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Computer memory.

Published by Myra Cummings Modified over 9 years ago

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Presentation on theme: "Computer memory."— Presentation transcript:

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Download Computer Memory PPT | PDF | Presentation

Download Computer Memory PPT | PDF | Presentation: Memory is an internal storage area in a computer, which is availed to store data and programs either permanently or temporarily.  Computer memory is broadly divided into two groups and they are:

• Primary memory and
• Secondary memory

The diagrammatic representation of the classification of computer memory is shown below:

Fig1: Classification of the Computer Memory

When the main memory holds instructions and data when a program is executing, the auxiliary memory or secondary memory holds data and programs which are not currently in use and furnishes long term storage.

The primary memory and secondary memory are further classified into distinct groups and those are explained in the below diagram:

Fig2: Classification of Primary Memory and Secondary Memory

Primary memory:

Primary memory is the only type of memory which is directly accessed by the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored in the primary memory and executes them. Any data that has to be operated by the CPU is also stored. The information is transferred to various locations through the BUS. Primary memories are of two types. They are:

• RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. Here data can be stored temporarily, so this type of memory is called as temporary memory or volatile memory because when power fails the data from RAM will be erased. The information stored in the RAM is basically loaded from the computer’s disk and includes information related to the operating system and applications that are currently executed by the processor. RAM is considered random access because any memory cell can be directly accessed if its address is known. RAM is of distinct types like SRAM, DRAM, and VRAM.
• ROM: It stands for Read Only Memory. In this, the data will be furnished by the manufacturers regarding the system, so this information can simply be read by the user but cannot add new data or it cannot be modified. ROMs are of distinct types:
• PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory
• EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
• EEPROM – Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

Secondary memory:

Secondary memory or auxiliary memory consists of slower and less expensive device that communicates indirectly with CPU via main memory. The secondary memory stores the data and keeps it even when the power fails. It is used to store or save large data or programs or other information. The secondary storage devices are explained below:

• Magnetic disks
• Magnetic tape
• Optical disk
• USB flash drive
• Mass storage devices

1.Magnetic disks: Magnetic disks are made of rigid metals or synthetic plastic material. The disk platter is coated on both the surfaces with magnetic material and both the surfaces can be used for storage. The magnetic disk furnishes direct access and is for both small and large computer systems. The magnetic disk comes in two forms:

• Floppy disks

2. Magnetic tape: magnetic tape is serial access storage medium and it can store a large volume of data at low costs. The conventional magnetic tape is in reels of up to 3600 feet made of Mylar plastic tape. The tape is one-half inch in width and is coated with magnetic material on one side. The reel of tape is loaded on a magnetic tape drive unit. During any read/write operation, the tape is moved from one spool to another in the same way as in the audiocassette tape recorder. The magnetic tape is densely packed with magnetic spots in frames across its width.

3. Optical drives: optical drives are a storage medium from which data is read and to which it is written by lasers. Optical disks can store much more data up to 6GB. Optical store devices are the most widely used and reliable storage devices. The most widely used type of optical storage devices are explained below:

• CD – RECORDABLE
• CD – REWRITABLE

4. USB flash drives: USB flash drives are removable, rewritable and are physically much smaller drives, which have the weight of less than 30g. In the year of 2010, the storage capacity of the USB flash drives was as large as 256GB. Such devices are a good substitute for floppy disks and CD – ROMs as they are smaller, faster, have thousands of times more capacity, and are more durable and reliable. Until 2005, most desktop and laptop computers had floppy disk drives, but nowadays floppy disk drives have been abandoned in favor of USB ports. The USB connector is often protected inside a removable cap, although it is not likely to be damaged if unprotected. USB flash drives draw power from the computer through external USB connection. The most widely used USB flash drives are the memory cards.

5. Mass storage devices: Mass storage devices refer to the saving of huge data in a persistent manner. Mass storage machines can store up to several trillion bytes of data and hence are used to store or save large databases, such as the information of customers of a big retail chain and library transactions of students in a college. Some of the commonly used mass storage devices are explained below:

• Automated tape
• CD – ROM jukebox

Content of the PPT and PDF Report for Computer Memory

• Memory Hierarchy
• Memory Chip Organization
• Flash Memory

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Computer Memory - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Computer Memory

