essay writing guidelines and criteria

• Academic Skills
• Reading, writing and referencing

Writing a great essay

This resource covers key considerations when writing an essay.

While reading a student’s essay, markers will ask themselves questions such as:

• Does this essay directly address the set task?
• Does it present a strong, supported position?
• Does it use relevant sources appropriately?
• Is the expression clear, and the style appropriate?
• Is the essay organised coherently? Is there a clear introduction, body and conclusion?

You can use these questions to reflect on your own writing. Here are six top tips to help you address these criteria.

1. Analyse the question

Student essays are responses to specific questions. As an essay must address the question directly, your first step should be to analyse the question. Make sure you know exactly what is being asked of you.

Generally, essay questions contain three component parts:

• Content terms: Key concepts that are specific to the task
• Limiting terms: The scope that the topic focuses on
• Directive terms: What you need to do in relation to the content, e.g. discuss, analyse, define, compare, evaluate.

Look at the following essay question:

Discuss the importance of light in Gothic architecture.

• Content terms: Gothic architecture
• Limiting terms: the importance of light. If you discussed some other feature of Gothic architecture, for example spires or arches, you would be deviating from what is required. This essay question is limited to a discussion of light. Likewise, it asks you to write about the importance of light – not, for example, to discuss how light enters Gothic churches.
• Directive term: discuss. This term asks you to take a broad approach to the variety of ways in which light may be important for Gothic architecture. You should introduce and consider different ideas and opinions that you have met in academic literature on this topic, citing them appropriately .

For a more complex question, you can highlight the key words and break it down into a series of sub-questions to make sure you answer all parts of the task. Consider the following question (from Arts):

To what extent can the American Revolution be understood as a revolution ‘from below’? Why did working people become involved and with what aims in mind?

The key words here are American Revolution and revolution ‘from below’. This is a view that you would need to respond to in this essay. This response must focus on the aims and motivations of working people in the revolution, as stated in the second question.

2. Define your argument

As you plan and prepare to write the essay, you must consider what your argument is going to be. This means taking an informed position or point of view on the topic presented in the question, then defining and presenting a specific argument.

Consider these two argument statements:

The architectural use of light in Gothic cathedrals physically embodied the significance of light in medieval theology.

In the Gothic cathedral of Cologne, light served to accentuate the authority and ritual centrality of the priest.

Statements like these define an essay’s argument. They give coherence by providing an overarching theme and position towards which the entire essay is directed.

3. Use evidence, reasoning and scholarship

To convince your audience of your argument, you must use evidence and reasoning, which involves referring to and evaluating relevant scholarship.

• Evidence provides concrete information to support your claim. It typically consists of specific examples, facts, quotations, statistics and illustrations.
• Reasoning connects the evidence to your argument. Rather than citing evidence like a shopping list, you need to evaluate the evidence and show how it supports your argument.
• Scholarship is used to show how your argument relates to what has been written on the topic (citing specific works). Scholarship can be used as part of your evidence and reasoning to support your argument.

4. Organise a coherent essay

An essay has three basic components - introduction, body and conclusion.

The purpose of an introduction is to introduce your essay. It typically presents information in the following order:

• A general statement about the topic that provides context for your argument
• A thesis statement showing your argument. You can use explicit lead-ins, such as ‘This essay argues that...’
• A ‘road map’ of the essay, telling the reader how it is going to present and develop your argument.

Example introduction

"To what extent can the American Revolution be understood as a revolution ‘from below’? Why did working people become involved and with what aims in mind?"

Introduction*

Historians generally concentrate on the twenty-year period between 1763 and 1783 as the period which constitutes the American Revolution [This sentence sets the general context of the period] . However, when considering the involvement of working people, or people from below, in the revolution it is important to make a distinction between the pre-revolutionary period 1763-1774 and the revolutionary period 1774-1788, marked by the establishment of the continental Congress(1) [This sentence defines the key term from below and gives more context to the argument that follows] . This paper will argue that the nature and aims of the actions of working people are difficult to assess as it changed according to each phase [This is the thesis statement] . The pre-revolutionary period was characterised by opposition to Britain’s authority. During this period the aims and actions of the working people were more conservative as they responded to grievances related to taxes and scarce land, issues which directly affected them. However, examination of activities such as the organisation of crowd action and town meetings, pamphlet writing, formal communications to Britain of American grievances and physical action in the streets, demonstrates that their aims and actions became more revolutionary after 1775 [These sentences give the ‘road map’ or overview of the content of the essay] .

The body of the essay develops and elaborates your argument. It does this by presenting a reasoned case supported by evidence from relevant scholarship. Its shape corresponds to the overview that you provided in your introduction.

The body of your essay should be written in paragraphs. Each body paragraph should develop one main idea that supports your argument. To learn how to structure a paragraph, look at the page developing clarity and focus in academic writing .

Your conclusion should not offer any new material. Your evidence and argumentation should have been made clear to the reader in the body of the essay.

Use the conclusion to briefly restate the main argumentative position and provide a short summary of the themes discussed. In addition, also consider telling your reader:

• What the significance of your findings, or the implications of your conclusion, might be
• Whether there are other factors which need to be looked at, but which were outside the scope of the essay
• How your topic links to the wider context (‘bigger picture’) in your discipline.

Do not simply repeat yourself in this section. A conclusion which merely summarises is repetitive and reduces the impact of your paper.

Example conclusion

Conclusion*.

Although, to a large extent, the working class were mainly those in the forefront of crowd action and they also led the revolts against wealthy plantation farmers, the American Revolution was not a class struggle [This is a statement of the concluding position of the essay]. Working people participated because the issues directly affected them – the threat posed by powerful landowners and the tyranny Britain represented. Whereas the aims and actions of the working classes were more concerned with resistance to British rule during the pre-revolutionary period, they became more revolutionary in nature after 1775 when the tension with Britain escalated [These sentences restate the key argument]. With this shift, a change in ideas occurred. In terms of considering the Revolution as a whole range of activities such as organising riots, communicating to Britain, attendance at town hall meetings and pamphlet writing, a difficulty emerges in that all classes were involved. Therefore, it is impossible to assess the extent to which a single group such as working people contributed to the American Revolution [These sentences give final thoughts on the topic].

5. Write clearly

An essay that makes good, evidence-supported points will only receive a high grade if it is written clearly. Clarity is produced through careful revision and editing, which can turn a good essay into an excellent one.

When you edit your essay, try to view it with fresh eyes – almost as if someone else had written it.

Ask yourself the following questions:

Overall structure

• Have you clearly stated your argument in your introduction?
• Does the actual structure correspond to the ‘road map’ set out in your introduction?
• Have you clearly indicated how your main points support your argument?
• Have you clearly signposted the transitions between each of your main points for your reader?
• Does each paragraph introduce one main idea?
• Does every sentence in the paragraph support that main idea?
• Does each paragraph display relevant evidence and reasoning?
• Does each paragraph logically follow on from the one before it?
• Is each sentence grammatically complete?
• Is the spelling correct?
• Is the link between sentences clear to your readers?
• Have you avoided redundancy and repetition?

See more about editing on our  editing your writing page.

6. Cite sources and evidence

Finally, check your citations to make sure that they are accurate and complete. Some faculties require you to use a specific citation style (e.g. APA) while others may allow you to choose a preferred one. Whatever style you use, you must follow its guidelines correctly and consistently. You can use Recite, the University of Melbourne style guide, to check your citations.

Further resources

• Germov, J. (2011). Get great marks for your essays, reports and presentations (3rd ed.). NSW: Allen and Unwin.
• Using English for Academic Purposes: A guide for students in Higher Education [online]. Retrieved January 2020 from http://www.uefap.com
• Williams, J.M. & Colomb, G. G. (2010) Style: Lessons in clarity and grace. 10th ed. New York: Longman.

* Example introduction and conclusion adapted from a student paper.

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How to Write an Essay — A Comprehensive Guide

Table of Contents

Writing an essay can be a daunting task, especially if you are new to academic writing. However, with the right approach and a clear understanding of the essay structure, you can tackle this challenge seamlessly. In this article, we will guide you through the process of essay writing in a detailed manner. By following these guidelines, you will be able to gather your materials, develop a strong argument, and craft a well-structured essay that will leave your readers hooked.

Getting Started — Gather Your Materials and Research

Before you start writing your essay, it is important to gather all the necessary materials and conduct thorough research on your topic. This includes finding relevant books, articles, and online sources that will provide you with the information needed to support your argument. The more well-informed you are on the subject, the stronger your essay will be.

When gathering your materials, it is essential to consider the credibility and reliability of your sources. Look for reputable publications, academic journals, bibliography databases , and expert opinions to ensure that the information you include in your essay is accurate and trustworthy. Remember, the quality of your research will greatly influence the overall quality of your essay.

Additionally, conducting thorough research will not only provide you with the necessary information but also help you gain a deeper understanding of your topic. As you delve into different sources, you may come across various perspectives and arguments that will enrich your own analysis. This exploration will allow you to develop a well-rounded and comprehensive essay that considers different viewpoints.

