered university, she encountered educators who saw her as less than human and who undermined her intelligence and contributions. hooks advocates for engaged pedagogy and promotes the power of educators to build shared communities of learning. She believes engaged pedagogy will help to dismantle the colonization of education and the colonization of the mind. In doing so, educators can restore integrity to the profession.

Teachings 7-12 expand upon the idea that teachers have a responsibility to develop a shared commitment to learning in the classroom. Teachers must hold themselves accountable by defining their purpose as educators and seeking out others with whom they can collaborate and grow. In the classroom, students learn best from discussion and sharing their stories with one another. hooks invites her students to bring their imagination and personal backgrounds to the material, and she encourages them to participate in a reciprocal relationship of learning.

In Teachings 13-18, hooks examines the history of the feminist and civil rights movements in education. The feminist movement changed the dynamic of the classroom and shifted curricular focus from patriarchal expressions of power and intellectual superiority. As a Black educator, hooks highlights the unique challenges that Black teachers, particularly Black female teachers, face while navigating educational systems upheld by dominator culture. She reveals ways teachers can fight back against these systems and how to handle the conflict that arises as a result. She also exposes the innate power hierarchy of the classroom and how teachers can use mutuality and love while maintaining boundaries and integrity.

Teachings 20-26 seek to restore practices and ideas that have been stripped from education. hooks asserts that reverence must be returned to the teaching profession and the intellectual life, and that teachers can assist in this process by developing mutuality in the classroom and embracing their own commitment to thinking and learning. The joy of reading, self-esteem, and spirituality are important considerations for teachers who hope to foster the development of students’ inner lives.

In Teachings 27-32, hooks asserts that love plays a significant role in the classroom. She dismisses educators’ fears about incorporating love into their teaching and challenges feminist thinkers to emphasize love as a part of their practice. In doing so, hooks suggests that writers and thinkers can transcend the criticism and disparity they face. hooks views teaching as a vocation that emphasizes a positive and liberating future. She encourages educators to teach to this future, and she suggests that critical thinking is the roadmap for students to achieve freedom. When students engage in critical thinking, they experience radical openness that has the power to transform their lives.

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Critical Thinking strategies for students and teachers
Pathways 1 Teacher's Guide: Listening, Speaking, and Critical Thinking
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Critical Thinking Teacher's Edition Level E
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GRADE 4-5 Reading Comprehension Practice I TIME: A.M./ P.M. I Let Us Read! I with Teacher Jake
Zaid Siddiqui, the 6th grade Art of Thinking Teacher at Fleming Middle School
Critical thinking, teacher kids to do small things and learn how to think on their own #puzzle
CRITICAL THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING IN STUDENTS PART 3
GRADE 4-5 Reading Comprehension Practice I My Daily Routine I Let Us Read! I with Teacher Jake
Critical Thinking Teacher: Warren Smith Special Guest! Viva Frei Live!