May not know is that most of the electronic items you use every day have some ... memory storage devices such as compactflash or smartmedia cards are also forms ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• When you think about it, it's amazing
• how many different types of
• electronic memory you encounter in
• daily life.
• Many of them have become an
• integral part of our vocabulary .
• RAM ROM Cache Dynamic
• RAM Static RAM Flash RAM
• BIOS Memory Sticks
• Virtual memory Video memory
• You already know that the computer in front of you has memory. What you
• may not know is that most of the electronic items you use every day have some
• form of memory also. Here are just a few examples of the many items that use
• Cell phones Game consoles Car radios VCRs TVs . Each of these devices uses
• different types of memory in different ways.
• Although memory is technically any form of electronic storage, it is used most
• often to identify fast, temporary forms of storage. If your computer's CPU had
• to constantly access the hard drive to retrieve every piece of data it needs, it
• would operate very slowly. When the information is kept in memory, the CPU
• can access it much more quickly. Most forms of memory are intended to store
• data temporarily.
• As you can see in the diagram above, the CPU accesses memory according to a
• distinct hierarchy. Whether it comes from permanent storage (the hard drive)
• or input (the keyboard), most data goes in random access memory (RAM) first.
• The CPU then stores pieces of data it will need to access, often in a cache, and
• maintains certain special instructions in the register. We'll talk about cache and
• registers later.
• All of the components in your computer, such as the CPU, the hard drive and
• the operating system, work together as a team, and memory is one of the most
• essential parts of this team. From the moment you turn your computer on until
• the time you shut it down, your CPU is constantly using memory. Let's take a
• look at a typical scenario
• When you turn the computer on.The computer loads data from read-only
• memory (ROM) and performs a power-on self-test (POST) to make sure all the
• major components are functioning properly. As part of this test, the memory
• controller checks all of the memory addresses with a quick read/write operation
• to ensure that there are no errors in the memory chips. Read/write means that
• data is written to a bit and then read from that bit.
• The computer loads the basic input/output system (BIOS) from ROM. The
• BIOS provides the most basic information about storage devices, boot sequence,
• security, Plug and Play (auto device recognition) capability and a few other
• The computer loads the operating system (OS) from the hard drive into the
• system's RAM. Generally, the critical parts of the operating system are
• maintained in RAM as long as the computer is on. This allows the CPU to have
• immediate access to the operating system, which enhances the performance and
• functionality of the overall system.
• When you open an application, it is loaded into RAM. To conserve RAM
• usage, many applications load only the essential parts of the program initially
• and then load other pieces as needed.
• After an application is loaded, any files that are opened for use in that
• application are loaded into RAM.
• When you save a file and close the application, the file is written to the specified
• storage device, and then it and the application are purged from RAM.
• In the list above, every time something is loaded or opened, it is placed into
• This simply means that it has been put in the computer's temporary storage
• area so that the CPU can access that information more easily. The CPU requests
• the data it needs from RAM, processes it and writes new data back to RAM in a
• continuous cycle. In most computers, this shuffling of data between the CPU
• and RAM happens millions of times every second. When an application is
• closed, it and any accompanying files are usually purged from RAM to make
• room for new data. If the changed files are not saved before being purged, they
• One common question about desktop computers that comes up all the time is,
• "Why does a computer need so many memory systems?" A typical computer
• Level 1 and level 2 caches
• Normal system RAM
• Virtual memory
• A hard disk
• Why so many? The answer to this question can teach you a lot about memory!
• Fast, powerful CPUs need quick and easy access to large amounts of data in
• order to maximize their performance. If the CPU cannot get to the data it needs,
• it literally stops and waits for it. Modern CPUs running at speeds of about 1
• gigahertz can consume massive amounts of data -- potentially billions of bytes
• per second. The problem that computer designers face is that memory that can
• keep up with a 1-gigahertz CPU is extremely expensive -- much more expensive
• than anyone can afford in large quantities.
• In the next section, you'll find out how designers addressed this cost problem
• Computer designers have solved the cost problem by "tiering" memory -- using
• expensive memory in small quantities and then backing it up with larger
• quantities of less expensive memory. The cheapest form of read/write memory
• in wide use today is the hard disk. Hard disks provide large quantities of
• inexpensive, permanent storage. You can buy hard disk space for pennies per
• megabyte, but it can take a good bit of time (approaching a second) to read a
• megabyte off a hard disk. Because storage space on a hard disk is so cheap and
• plentiful, it forms the final stage of a CPUs memory hierarchy, called virtual
• The next level of the hierarchy is RAM. We discuss RAM in detail in How RAM
• Works, but several points about RAM are important here. The bit size of a CPU
• tells you how many bytes of information it can access from RAM at the same
• time. For example, a 16-bit CPU can process 2 bytes at a time (1 byte 8 bits, so
• 16 bits 2 bytes), and a 64-bit CPU can process 8 bytes at a time. Megahertz
• (MHz) is a measure of a CPU's processing speed, or clock cycle, in millions per
• second. So, a 32-bit 800-MHz Pentium III can potentially process 4 bytes
• simultaneously, 800 million times per second (possibly more based on
• pipelining)! The goal of the memory system is to meet those requirements.
• A computer's system RAM alone is not fast enough to match the speed of the