While conducting your research, it is crucial to take organized and detailed notes. Jot down key points, quotes, and any thoughts or ideas that come to mind. This will not only help you remember important information but also assist you in organizing your thoughts and structuring your essay effectively. By keeping track of your sources, you will also avoid any issues with plagiarism and ensure that you can properly cite your references.

Furthermore, the research process provides an opportunity for you to engage critically with the topic. As you read and analyze different sources, you may encounter conflicting information or gaps in the existing literature. This presents a chance for you to contribute to the academic discourse by addressing these discrepancies or proposing new insights. Your essay can become a platform for advancing knowledge and sparking further discussions.

Lastly, remember that research is an ongoing process. Even after you have gathered your initial materials, it is important to remain open to new information and perspectives. Embrace this continuous learning and be willing to revise and refine your arguments as you progress.

Create an Outline

Once you have gathered your research materials, it is time to create an outline for your essay. An outline will serve as a roadmap for your writing, helping you organize your thoughts and ensure that your essay flows logically.  Start by identifying the main points you want to cover in your essay. Then, arrange these points in a logical order, considering the overall structure of your essay.

When creating an outline, it is important to consider the overall structure of your essay. Think about how you want to introduce your topic and engage your readers. Consider what information is essential to include in each section of your essay and how you want to transition between different ideas.

Understand the Essay Structure

Before diving into the essay writing process, it is important to understand the basic structure of an essay. Most essays follow a standard format, consisting of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The introduction should grab the reader's attention and provide a clear thesis statement that reflects your main argument. The body paragraphs should expand on your argument, providing evidence and examples to support your claims. Finally, the conclusion should summarize your essay and restate your main points.

Write the Introduction

The introduction is the first impression your essay makes on the reader, so it is essential to make it engaging and captivating. Start with a hook that grabs the reader's attention and introduces the topic. Then, provide some background information and context to set the stage for your argument. Finally, end your introduction with a clear and concise thesis statement that reflects the main point you will be discussing throughout your essay.

Develop Your Argument

Once you have established your thesis statement, it is time to develop your argument in the body paragraphs of your essay. Each body paragraph should focus on a specific point that supports your thesis. Commence with each paragraph by presenting a topic sentence that serves to introduce the main idea to the reader. Subsequently, provide evidence and illustrations to support your argument. Be sure to use clear and concise language and vary your sentence structure to keep the reader engaged.

Use Evidence to Support Your Argument

To strengthen your argument and validate your claims, it is crucial to use evidence and examples throughout your essay. This can include research findings, statistics, quotes from authoritative sources, or real-life examples. Make sure to cite your sources properly and provide enough context for the reader to understand the significance of the evidence you are presenting.

Write the Body Paragraphs

With your argument and evidence in place, it is time to write the body paragraphs of your essay. Each body paragraph should focus on a separate point that contributes to your overall argument. Start with a topic that introduces the main concept of the paragraph. Then, provide supporting details and evidence to expand on your point. Use transition words and phrases to ensure a smooth flow between the paragraphs.

Craft the Conclusion

The conclusion is the final opportunity to leave a lasting impression on your reader. In this section, you should summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement. Do not introduce new information or arguments in the conclusion section. Instead, focus on wrapping up your essay and leaving the reader with a thought-provoking closing statement. Make sure to leave a lasting impact and reinforce the significance of your argument.

Edit and Proofread

Once you have finished writing your essay, it is crucial to edit and proofread it thoroughly. Check for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and awkward phrasing. Ensure that your sentences flow smoothly and that your ideas are clearly expressed. Trim any unnecessary information and make sure that your essay is concise and focused. Consider seeking feedback from your peer or teacher to get a fresh perspective on your work.

Final Touches and Submission

Before submitting your essay, take some time to add the final touches. This includes formatting your essay according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or educational institution. Make sure that your essay is properly formatted, with consistent font, spacing, and citation style . Double-check that all your sources are properly cited, both within the text and in the bibliography or reference list. Finally, read your essay once more to ensure that it is polished and ready for submission.

Wrapping up

By following these guidelines, you can approach essay writing with confidence. Remember to gather your materials and conduct thorough research, create a well-structured outline, and develop a strong argument supported by evidence. Craft an engaging introduction, write clear and concise body paragraphs, and wrap up your essay with a thought-provoking conclusion. Finally, edit and proofread your essay, ensuring that it is well-written and free of errors. By following these steps, you can write an essay that will ingrain your readers and showcase your skills as an academic writer.

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How to Write an Essay

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Essay Writing Fundamentals

How to prepare to write an essay, how to edit an essay, how to share and publish your essays, how to get essay writing help, how to find essay writing inspiration, resources for teaching essay writing.

Essays, short prose compositions on a particular theme or topic, are the bread and butter of academic life. You write them in class, for homework, and on standardized tests to show what you know. Unlike other kinds of academic writing (like the research paper) and creative writing (like short stories and poems), essays allow you to develop your original thoughts on a prompt or question. Essays come in many varieties: they can be expository (fleshing out an idea or claim), descriptive, (explaining a person, place, or thing), narrative (relating a personal experience), or persuasive (attempting to win over a reader). This guide is a collection of dozens of links about academic essay writing that we have researched, categorized, and annotated in order to help you improve your essay writing. 

Essays are different from other forms of writing; in turn, there are different kinds of essays. This section contains general resources for getting to know the essay and its variants. These resources introduce and define the essay as a genre, and will teach you what to expect from essay-based assessments.

Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab

One of the most trusted academic writing sites, Purdue OWL provides a concise introduction to the four most common types of academic essays.

"The Essay: History and Definition" (ThoughtCo)

This snappy article from ThoughtCo talks about the origins of the essay and different kinds of essays you might be asked to write. 

"What Is An Essay?" Video Lecture (Coursera)

The University of California at Irvine's free video lecture, available on Coursera, tells  you everything you need to know about the essay.

Wikipedia Article on the "Essay"

Wikipedia's article on the essay is comprehensive, providing both English-language and global perspectives on the essay form. Learn about the essay's history, forms, and styles.

"Understanding College and Academic Writing" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

This list of common academic writing assignments (including types of essay prompts) will help you know what to expect from essay-based assessments.

Before you start writing your essay, you need to figure out who you're writing for (audience), what you're writing about (topic/theme), and what you're going to say (argument and thesis). This section contains links to handouts, chapters, videos and more to help you prepare to write an essay.

How to Identify Your Audience

"Audience" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This handout provides questions you can ask yourself to determine the audience for an academic writing assignment. It also suggests strategies for fitting your paper to your intended audience.

"Purpose, Audience, Tone, and Content" (Univ. of Minnesota Libraries)

This extensive book chapter from Writing for Success , available online through Minnesota Libraries Publishing, is followed by exercises to try out your new pre-writing skills.

"Determining Audience" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

This guide from a community college's writing center shows you how to know your audience, and how to incorporate that knowledge in your thesis statement.

"Know Your Audience" ( Paper Rater Blog)

This short blog post uses examples to show how implied audiences for essays differ. It reminds you to think of your instructor as an observer, who will know only the information you pass along.

How to Choose a Theme or Topic

"Research Tutorial: Developing Your Topic" (YouTube)

Take a look at this short video tutorial from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill to understand the basics of developing a writing topic.

"How to Choose a Paper Topic" (WikiHow)

This simple, step-by-step guide (with pictures!) walks you through choosing a paper topic. It starts with a detailed description of brainstorming and ends with strategies to refine your broad topic.

"How to Read an Assignment: Moving From Assignment to Topic" (Harvard College Writing Center)

Did your teacher give you a prompt or other instructions? This guide helps you understand the relationship between an essay assignment and your essay's topic.

"Guidelines for Choosing a Topic" (CliffsNotes)

This study guide from CliffsNotes both discusses how to choose a topic and makes a useful distinction between "topic" and "thesis."

How to Come Up with an Argument

"Argument" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

Not sure what "argument" means in the context of academic writing? This page from the University of North Carolina is a good place to start.

"The Essay Guide: Finding an Argument" (Study Hub)

This handout explains why it's important to have an argument when beginning your essay, and provides tools to help you choose a viable argument.

"Writing a Thesis and Making an Argument" (University of Iowa)

This page from the University of Iowa's Writing Center contains exercises through which you can develop and refine your argument and thesis statement.

"Developing a Thesis" (Harvard College Writing Center)

This page from Harvard's Writing Center collates some helpful dos and don'ts of argumentative writing, from steps in constructing a thesis to avoiding vague and confrontational thesis statements.

"Suggestions for Developing Argumentative Essays" (Berkeley Student Learning Center)

This page offers concrete suggestions for each stage of the essay writing process, from topic selection to drafting and editing. 

How to Outline your Essay

"Outlines" (Univ. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill via YouTube)

This short video tutorial from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill shows how to group your ideas into paragraphs or sections to begin the outlining process.

"Essay Outline" (Univ. of Washington Tacoma)

This two-page handout by a university professor simply defines the parts of an essay and then organizes them into an example outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab)

Purdue OWL gives examples of diverse outline strategies on this page, including the alphanumeric, full sentence, and decimal styles. 