COMMENTS

Critical Thinking in the Classroom: A Guide for Teachers
Critical thinking is a key skill that goes far beyond the four walls of a classroom. It equips students to better understand and interact with the world around them. Here are some reasons why fostering critical thinking is important: Making Informed Decisions: Critical thinking enables students to evaluate the pros and cons of a situation ...
Teachers' Guide to Critical Thinking
Reboot's guide for teachers contains resources for teaching critical thinking to students of all ages, in any subject, including math, science, literature, civics, writing, and philosophy. The guide — written with teachers, for teachers — is an invaluable resource for teaching the skills needed to be engaged and informed global citizens.
Teaching Critical Thinking
Teaching critical thinking, as most teachers know, is a challenge. Classroom time is always at a premium and teaching thinking and reasoning can fall by the wayside, especially when testing goals and state requirements take precedence. But for a growing number of educators, critical thinking has become a priority.
Eight Instructional Strategies for Promoting Critical Thinking
Eight Instructional Strategies for Promoting Critical Thinking
PDF How to Teach Critical Thinking
Teaching critical thinking, as most teachers know, is a challenge. Classroom time is always ... what we've set out to do in this guide. Instilling Critical Thinking Habits That said, there are some habits and virtues that cut across domains when it comes to teaching critical thinking. Teachers can make an impact by modeling these intellectual
PDF Critical Thinking Competency Standards
The critical thinking competency standards articulated in this guide serve as a resource for teachers, curriculum designers, administrators and accrediting bodies. The use of ... have developed such a worldview. In short, teaching for critical thinking presupposes a clear conception of critical thinking in the mind of the teacher.
Teaching Critical Thinking Skills in Middle and High School
Teach Reasoning Skills. Reasoning skills are another key component of critical thinking, involving the abilities to think logically, evaluate evidence, identify assumptions, and analyze arguments. Students who learn how to use reasoning skills will be better equipped to make informed decisions, form and defend opinions, and solve problems.
PDF Critical Thinking Competency Standards
The critical thinking competency standards articulated in this guide serve as a resource for teachers, curriculum designers, administrators and accrediting bod- ... a worldview. In short, teaching for critical thinking presupposes a clear concep-tion of critical thinking in the mind of the teacher. Unfortunately, we cannot assume that teachers ...
Library for Educators
Library for Educators. This digital library provides resources and references that educators can use to improve the quality of studying, learning, and teaching. These titles provide online access to the educator's library published by the Foundation for Critical Thinking.
25 Of The Best Resources For Teaching Critical Thinking
22. A Rubric To Assess Critical Thinking (they have several free rubrics, but you have to register for a free account to gain access) 23. 25 Critical Thinking Apps For Extended Student Thought. 24. Debate.org is a 'debate' community that promotes topic-driven discussion and critical thought.
PDF The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts & Tools
The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts & Tools
CTL Guide to Critical Thinking
Introduction. The ability to think critically is the fundamental characteristic of an educated person. It is required for just, civil society and governance, prized by employers, and essential for the growth of wisdom. Critical thinking is what most people name first when asked about the essential components of a college education.
Critical Thinking for Teachers
3.1 Critical Thinking as Cognitive Processes and Skills. The emphasis on teaching thinking led to an initial conceptualization of critical thinking as cognitive processes and skills. In the book Developing Minds, by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development in the US, which is an early effort to provide a resource guide for educators to teach "thinking," Pressesien ...
Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving
Beyer sees the teaching of critical thinking as important to the very state of our nation. He argues that to live successfully in a democracy, people must be able to think critically in order to make sound decisions about personal and civic affairs. ... Using critical-thinking principles as a guide to college-level instruction. Teaching of ...
PDF Aspiring Thinker's Guide to Critical Thinking
Provides grading rubrics and outlines five levels of close reading and substantive writing. #563m. "Aspiring Thinker's Guide to Critical Thinking" Mini-Guide Price List: (+ shipping and handling) Item #554m. 1-24 copies $6.00 each 25-199 copies $5.00 each 200-499 copies $4.00 each 500+ copies $3.50 each.
Critical thinking for teachers and students
Critical thinking for teachers and students
Critical Thinking With TeachThought: Grow Your Teaching
25 Critical Thinking Apps For Extended Student Learning. By TeachThought Staff September 25, 2022. Critical thinking is widely misunderstood. Apps that promote it can be hard to find. Here are 25 critical thinking apps to get you started. Critical thinking is more than higher-order cognition. Critical thinking breeds collaboration, innovation ...
7 Critical and Creative Thinking strategies for teachers and students
Games and puzzles that encourage critical and creative thinking strategies include logic puzzles, brain teasers, strategic board games, word puzzles, and problem-solving activities. These games require students to analyze information, make connections, think critically, and develop innovative solutions. By engaging in these activities, students ...
Teaching critical thinking: An evidence-based guide
Teaching critical thinking may boost inventiveness and raise IQ. Richard Herrnstein and his colleagues gave over 400 seventh graders explicit instruction in critical thinking-a program that covered hypothesis testing, basic logic, and the evaluation of complex arguments, inventiveness, decision making, and other topics.
Pathways: Listening, Speaking, and Critical Thinking
Pathways: Listening, Speaking, and Critical Thinking
Pathways 3 : listening, speaking, and critical thinking ; teacher's guide
Pathways 3 : listening, speaking, and critical thinking ; ...
Critical Reading
Critical thinking involves skills in interpretation in contexts that are multi-layered and ambiguous. Close and critical reading is one of the best ways for students to develop skills in this kind of interpretation. As teachers think about developing critical thinking through literature they should focus on interpretive skills.
Teach Critical Thinking
This chapter presents machine-generated summaries of research conducted on teaching critical thinking skills in various educational contexts. The first article in this chapter deals with teaching critical thinking to engineering students with the following objectives: improving vocabulary, fluency in speech, and presenting arguments and opinions.
Teaching Critical Thinking Summary and Study Guide
Summary. Teaching Critical Thinking: Practical Wisdom is a collection of short essays on various topics relating to education. hooks, a renowned cultural critic and educator, uses the work to explore how teachers and students engage in the process of learning. She presents engaged pedagogy as a form of teaching that requires students and ...