• CPU. That is why you need a cache (discussed later).
• However, the faster RAM is, the better. Most chips today operate with a cycle
• rate of 50 to 70 nanoseconds. The read/write speed is typically a function of the
• type of RAM used, such as DRAM, SDRAM, RAMBUS. We will talk about
• these various types of memory later.
• First, let's talk about system RAM.
• System RAM speed is controlled by bus width and bus speed. Bus width refers
• to the number of bits that can be sent to the CPU simultaneously, and bus speed
• refers to the number of times a group of bits can be sent each second. A bus
• cycle occurs every time data travels from memory to the CPU. For example, a
• 100-MHz 32-bit bus is theoretically capable of sending 4 bytes (32 bits divided
• by 8 4 bytes) of data to the CPU 100 million times per second, while a 66-MHz
• 16-bit bus can send 2 bytes of data 66 million times per second. If you do the
• math, you'll find that simply changing the bus width from 16 bits to 32 bits and
• the speed from 66 MHz to 100 MHz in our example allows for three times as
• much data to pass through to the CPU every second.
• In reality, RAM doesn't usually operate at optimum speed. Latency changes the
• equation radically. Latency refers to the number of clock cycles needed to read
• a bit of information. For example, RAM rated at 100 MHz is capable of sending
• a bit in 0.00000001 seconds, but may take 0.00000005 seconds to start the read
• process for the first bit. To compensate for latency, CPUs uses a special
• technique called burst mode.
• Burst mode depends on the expectation that data requested by the CPU will be
• stored in sequential memory cells. The memory controller anticipates that
• whatever the CPU is working on will continue to come from this same series of
• memory addresses, so it reads several consecutive bits of data together. This
• means that only the first bit is subject to the full effect of latency reading
• successive bits takes significantly less time. The rated burst mode of memory is
• normally expressed as four numbers separated by dashes. The first number tells
• you the number of clock cycles needed to begin a read operation the second,
• third and fourth numbers tell you how many cycles are needed to read each
• consecutive bit in the row, also known as the wordline. For example 5-1-1-1
• tells you that it takes five cycles to read the first bit and one cycle for each bit
• after that. Obviously, the lower these numbers are, the better the performance
• of the memory. Burst mode is often used in conjunction with pipelining, another
• means of minimizing the effects of latency. Pipelining organizes data retrieval
• into a sort of assembly-line process. The memory controller simultaneously
• reads one or more words from memory, sends the current word or words to the
• CPU and writes one or more words to memory cells. Used together, burst mode
• and pipelining can dramatically reduce the lag caused by latency. So why
• wouldn't you buy the fastest, widest memory you can get? The speed and width
• of the memory's bus should match the system's bus. You can use memory
• designed to work at 100 MHz in a 66-MHz system, but it will run at the
• 66-MHzspeed of the bus , and 32-bit memory won't fit on a 16-bit bus.
• Even with a wide and fast bus, it still takes longer for data to get from the
• memory card to the CPU than it takes for the CPU to actually process the data.
• Caches are designed to alleviate this bottleneck by making the data used most
• often by the CPU instantly available. This is accomplished by building a small
• amount of memory, known as primary or level 1 cache, right into the CPU.
• Level 1 cache is very small, normally ranging between 2 kilobytes (KB) and
• The secondary or level 2 cache typically resides on a memory card located near
• the CPU. The level 2 cache has a direct connection to the CPU. A dedicated
• integrated circuit on the motherboard, the L2 controller, regulates the use of the
• level 2 cache by the CPU. Depending on the CPU, the size of the level 2 cache
• ranges from 256 KB to 2 megabytes (MB). In most systems, data needed by the
• CPU is accessed from the cache approximately 95 percent of the time, greatly
• reducing the overhead needed when the CPU has to wait for data from the main
• memory. Some inexpensive systems dispense with the level 2 cache altogether.
• Many high performance CPUs now have the level 2 cache actually built into the
• CPU chip itself. Therefore, the size of the level 2 cache and whether it is
• onboard is a major determining factor in the performance of a CPU.
• A particular type of RAM, static random access memory (SRAM), is used
• primarily for cache. SRAM uses multiple transistors, typically four to six, for
• each memory cell. It has an external gate array known as a bistable
• multivibrator that switches, or flip-flops, between two states. This means that it
• does not have to be continually refreshed like DRAM. Each cell will maintain its
• data as long as it has power. Without the need for constant refreshing, SRAM
• can operate extremely quickly. But the complexity of each cell make it
• prohibitively expensive for use as standard RAM.The SRAM in the cache can
• be asynchronous or synchronous. Synchronous SRAM is designed to exactly
• match the speed of the CPU, while asynchronous is not. That little bit of timing
• makes a difference in performance.
• Matching the CPU's clock speed is a good thing, so always look for
• synchronized SRAM. The final step in memory is the registers. These are
• memory cells built right into the CPU that contain specific data needed by the
• CPU, particularly the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). An integral part of the
• CPU itself, they are controlled directly by the compiler that sends information
• for the CPU to process. See How Microprocessors Work for details on registers.
• Memory can be split into two main categories volatile and nonvolatile. Volatile
• memory loses any data as soon as the system is turned off it requires constant
• power to remain viable. Most types of RAM fall into this category.

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Computer Memory PDF

Jul 31, 2021

790 likes | 2.68k Views

Memory is used to run programs fast and efficiently on the computer. Computer memory is like a human brain. A computer has three memories primary, secondary, and cache memory.

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