"Outlining" (Harvard College Writing Center)

Once you have an argument, according to this handout, there are only three steps in the outline process: generalizing, ordering, and putting it all together. Then you're ready to write!

"Writing Essays" (Plymouth Univ.)

This packet, part of Plymouth University's Learning Development series, contains descriptions and diagrams relating to the outlining process.

"How to Write A Good Argumentative Essay: Logical Structure" (Criticalthinkingtutorials.com via YouTube)

This longer video tutorial gives an overview of how to structure your essay in order to support your argument or thesis. It is part of a longer course on academic writing hosted on Udemy.

Now that you've chosen and refined your topic and created an outline, use these resources to complete the writing process. Most essays contain introductions (which articulate your thesis statement), body paragraphs, and conclusions. Transitions facilitate the flow from one paragraph to the next so that support for your thesis builds throughout the essay. Sources and citations show where you got the evidence to support your thesis, which ensures that you avoid plagiarism. 

How to Write an Introduction

"Introductions" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page identifies the role of the introduction in any successful paper, suggests strategies for writing introductions, and warns against less effective introductions.

"How to Write A Good Introduction" (Michigan State Writing Center)

Beginning with the most common missteps in writing introductions, this guide condenses the essentials of introduction composition into seven points.

"The Introductory Paragraph" (ThoughtCo)

This blog post from academic advisor and college enrollment counselor Grace Fleming focuses on ways to grab your reader's attention at the beginning of your essay.

"Introductions and Conclusions" (Univ. of Toronto)

This guide from the University of Toronto gives advice that applies to writing both introductions and conclusions, including dos and don'ts.

"How to Write Better Essays: No One Does Introductions Properly" ( The Guardian )

This news article interviews UK professors on student essay writing; they point to introductions as the area that needs the most improvement.

How to Write a Thesis Statement

"Writing an Effective Thesis Statement" (YouTube)

This short, simple video tutorial from a college composition instructor at Tulsa Community College explains what a thesis statement is and what it does. 

"Thesis Statement: Four Steps to a Great Essay" (YouTube)

This fantastic tutorial walks you through drafting a thesis, using an essay prompt on Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter as an example.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement" (WikiHow)

This step-by-step guide (with pictures!) walks you through coming up with, writing, and editing a thesis statement. It invites you think of your statement as a "working thesis" that can change.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement" (Univ. of Indiana Bloomington)

Ask yourself the questions on this page, part of Indiana Bloomington's Writing Tutorial Services, when you're writing and refining your thesis statement.

"Writing Tips: Thesis Statements" (Univ. of Illinois Center for Writing Studies)

This page gives plentiful examples of good to great thesis statements, and offers questions to ask yourself when formulating a thesis statement.

How to Write Body Paragraphs

"Body Paragraph" (Brightstorm)

This module of a free online course introduces you to the components of a body paragraph. These include the topic sentence, information, evidence, and analysis.

"Strong Body Paragraphs" (Washington Univ.)

This handout from Washington's Writing and Research Center offers in-depth descriptions of the parts of a successful body paragraph.

"Guide to Paragraph Structure" (Deakin Univ.)

This handout is notable for color-coding example body paragraphs to help you identify the functions various sentences perform.

"Writing Body Paragraphs" (Univ. of Minnesota Libraries)

The exercises in this section of Writing for Success  will help you practice writing good body paragraphs. It includes guidance on selecting primary support for your thesis.

"The Writing Process—Body Paragraphs" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

The information and exercises on this page will familiarize you with outlining and writing body paragraphs, and includes links to more information on topic sentences and transitions.

"The Five-Paragraph Essay" (ThoughtCo)

This blog post discusses body paragraphs in the context of one of the most common academic essay types in secondary schools.

How to Use Transitions

"Transitions" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill explains what a transition is, and how to know if you need to improve your transitions.

"Using Transitions Effectively" (Washington Univ.)

This handout defines transitions, offers tips for using them, and contains a useful list of common transitional words and phrases grouped by function.

"Transitions" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

This page compares paragraphs without transitions to paragraphs with transitions, and in doing so shows how important these connective words and phrases are.

"Transitions in Academic Essays" (Scribbr)

This page lists four techniques that will help you make sure your reader follows your train of thought, including grouping similar information and using transition words.

"Transitions" (El Paso Community College)

This handout shows example transitions within paragraphs for context, and explains how transitions improve your essay's flow and voice.

"Make Your Paragraphs Flow to Improve Writing" (ThoughtCo)

This blog post, another from academic advisor and college enrollment counselor Grace Fleming, talks about transitions and other strategies to improve your essay's overall flow.

"Transition Words" (smartwords.org)

This handy word bank will help you find transition words when you're feeling stuck. It's grouped by the transition's function, whether that is to show agreement, opposition, condition, or consequence.

How to Write a Conclusion

"Parts of An Essay: Conclusions" (Brightstorm)

This module of a free online course explains how to conclude an academic essay. It suggests thinking about the "3Rs": return to hook, restate your thesis, and relate to the reader.

"Essay Conclusions" (Univ. of Maryland University College)

This overview of the academic essay conclusion contains helpful examples and links to further resources for writing good conclusions.

"How to End An Essay" (WikiHow)

This step-by-step guide (with pictures!) by an English Ph.D. walks you through writing a conclusion, from brainstorming to ending with a flourish.

"Ending the Essay: Conclusions" (Harvard College Writing Center)

This page collates useful strategies for writing an effective conclusion, and reminds you to "close the discussion without closing it off" to further conversation.

How to Include Sources and Citations

"Research and Citation Resources" (Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab)

Purdue OWL streamlines information about the three most common referencing styles (MLA, Chicago, and APA) and provides examples of how to cite different resources in each system.

EasyBib: Free Bibliography Generator

This online tool allows you to input information about your source and automatically generate citations in any style. Be sure to select your resource type before clicking the "cite it" button.

CitationMachine

Like EasyBib, this online tool allows you to input information about your source and automatically generate citations in any style. 

Modern Language Association Handbook (MLA)

Here, you'll find the definitive and up-to-date record of MLA referencing rules. Order through the link above, or check to see if your library has a copy.

Chicago Manual of Style

Here, you'll find the definitive and up-to-date record of Chicago referencing rules. You can take a look at the table of contents, then choose to subscribe or start a free trial.

How to Avoid Plagiarism

"What is Plagiarism?" (plagiarism.org)

This nonprofit website contains numerous resources for identifying and avoiding plagiarism, and reminds you that even common activities like copying images from another website to your own site may constitute plagiarism.

"Plagiarism" (University of Oxford)

This interactive page from the University of Oxford helps you check for plagiarism in your work, making it clear how to avoid citing another person's work without full acknowledgement.

"Avoiding Plagiarism" (MIT Comparative Media Studies)

This quick guide explains what plagiarism is, what its consequences are, and how to avoid it. It starts by defining three words—quotation, paraphrase, and summary—that all constitute citation.

"Harvard Guide to Using Sources" (Harvard Extension School)

This comprehensive website from Harvard brings together articles, videos, and handouts about referencing, citation, and plagiarism. 

Grammarly contains tons of helpful grammar and writing resources, including a free tool to automatically scan your essay to check for close affinities to published work. 

Noplag is another popular online tool that automatically scans your essay to check for signs of plagiarism. Simply copy and paste your essay into the box and click "start checking."

Once you've written your essay, you'll want to edit (improve content), proofread (check for spelling and grammar mistakes), and finalize your work until you're ready to hand it in. This section brings together tips and resources for navigating the editing process. 

"Writing a First Draft" (Academic Help)

This is an introduction to the drafting process from the site Academic Help, with tips for getting your ideas on paper before editing begins.

"Editing and Proofreading" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page provides general strategies for revising your writing. They've intentionally left seven errors in the handout, to give you practice in spotting them.

"How to Proofread Effectively" (ThoughtCo)

This article from ThoughtCo, along with those linked at the bottom, help describe common mistakes to check for when proofreading.

"7 Simple Edits That Make Your Writing 100% More Powerful" (SmartBlogger)

This blog post emphasizes the importance of powerful, concise language, and reminds you that even your personal writing heroes create clunky first drafts.

"Editing Tips for Effective Writing" (Univ. of Pennsylvania)

On this page from Penn's International Relations department, you'll find tips for effective prose, errors to watch out for, and reminders about formatting.

"Editing the Essay" (Harvard College Writing Center)

This article, the first of two parts, gives you applicable strategies for the editing process. It suggests reading your essay aloud, removing any jargon, and being unafraid to remove even "dazzling" sentences that don't belong.

"Guide to Editing and Proofreading" (Oxford Learning Institute)

This handout from Oxford covers the basics of editing and proofreading, and reminds you that neither task should be rushed. 

In addition to plagiarism-checkers, Grammarly has a plug-in for your web browser that checks your writing for common mistakes.

After you've prepared, written, and edited your essay, you might want to share it outside the classroom. This section alerts you to print and web opportunities to share your essays with the wider world, from online writing communities and blogs to published journals geared toward young writers.

Sharing Your Essays Online

Go Teen Writers

Go Teen Writers is an online community for writers aged 13 - 19. It was founded by Stephanie Morrill, an author of contemporary young adult novels. 

Tumblr is a blogging website where you can share your writing and interact with other writers online. It's easy to add photos, links, audio, and video components.

Writersky provides an online platform for publishing and reading other youth writers' work. Its current content is mostly devoted to fiction.

Publishing Your Essays Online

This teen literary journal publishes in print, on the web, and (more frequently), on a blog. It is committed to ensuring that "teens see their authentic experience reflected on its pages."

The Matador Review

This youth writing platform celebrates "alternative," unconventional writing. The link above will take you directly to the site's "submissions" page.

Teen Ink has a website, monthly newsprint magazine, and quarterly poetry magazine promoting the work of young writers.

The largest online reading platform, Wattpad enables you to publish your work and read others' work. Its inline commenting feature allows you to share thoughts as you read along.

Publishing Your Essays in Print

Canvas Teen Literary Journal

This quarterly literary magazine is published for young writers by young writers. They accept many kinds of writing, including essays.

The Claremont Review

This biannual international magazine, first published in 1992, publishes poetry, essays, and short stories from writers aged 13 - 19.

Skipping Stones

This young writers magazine, founded in 1988, celebrates themes relating to ecological and cultural diversity. It publishes poems, photos, articles, and stories.

The Telling Room

This nonprofit writing center based in Maine publishes children's work on their website and in book form. The link above directs you to the site's submissions page.

Essay Contests

Scholastic Arts and Writing Awards

This prestigious international writing contest for students in grades 7 - 12 has been committed to "supporting the future of creativity since 1923."

Society of Professional Journalists High School Essay Contest

An annual essay contest on the theme of journalism and media, the Society of Professional Journalists High School Essay Contest awards scholarships up to $1,000.

National YoungArts Foundation

Here, you'll find information on a government-sponsored writing competition for writers aged 15 - 18. The foundation welcomes submissions of creative nonfiction, novels, scripts, poetry, short story and spoken word.

Signet Classics Student Scholarship Essay Contest

With prompts on a different literary work each year, this competition from Signet Classics awards college scholarships up to $1,000.

"The Ultimate Guide to High School Essay Contests" (CollegeVine)

See this handy guide from CollegeVine for a list of more competitions you can enter with your academic essay, from the National Council of Teachers of English Achievement Awards to the National High School Essay Contest by the U.S. Institute of Peace.

Whether you're struggling to write academic essays or you think you're a pro, there are workshops and online tools that can help you become an even better writer. Even the most seasoned writers encounter writer's block, so be proactive and look through our curated list of resources to combat this common frustration.

Online Essay-writing Classes and Workshops

"Getting Started with Essay Writing" (Coursera)

Coursera offers lots of free, high-quality online classes taught by college professors. Here's one example, taught by instructors from the University of California Irvine.

"Writing and English" (Brightstorm)

Brightstorm's free video lectures are easy to navigate by topic. This unit on the parts of an essay features content on the essay hook, thesis, supporting evidence, and more.

"How to Write an Essay" (EdX)

EdX is another open online university course website with several two- to five-week courses on the essay. This one is geared toward English language learners.

Writer's Digest University

This renowned writers' website offers online workshops and interactive tutorials. The courses offered cover everything from how to get started through how to get published.

Writing.com

Signing up for this online writer's community gives you access to helpful resources as well as an international community of writers.

How to Overcome Writer's Block

"Symptoms and Cures for Writer's Block" (Purdue OWL)

Purdue OWL offers a list of signs you might have writer's block, along with ways to overcome it. Consider trying out some "invention strategies" or ways to curb writing anxiety.

"Overcoming Writer's Block: Three Tips" ( The Guardian )

These tips, geared toward academic writing specifically, are practical and effective. The authors advocate setting realistic goals, creating dedicated writing time, and participating in social writing.

"Writing Tips: Strategies for Overcoming Writer's Block" (Univ. of Illinois)

This page from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign's Center for Writing Studies acquaints you with strategies that do and do not work to overcome writer's block.

"Writer's Block" (Univ. of Toronto)

Ask yourself the questions on this page; if the answer is "yes," try out some of the article's strategies. Each question is accompanied by at least two possible solutions.

If you have essays to write but are short on ideas, this section's links to prompts, example student essays, and celebrated essays by professional writers might help. You'll find writing prompts from a variety of sources, student essays to inspire you, and a number of essay writing collections.

Essay Writing Prompts

"50 Argumentative Essay Topics" (ThoughtCo)

Take a look at this list and the others ThoughtCo has curated for different kinds of essays. As the author notes, "a number of these topics are controversial and that's the point."

"401 Prompts for Argumentative Writing" ( New York Times )

This list (and the linked lists to persuasive and narrative writing prompts), besides being impressive in length, is put together by actual high school English teachers.

"SAT Sample Essay Prompts" (College Board)

If you're a student in the U.S., your classroom essay prompts are likely modeled on the prompts in U.S. college entrance exams. Take a look at these official examples from the SAT.

"Popular College Application Essay Topics" (Princeton Review)

This page from the Princeton Review dissects recent Common Application essay topics and discusses strategies for answering them.

Example Student Essays

"501 Writing Prompts" (DePaul Univ.)

This nearly 200-page packet, compiled by the LearningExpress Skill Builder in Focus Writing Team, is stuffed with writing prompts, example essays, and commentary.

"Topics in English" (Kibin)

Kibin is a for-pay essay help website, but its example essays (organized by topic) are available for free. You'll find essays on everything from  A Christmas Carol  to perseverance.

"Student Writing Models" (Thoughtful Learning)

Thoughtful Learning, a website that offers a variety of teaching materials, provides sample student essays on various topics and organizes them by grade level.

"Five-Paragraph Essay" (ThoughtCo)

In this blog post by a former professor of English and rhetoric, ThoughtCo brings together examples of five-paragraph essays and commentary on the form.

The Best Essay Writing Collections

The Best American Essays of the Century by Joyce Carol Oates (Amazon)

This collection of American essays spanning the twentieth century was compiled by award winning author and Princeton professor Joyce Carol Oates.

The Best American Essays 2017 by Leslie Jamison (Amazon)

Leslie Jamison, the celebrated author of essay collection  The Empathy Exams , collects recent, high-profile essays into a single volume.

The Art of the Personal Essay by Phillip Lopate (Amazon)

Documentary writer Phillip Lopate curates this historical overview of the personal essay's development, from the classical era to the present.

The White Album by Joan Didion (Amazon)

This seminal essay collection was authored by one of the most acclaimed personal essayists of all time, American journalist Joan Didion.

Consider the Lobster by David Foster Wallace (Amazon)

Read this famous essay collection by David Foster Wallace, who is known for his experimentation with the essay form. He pushed the boundaries of personal essay, reportage, and political polemic.

"50 Successful Harvard Application Essays" (Staff of the The Harvard Crimson )

If you're looking for examples of exceptional college application essays, this volume from Harvard's daily student newspaper is one of the best collections on the market.

Are you an instructor looking for the best resources for teaching essay writing? This section contains resources for developing in-class activities and student homework assignments. You'll find content from both well-known university writing centers and online writing labs.

Essay Writing Classroom Activities for Students

"In-class Writing Exercises" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page lists exercises related to brainstorming, organizing, drafting, and revising. It also contains suggestions for how to implement the suggested exercises.

"Teaching with Writing" (Univ. of Minnesota Center for Writing)

Instructions and encouragement for using "freewriting," one-minute papers, logbooks, and other write-to-learn activities in the classroom can be found here.

"Writing Worksheets" (Berkeley Student Learning Center)

Berkeley offers this bank of writing worksheets to use in class. They are nested under headings for "Prewriting," "Revision," "Research Papers" and more.

"Using Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism" (DePaul University)

Use these activities and worksheets from DePaul's Teaching Commons when instructing students on proper academic citation practices.

Essay Writing Homework Activities for Students

"Grammar and Punctuation Exercises" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

These five interactive online activities allow students to practice editing and proofreading. They'll hone their skills in correcting comma splices and run-ons, identifying fragments, using correct pronoun agreement, and comma usage.

"Student Interactives" (Read Write Think)

Read Write Think hosts interactive tools, games, and videos for developing writing skills. They can practice organizing and summarizing, writing poetry, and developing lines of inquiry and analysis.

This free website offers writing and grammar activities for all grade levels. The lessons are designed to be used both for large classes and smaller groups.

"Writing Activities and Lessons for Every Grade" (Education World)

Education World's page on writing activities and lessons links you to more free, online resources for learning how to "W.R.I.T.E.": write, revise, inform, think, and edit.

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Essay Rubric: Grading Students Correctly

• Icon Calendar 10 July 2024
• Icon Page 2897 words
• Icon Clock 14 min read

Lectures and tutors provide specific requirements for students to meet when writing essays. Basically, an essay rubric helps tutors to analyze an overall quality of compositions written by students. In this case, a rubric refers to a scoring guide used to evaluate performance based on a set of criteria and standards. As such, useful marking schemes make an analysis process simple for lecturers as they focus on specific concepts related to a writing process. Moreover, an assessment table lists and organizes all of the criteria into one convenient paper. In other instances, students use assessment tables to enhance their writing skills by examining various requirements. Then, different types of essay rubrics vary from one educational level to another. Essentially, Master’s and Ph.D. grading schemes focus on examining complex thesis statements and other writing mechanics. However, high school evaluation tables examine basic writing concepts. In turn, guidelines on a common format for writing a good essay rubric and corresponding examples provided in this article can help students to evaluate their papers before submitting them to their teachers.

General Aspects

An essay rubric refers to a way for teachers to assess students’ composition writing skills and abilities. Basically, an evaluation scheme provides specific criteria to grade assignments. Moreover, the three basic elements of an essay rubric are criteria, performance levels, and descriptors. In this case, teachers use assessment guidelines to save time when evaluating and grading various papers. Hence, learners must use an essay rubric effectively to achieve desired goals and grades, while its general example is:

What Is an Essay Rubric and Its Purpose

According to its definition, an essay rubric is a structured evaluation tool that educators use to grade students’ compositions in a fair and consistent manner. The main purpose of an essay rubric in writing is to ensure consistent and fair grading by clearly defining what constitutes excellent, good, average, and poor performance (DeVries, 2023). This tool specifies a key criteria for grading various aspects of a written text, including a clarity of a thesis statement, an overall quality of a main argument, an organization of ideas, a particular use of evidence, and a correctness of grammar and mechanics. Moreover, an assessment grading helps students to understand their strengths to be proud of and weaknesses to be pointed out and guides them in improving their writing skills (Taylor et al., 2024). For teachers, such an assessment simplifies a grading process, making it more efficient and less subjective by providing a clear standard to follow. By using an essay rubric, both teachers and students can engage in a transparent, structured, and constructive evaluation process, enhancing an overall educational experience (Stevens & Levi, 2023). In turn, the length of an essay rubric depends on academic levels, types of papers, and specific requirements, while general guidelines are:

High School

• Length: 1-2 pages
• Word Count: 300-600 words
• Length: 1-3 pages
• Word Count: 300-900 words

University (Undergraduate)

• Length: 2-4 pages
• Word Count: 600-1,200 words

Master’s

• Length: 2-5 pages
• Word Count: 600-1,500 words
• Length: 3-6 pages
• Word Count: 900-1,800 words

Note: Some elements of an essay rubric can be added, deled, or combined with each other because different types of papers, their requirements, and instructors’ choices affect a final assessment. To format an essay rubric, people create a table with criteria listed in rows, performance levels in columns, and detailed descriptors in each cell explaining principal expectations for each level of performance (Steven & Levi, 2023). Besides, the five main criteria in a rubric are thesis statement, content, organization, evidence and support, and grammar and mechanics. In turn, a good essay rubric is clear, specific, aligned with learning objectives, and provides detailed, consistent descriptors for each performance level.

Steps How to Write an Essay Rubric

In writing, the key elements of an essay rubric are clear criteria, defined performance levels, and detailed descriptors for each evaluation.

• Identify a Specific Purpose and Goals: Determine main objectives of an essay’s assignment and consider what skills and knowledge you want students to demonstrate.
• List a Key Criteria: Identify essential components that need to be evaluated, such as thesis statement, introduction, content, organization, evidence and support, conclusion, grammar and mechanics, writing style and tone, and citations and references.
• Define Performance Levels: Decide on a particular scale you will use to measure performance (e.g., Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor) and ensure each level is distinct and clearly defined.
• Create Descriptors for Each Criterion: Write detailed descriptions for what constitutes each level of performance for every criterion and be specific about what is expected at each level to avoid misunderstanding.
• Assign Number Values: Determine a specific range for each criterion and performance level and allocate numbers in a way that reflects an actual importance of each criterion in an overall assessment.
• Review and Revise: Examine a complete rubric to ensure it is comprehensive and clear and adjust any descriptions or number values that seem unclear or disproportionate.
• Test a Working Essay Rubric: Apply a grading scheme to a few sample compositions to see if it effectively differentiates between different levels of performance and make adjustments as necessary.
• Involve Peers for Feedback: Share marking criteria with colleagues or peers for feedback and insights on clarity and fairness that you might have overlooked.
• Provide Examples: Include examples of complete papers or writing excerpts at each performance level and help students to understand what is expected for grading.
• Communicate With Students: Share a complete rubric with students before they begin an assignment and explain each criterion and performance level so they understand how their work will be evaluated and what they need to do to achieve highest marks.

Essay Rubric Example

Organization

Excellent/8 points: A submitted essay contains stiff topic sentences and a controlled organization.

Very Good/6 points: A paper contains a logical and appropriate organization. An author uses clear topic sentences.

Average/4 points: A composition contains a logical and appropriate organization. An author uses clear topic sentences.

Needs Improvement/2 points: A provided text has an inconsistent organization.

Unacceptable/0 (zero): A complete document shows an absence of a planned organization.

Grade: ___ .

Excellent/8 points: A submitted essay shows the absence of a planned organization.

Very Good/6 points: A paper contains precise and varied sentence structures and word choices. 

Average/4 points: A composition follows a limited but mostly correct sentence structure. There are different sentence structures and word choices.

Needs Improvement/2 points: A provided text contains several awkward and unclear sentences. There are some problems with word choices.

Unacceptable/0 (zero): An author does not have apparent control over sentence structures and word choice.

Excellent/8 points: An essay’s content appears sophisticated and contains well-developed ideas.

Very Good/6 points: A paper’s content appears illustrative and balanced.

Average/4 points: A composition contains unbalanced content that requires more analysis.

Needs Improvement/2 points: A provided text contains a lot of research information without analysis or commentary.

Unacceptable/0 (zero): A complete document lacks relevant content and does not fit the thesis statement. Essay rubric rules are not followed.

Excellent/8 points: A submitted essay contains a clearly stated and focused thesis statement.

Very Good/6 points: A paper comprises a clearly stated argument. However, a particular focus would have been sharper.

Average/4 points: A thesis statement phrasing sounds simple and lacks complexity. An author does not word the thesis correctly. 

Needs Improvement/2 points: A thesis statement requires a clear objective and does not fit the theme in a paper’s content.

Unacceptable/0 (zero): A thesis statement is not evident in an introduction paragraph.

Excellent/8 points: A submitted is clear and focused. An overall work holds a reader’s attention. Besides, relevant details and quotes enrich a thesis statement.

Very Good/6 points: A paper is mostly focused and contains a few useful details and quotes.

Average/4 points: An author begins a composition by defining an assigned topic. However, a particular development of ideas appears general.

Needs Improvement/2 points: An author fails to define an assigned topic well or focuses on several issues.

Unacceptable/0 (zero): A complete document lacks a clear sense of a purpose or thesis statement. Readers have to make suggestions based on sketchy or missing ideas to understand an intended meaning. Essay rubric requirements are missed.

Sentence Fluency

Excellent/8 points: A submitted essay has a natural flow, rhythm, and cadence. Its sentences are well-built and have a wide-ranging and robust structure that enhances reading.

Very Good/6 points: Presented ideas mostly flow and motivate a compelling reading.

Average/4 points: A composition hums along with a balanced beat but tends to be more businesslike than musical. Besides, a particular flow of ideas tends to become more mechanical than fluid.

Needs Improvement/2 points: A provided text appears irregular and hard to read.

Unacceptable/0 (zero): Readers have to go through a complete document several times to give this paper a fair interpretive reading.

Conventions

Excellent/8 points: An author demonstrates proper use of standard writing conventions, like spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar, usage, and paragraphing. A person also uses correct protocols in a way that improves an overall readability of an essay.

Very Good/6 points: An author demonstrates proper writing conventions and uses them correctly. One can read a paper with ease, and errors are rare. Few touch-ups can make a submitted composition ready for publishing.

Average/4 points: An author shows reasonable control over a short range of standard writing rules. A person also handles all the conventions and enhances readability. Writing errors in a presented composition tend to distract and impair legibility.

Needs Improvement/2 points: An author makes an effort to use various conventions, including spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar usage, and paragraphing. A provided text contains multiple errors.

Unacceptable/0 (zero): An author makes repetitive errors in spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar, usage, and paragraphing. Some mistakes distract readers and make it hard to understand discussed concepts. Essay rubric rules are not covered.

Presentation

Excellent/8 points: A particular form and presentation of a text enhance an overall readability of an essay and its flow of ideas.

Very Good/6 points: A chosen format has few mistakes and is easy to read.

Average/4 points: An author’s message is understandable in this format.

Needs Improvement/2 points: An author’s message is only comprehensible infrequently, and a provided text appears disorganized.

Unacceptable/0 (zero): Readers receive a distorted message due to difficulties connecting to a presentation of an entire text.

Final Grade: ___ .

Grading Scheme

• A+ = 60+ points
• F = less than 9

Differences in Education Levels

An overall quality of various types of texts changes at different education levels. In writing, an essay rubric works by providing a structured framework with specific criteria and performance levels to consistently evaluate and grade a finished paper. For instance, college students must write miscellaneous papers when compared to high school learners (Harrington et al., 2021). In this case, assessment criteria will change for these different education levels. For example, university and college compositions should have a debatable thesis statement with varying points of view (Mewburn et al., 2021). However, high school compositions should have simple phrases as thesis statements. Then, other requirements in a marking rubric will be more straightforward for high school students (DeVries, 2023). For Master’s and Ph.D. works, a writing criteria presented in a scoring evaluation should focus on examining a paper’s complexity. In turn, compositions for these two categories should have thesis statements that demonstrate a detailed analysis of defined topics that advance knowledge in a specific area of study.

Recommendations

When observing any essay rubric, people should remember to ensure clarity and specificity in each criterion and performance level. This clarity helps both an evaluator and a student to understand principal expectations and how a written document will be assessed (Ozfidan & Mitchell, 2022). Consistency in language and terminology across an essay rubric is crucial to avoid confusion and maintain fairness. Further on, it is essential to align a working scheme with learning objectives and goals of an essay’s assignment, ensuring all key components, such as thesis, content, organization, and grammar, are covered comprehensively (Stevens & Levi, 2023). Evaluators should also be aware of the weighting and scoring distribution, making sure they accurately reflect an actual importance of each criterion. Moreover, testing a rubric on sample essays before finalizing it can help to identify any mistakes or imbalances in scores. Essentially, providing concrete examples or descriptions for each performance level can guide students in understanding what is expected for each grade (Taylor et al., 2024). In turn, an essay rubric should be reviewed, revised, and updated after each educational year to remain relevant and aligned with current academic standards. Lastly, sharing and explaining grading assessment with students before they start their composition fosters transparency and helps them to put more of their efforts into meeting defined criteria, ultimately improving their writing and learning experience in general.

Common Mistakes

• Lack of Specificity: Descriptions for each criterion and performance level are too vague, leading to ambiguity and confusion for both graders and students.
• Overcomplicating a Rubric: Including too many criteria or overly complex descriptions that make a scoring assessment difficult to use effectively.
• Unbalanced Weighting: Assigning disproportionate number values to different criteria, which can mislead an overall assessment and not accurately reflect an actual importance of each component.
• Inconsistent Language: Using inconsistent terminology or descriptors across performance levels, which can confuse users and make a rubric less reliable.
• Not Aligning With Objectives: Failing to align a particular criteria and performance levels with specific goals and learning outcomes of an assignment.
• Omitting Key Components: Leaving out important criteria that are essential for evaluating a paper comprehensively, such as citations or a conclusion part.
• Lack of Examples: Not providing examples or concrete descriptions of what constitutes each performance level, making it harder for students to understand expectations.
• Ignoring Grammar and Mechanics: Overlooking an actual importance of grammar, spelling, and punctuation, which are crucial for clear and professional writing.
• Not Updating an Essay Rubric: Using outdated rubrics that do not reflect current educational standards or specific assignment needs.
• Insufficient Testing: Failing to test a grading scheme on some sample documents to ensure it effectively differentiates between levels of performance and provides fair assessments.

Essay rubrics help teachers, instructors, professors, and tutors to analyze an overall quality of compositions written by students. Basically, an assessment scheme makes an analysis process simple for lecturers, and it lists and organizes all of the criteria into one convenient paper. In other instances, students use such evaluation tools to improve their writing skills. However, they vary from one educational level to the other. Master’s and Ph.D. assessment schemes focus on examining complex thesis statements and other writing mechanics. However, high school grading criteria examine basic writing concepts.  As such, the following are some of the tips that one must consider when preparing any rubric.

• Include all mechanics that relate to essay writing.
• Cover different requirements and their relevant grades.
• Follow clear and understandable statements.

DeVries, B. A. (2023). Literacy assessment and intervention for classroom teachers . Routledge.

Harrington, E. R., Lofgren, I. E., Gottschalk Druschke, C., Karraker, N. E., Reynolds, N., & McWilliams, S. R. (2021). Training graduate students in multiple genres of public and academic science writing: An assessment using an adaptable, interdisciplinary rubric. Frontiers in Environmental Science , 9 , 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2021.715409

Mewburn, I., Firth, K., & Lehmann, S. (2021). Level up your essays: How to get better grades at university . NewSouth.

Ozfidan, B., & Mitchell, C. (2022). Assessment of students’ argumentative writing: A rubric development. Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies , 9 (2), 121–133. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejecs/1064

Stevens, D. D., & Levi, A. (2023). Introduction to rubrics: An assessment tool to save grading time, convey effective feedback, and promote student learning . Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

Taylor, B., Kisby, F., & Reedy, A. (2024). Rubrics in higher education: An exploration of undergraduate students’ understanding and perspectives. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education , 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2023.2299330

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• Knowledge Base
• How to write an essay outline | Guidelines & examples

How to Write an Essay Outline | Guidelines & Examples

Published on August 14, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An essay outline is a way of planning the structure of your essay before you start writing. It involves writing quick summary sentences or phrases for every point you will cover in each paragraph , giving you a picture of how your argument will unfold.

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Table of contents

Organizing your material, presentation of the outline, examples of essay outlines, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about essay outlines.

At the stage where you’re writing an essay outline, your ideas are probably still not fully formed. You should know your topic  and have already done some preliminary research to find relevant sources , but now you need to shape your ideas into a structured argument.

Creating categories

Look over any information, quotes and ideas you’ve noted down from your research and consider the central point you want to make in the essay—this will be the basis of your thesis statement . Once you have an idea of your overall argument, you can begin to organize your material in a way that serves that argument.

Try to arrange your material into categories related to different aspects of your argument. If you’re writing about a literary text, you might group your ideas into themes; in a history essay, it might be several key trends or turning points from the period you’re discussing.

Three main themes or subjects is a common structure for essays. Depending on the length of the essay, you could split the themes into three body paragraphs, or three longer sections with several paragraphs covering each theme.

As you create the outline, look critically at your categories and points: Are any of them irrelevant or redundant? Make sure every topic you cover is clearly related to your thesis statement.

Order of information

When you have your material organized into several categories, consider what order they should appear in.

Your essay will always begin and end with an introduction and conclusion , but the organization of the body is up to you.

Consider these questions to order your material:

• Is there an obvious starting point for your argument?
• Is there one subject that provides an easy transition into another?
• Do some points need to be set up by discussing other points first?

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Within each paragraph, you’ll discuss a single idea related to your overall topic or argument, using several points of evidence or analysis to do so.

In your outline, you present these points as a few short numbered sentences or phrases.They can be split into sub-points when more detail is needed.

The template below shows how you might structure an outline for a five-paragraph essay.

• Thesis statement
• First piece of evidence
• Second piece of evidence
• Summary/synthesis
• Importance of topic
• Strong closing statement

You can choose whether to write your outline in full sentences or short phrases. Be consistent in your choice; don’t randomly write some points as full sentences and others as short phrases.

Examples of outlines for different types of essays are presented below: an argumentative, expository, and literary analysis essay.

Argumentative essay outline

This outline is for a short argumentative essay evaluating the internet’s impact on education. It uses short phrases to summarize each point.

Its body is split into three paragraphs, each presenting arguments about a different aspect of the internet’s effects on education.

• Importance of the internet
• Concerns about internet use
• Thesis statement: Internet use a net positive
• Data exploring this effect
• Analysis indicating it is overstated
• Students’ reading levels over time
• Why this data is questionable
• Video media
• Interactive media
• Speed and simplicity of online research
• Questions about reliability (transitioning into next topic)
• Evidence indicating its ubiquity
• Claims that it discourages engagement with academic writing
• Evidence that Wikipedia warns students not to cite it
• Argument that it introduces students to citation
• Summary of key points
• Value of digital education for students
• Need for optimism to embrace advantages of the internet

Expository essay outline

This is the outline for an expository essay describing how the invention of the printing press affected life and politics in Europe.

The paragraphs are still summarized in short phrases here, but individual points are described with full sentences.

• Claim that the printing press marks the end of the Middle Ages.
• Provide background on the low levels of literacy before the printing press.
• Present the thesis statement: The invention of the printing press increased circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.
• Discuss the very high levels of illiteracy in medieval Europe.
• Describe how literacy and thus knowledge and education were mainly the domain of religious and political elites.
• Indicate how this discouraged political and religious change.
• Describe the invention of the printing press in 1440 by Johannes Gutenberg.
• Show the implications of the new technology for book production.
• Describe the rapid spread of the technology and the printing of the Gutenberg Bible.
• Link to the Reformation.
• Discuss the trend for translating the Bible into vernacular languages during the years following the printing press’s invention.
• Describe Luther’s own translation of the Bible during the Reformation.
• Sketch out the large-scale effects the Reformation would have on religion and politics.
• Summarize the history described.
• Stress the significance of the printing press to the events of this period.

Literary analysis essay outline

The literary analysis essay outlined below discusses the role of theater in Jane Austen’s novel Mansfield Park .

The body of the essay is divided into three different themes, each of which is explored through examples from the book.

• Describe the theatricality of Austen’s works
• Outline the role theater plays in Mansfield Park
• Introduce the research question : How does Austen use theater to express the characters’ morality in Mansfield Park ?
• Discuss Austen’s depiction of the performance at the end of the first volume
• Discuss how Sir Bertram reacts to the acting scheme
• Introduce Austen’s use of stage direction–like details during dialogue
• Explore how these are deployed to show the characters’ self-absorption
• Discuss Austen’s description of Maria and Julia’s relationship as polite but affectionless
• Compare Mrs. Norris’s self-conceit as charitable despite her idleness
• Summarize the three themes: The acting scheme, stage directions, and the performance of morals
• Answer the research question
• Indicate areas for further study

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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You will sometimes be asked to hand in an essay outline before you start writing your essay . Your supervisor wants to see that you have a clear idea of your structure so that writing will go smoothly.

Even when you do not have to hand it in, writing an essay outline is an important part of the writing process . It’s a good idea to write one (as informally as you like) to clarify your structure for yourself whenever you are working on an essay.

If you have to hand in your essay outline , you may be given specific guidelines stating whether you have to use full sentences. If you’re not sure, ask your supervisor.

When writing an essay outline for yourself, the choice is yours. Some students find it helpful to write out their ideas in full sentences, while others prefer to summarize them in short phrases.

You should try to follow your outline as you write your essay . However, if your ideas change or it becomes clear that your structure could be better, it’s okay to depart from your essay outline . Just make sure you know why you’re doing so.

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Essay Writing: A complete guide for students and teachers

P LANNING, PARAGRAPHING AND POLISHING: FINE-TUNING THE PERFECT ESSAY

Essay writing is an essential skill for every student. Whether writing a particular academic essay (such as persuasive, narrative, descriptive, or expository) or a timed exam essay, the key to getting good at writing is to write. Creating opportunities for our students to engage in extended writing activities will go a long way to helping them improve their skills as scribes.

But, putting the hours in alone will not be enough to attain the highest levels in essay writing. Practice must be meaningful. Once students have a broad overview of how to structure the various types of essays, they are ready to narrow in on the minor details that will enable them to fine-tune their work as a lean vehicle of their thoughts and ideas.

In this article, we will drill down to some aspects that will assist students in taking their essay writing skills up a notch. Many ideas and activities can be integrated into broader lesson plans based on essay writing. Often, though, they will work effectively in isolation – just as athletes isolate physical movements to drill that are relevant to their sport. When these movements become second nature, they can be repeated naturally in the context of the game or in our case, the writing of the essay.

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Planning an essay

The Boys Scouts’ motto is famously ‘Be Prepared’. It’s a solid motto that can be applied to most aspects of life; essay writing is no different. Given the purpose of an essay is generally to present a logical and reasoned argument, investing time in organising arguments, ideas, and structure would seem to be time well spent.

Given that essays can take a wide range of forms and that we all have our own individual approaches to writing, it stands to reason that there will be no single best approach to the planning stage of essay writing. That said, there are several helpful hints and techniques we can share with our students to help them wrestle their ideas into a writable form. Let’s take a look at a few of the best of these:

BREAK THE QUESTION DOWN: UNDERSTAND YOUR ESSAY TOPIC.

Whether students are tackling an assignment that you have set for them in class or responding to an essay prompt in an exam situation, they should get into the habit of analyzing the nature of the task. To do this, they should unravel the question’s meaning or prompt. Students can practice this in class by responding to various essay titles, questions, and prompts, thereby gaining valuable experience breaking these down.

Have students work in groups to underline and dissect the keywords and phrases and discuss what exactly is being asked of them in the task. Are they being asked to discuss, describe, persuade, or explain? Understanding the exact nature of the task is crucial before going any further in the planning process, never mind the writing process .

BRAINSTORM AND MIND MAP WHAT YOU KNOW:

Once students have understood what the essay task asks them, they should consider what they know about the topic and, often, how they feel about it. When teaching essay writing, we so often emphasize that it is about expressing our opinions on things, but for our younger students what they think about something isn’t always obvious, even to themselves.

Brainstorming and mind-mapping what they know about a topic offers them an opportunity to uncover not just what they already know about a topic, but also gives them a chance to reveal to themselves what they think about the topic. This will help guide them in structuring their research and, later, the essay they will write . When writing an essay in an exam context, this may be the only ‘research’ the student can undertake before the writing, so practicing this will be even more important.

RESEARCH YOUR ESSAY

The previous step above should reveal to students the general direction their research will take. With the ubiquitousness of the internet, gone are the days of students relying on a single well-thumbed encyclopaedia from the school library as their sole authoritative source in their essay. If anything, the real problem for our students today is narrowing down their sources to a manageable number. Students should use the information from the previous step to help here. At this stage, it is important that they:

●      Ensure the research material is directly relevant to the essay task

●      Record in detail the sources of the information that they will use in their essay

●      Engage with the material personally by asking questions and challenging their own biases

●      Identify the key points that will be made in their essay

●      Group ideas, counterarguments, and opinions together

●      Identify the overarching argument they will make in their own essay.

Once these stages have been completed the student is ready to organise their points into a logical order.

WRITING YOUR ESSAY

There are a number of ways for students to organize their points in preparation for writing. They can use graphic organizers , post-it notes, or any number of available writing apps. The important thing for them to consider here is that their points should follow a logical progression. This progression of their argument will be expressed in the form of body paragraphs that will inform the structure of their finished essay.

The number of paragraphs contained in an essay will depend on a number of factors such as word limits, time limits, the complexity of the question etc. Regardless of the essay’s length, students should ensure their essay follows the Rule of Three in that every essay they write contains an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Generally speaking, essay paragraphs will focus on one main idea that is usually expressed in a topic sentence that is followed by a series of supporting sentences that bolster that main idea. The first and final sentences are of the most significance here with the first sentence of a paragraph making the point to the reader and the final sentence of the paragraph making the overall relevance to the essay’s argument crystal clear. 

Though students will most likely be familiar with the broad generic structure of essays, it is worth investing time to ensure they have a clear conception of how each part of the essay works, that is, of the exact nature of the task it performs. Let’s review:

Common Essay Structure

Introduction: Provides the reader with context for the essay. It states the broad argument that the essay will make and informs the reader of the writer’s general perspective and approach to the question.

Body Paragraphs: These are the ‘meat’ of the essay and lay out the argument stated in the introduction point by point with supporting evidence.

Conclusion: Usually, the conclusion will restate the central argument while summarising the essay’s main supporting reasons before linking everything back to the original question.

ESSAY WRITING PARAGRAPH WRITING TIPS

●      Each paragraph should focus on a single main idea

●      Paragraphs should follow a logical sequence; students should group similar ideas together to avoid incoherence

●      Paragraphs should be denoted consistently; students should choose either to indent or skip a line

●      Transition words and phrases such as alternatively , consequently , in contrast should be used to give flow and provide a bridge between paragraphs.

HOW TO EDIT AN ESSAY

Students shouldn’t expect their essays to emerge from the writing process perfectly formed. Except in exam situations and the like, thorough editing is an essential aspect in the writing process. 

Often, students struggle with this aspect of the process the most. After spending hours of effort on planning, research, and writing the first draft, students can be reluctant to go back over the same terrain they have so recently travelled. It is important at this point to give them some helpful guidelines to help them to know what to look out for. The following tips will provide just such help: 

One Piece at a Time: There is a lot to look out for in the editing process and often students overlook aspects as they try to juggle too many balls during the process. One effective strategy to combat this is for students to perform a number of rounds of editing with each focusing on a different aspect. For example, the first round could focus on content, the second round on looking out for word repetition (use a thesaurus to help here), with the third attending to spelling and grammar.

Sum It Up: When reviewing the paragraphs they have written, a good starting point is for students to read each paragraph and attempt to sum up its main point in a single line. If this is not possible, their readers will most likely have difficulty following their train of thought too and the paragraph needs to be overhauled.

Let It Breathe: When possible, encourage students to allow some time for their essay to ‘breathe’ before returning to it for editing purposes. This may require some skilful time management on the part of the student, for example, a student rush-writing the night before the deadline does not lend itself to effective editing. Fresh eyes are one of the sharpest tools in the writer’s toolbox.

Read It Aloud: This time-tested editing method is a great way for students to identify mistakes and typos in their work. We tend to read things more slowly when reading aloud giving us the time to spot errors. Also, when we read silently our minds can often fill in the gaps or gloss over the mistakes that will become apparent when we read out loud.

Phone a Friend: Peer editing is another great way to identify errors that our brains may miss when reading our own work. Encourage students to partner up for a little ‘you scratch my back, I scratch yours’.

Use Tech Tools: We need to ensure our students have the mental tools to edit their own work and for this they will need a good grasp of English grammar and punctuation. However, there are also a wealth of tech tools such as spellcheck and grammar checks that can offer a great once-over option to catch anything students may have missed in earlier editing rounds.

Putting the Jewels on Display: While some struggle to edit, others struggle to let go. There comes a point when it is time for students to release their work to the reader. They must learn to relinquish control after the creation is complete. This will be much easier to achieve if the student feels that they have done everything in their control to ensure their essay is representative of the best of their abilities and if they have followed the advice here, they should be confident they have done so.

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ESSAY WRITING video tutorials

H 1 . Introduction

This handbook is a brief yet comprehensive reference for you to consult as you write papers and other assignments for a college course. You can refer to it as you draft paragraphs and polish sentences for clarity, conciseness, and point of view. You can read it to learn how to identify and revise common sentence errors and confused words. You can use it to help you edit your writing and fine-tune your use of verbs, pronouns, punctuation, and mechanics. And you can have it open as you integrate and cite quotations as well as other source material in your papers in MLA or APA style.

Designed as a reference tool, the handbook is organized to help you get answers to your questions. You do not need to read the entire handbook to get helpful information from it. For example, if your instructor has noted that you need to work on comma splices, you can refer to Sentence Errors , before you turn in a final draft of your writing. If you know you frequently misuse commas, refer to Punctuation , and check your sentences against the advice there. And if you, like many writers, can’t remember which punctuation marks go inside and outside quotation marks, refer to Quotations . Becoming familiar with the handbook and the various topics will allow you to use it efficiently.

H 2 . Paragraphs and Transitions

Paragraphs help readers make their way through prose writing by presenting it in manageable chunks. Transitions link sentences and paragraphs so that readers can clearly understand how the points you are making relate to one another. (See Editing Focus: Paragraph and Transitions for a related discussion of paragraphs and transitions. See Evaluation: Transitions for a related discussion of transitions in multimodal compositions.)

Effective Paragraphs

Paragraphs are guides for readers. Each new paragraph signals either a new idea, further development of an existing idea, or a new direction. An effective paragraph has a main point supported by evidence, is organized in a sensible way, and is neither too short nor too long. When a paragraph is too short, it often lacks enough evidence and examples to back up your claims. When a paragraph is too long, readers can lose the point you are making.

Developing a Main Point

A paragraph is easier to write and easier to read when it centers on a main point. The main point of the paragraph is usually expressed in a topic sentence . The topic sentence frequently comes at the start of the paragraph, but not always. No matter the position, however, the other sentences in the paragraph support the main point.

Supporting Evidence and Analysis

All the sentences that develop the paragraph should support or expand on the main point given in the topic sentence. Depending on the type of writing you are doing, support may include evidence from sources—such as facts, statistics, and expert opinions—as well as examples from your own experience. Paragraphs also may include an analysis of your evidence written in your own words. The analysis explains the significance of the evidence to the reader and reinforces the main point of the paragraph.

In the following example, the topic sentence is underlined. The supporting evidence discussed through cause-and-effect reasoning comes in the next three sentences. The paragraph concludes with two sentences of analysis in the writer’s own words.

underline Millions of retired Americans rely on Social Security benefits to make ends meet after they turn 65. end underline According to the Social Security Administration, about 46 million retired workers receive benefits, a number that reflects about 90 percent of retired people. Although experts disagree on the exact numbers, somewhere between 12 percent and 40 percent of retirees count on social security for all of their income, making these benefits especially important (Konish). These benefits become more important as people age. According to Eisenberg, people who reach the age of 85 become more financially vulnerable because their health care and long-term care costs increase at the same time their savings have been drawn down. It should therefore come as no surprise that people worry about changes to the program. Social Security keeps millions of retired Americans out of poverty.

Opening Paragraphs

Readers pay attention to the opening of a piece of writing, so make it work for you. After starting with a descriptive title, write an opening paragraph that grabs readers’ attention and alerts them to what’s coming. A strong opening paragraph provides the first clues about your subject and your stance. In academic writing, whether argumentative, interpretative, or informative, the introduction often ends with a clear thesis statement , a declarative sentence that states the topic, the angle you are taking, and the aspects of the topic the rest of the paper will support.

Depending on the type of writing you’re doing, you can open in a variety of ways.

• Open with a conflict or an action. If you’re writing about conflict, a good opening may be to spell out what the conflict is. This way of opening captures attention by creating a kind of suspense: Will the conflict be resolved? How will it be resolved?
• Open with a specific detail, statistic, or quotation. Specific information shows that you know a lot about your subject and piques readers’ curiosity. The more dramatic your information, the more it will draw in readers, as long as what you provide is credible.
• Open with an anecdote. Readers enjoy stories. Particularly for reflective or personal narrative writing, beginning with a story sets the scene and draws in readers. You may also begin the anecdote with dialogue or reflection.

The following introduction opens with an anecdote and ends with the thesis statement, which is underlined.

Betty stood outside the salon, wondering how to get in. It was June of 2020, and the door was locked. A sign posted on the door provided a phone number for her to call to be let in, but at 81, Betty had lived her life without a cell phone. Betty’s day-to-day life had been hard during the pandemic, but she had planned for this haircut and was looking forward to it: she had a mask on and hand sanitizer in her car. Now she couldn’t get in the door, and she was discouraged. In that moment, Betty realized how much Americans’ dependence on cell phones had grown in the months she and millions of others had been forced to stay at home. underline Betty and thousands of other senior citizens who could not afford cell phones or did not have the technological skills and support they needed were being left behind in a society that was increasingly reliant on technology end underline .

Closing Paragraphs

The conclusion is your final chance to make the point of your writing stick in readers’ minds by reinforcing what they have read. Depending on the purpose for your writing and your audience, you can summarize your main points and restate your thesis, draw a logical conclusion, speculate about the issues you have raised, or recommend a course of action, as shown in the following conclusion:

Although many senior citizens purchased and learned new technologies during the COVID-19 pandemic, a significant number of older people like Betty were unable to buy and/or learn the technology they needed to keep them connected to the people and services they needed. As society becomes increasingly dependent on technology, social service agencies, religious institutions, medical providers, senior centers, and other organizations that serve the elderly need to be equipped to help them access and become proficient in the technologies essential to their daily lives.

Transitions

Transitional words and phrases show the connections or relationships between sentences and paragraphs and help your writing flow smoothly from one idea to the next.

A paragraph flows when ideas are organized logically and sentences move smoothly from one to the next. Transitional words and phrases help your writing flow by signaling to readers what’s coming in the next sentence. In the paragraph below, the topic sentence and transitional words and phrases are underlined.

underline Some companies court the public by mentioning environmental problems and pointing out that they do not contribute to these problems. end underline underline For example end underline , the natural gas industry often presents natural gas as a good alternative to coal. underline However end underline , according to the Union of Concerned Scientists, the drilling and extraction of natural gas from wells and transporting it through pipelines leaks methane, a major cause of global warming (“Environmental Impacts”). underline Yet end underline leaks are rarely mentioned by the industry. By taking credit for problems they don’t cause and being silent on the ones they do, companies present a favorable environmental image that often obscures the truth.

Transitional Words and Phrases

Following are some transitional words and phrases and their functions in paragraphs. Use this list when drafting or revising to help guide readers through your writing. (See Editing Focus: Paragraphs and Transitions for another discussion on transitions.)

H 3 . Clear and Effective Sentences

This section will help you write strong sentences that convey your meaning clearly and concisely. See Editing Focus: Sentence Structure for a related discussion and practice on effective sentences.

The most emphatic place in a sentence is the end. To achieve the strongest emphasis, end with the idea you want readers to remember. Place introductory, less important, or contextual information earlier in the sentence. Consider the differences in these two sentences.

Less Emphatic Angel underline needs to start now end underline if he wants to have an impact on his sister’s life. More Emphatic If Angel wants to have an impact on his sister’s life, he underline needs to start now end underline .

Concrete Nouns

General nouns name broad classes or categories of things ( man, dog, city ); concrete nouns refer to particular things ( Michael, collie, Chicago ). Concrete nouns provide a more vivid and lively reading experience because they create stronger images that activate readers’ senses. The examples below show how concrete nouns, combined with specific details, can make writing more engaging.

All General Nouns Approaching the library, I see underline people end underline and underline dogs end underline milling about underline outside end underline , but no subjects to write about. I’m tired from my underline walk end underline and go inside. Revised with Concrete Nouns Approaching underline Brandon Library end underline , I see underline skateboarders end underline and underline bikers end underline weaving through underline students end underline who talk in underline clusters end underline on the underline library steps end underline . A friendly underline collie end underline waits for its owner to return. Subjects to write about? Nothing strikes me as especially interesting. Besides, my heart is still pounding from the walk up the hill. I wipe my sweaty underline forehead end underline and go inside.

Active Voice

Active voice refers to the way a writer uses verbs in a sentence. Verbs have two “voices”: active and passive. In the active voice , the subject of the sentence acts—the subject performs the action of the verb. In the passive voice , the subject receives the action, and the object actually becomes the subject. Although some passive sentences are necessary and clear, a paper full of passive-voice constructions lacks vitality and becomes wordy.

Active-voice verbs make something happen. By using active verbs wherever possible, you will create stronger, clearer, and more concise sentences.

Passive Voice On the post-training survey, the anti-harassment tutorial underline was rated end underline highly informative underline by end underline employees. Revised in Active Voice On the post-training survey, underline employees end underline underline rated end underline the anti-harassment tutorial highly informative.

Conciseness

Concise writing considers the importance of every word. Editing sentences for emphasis, concrete nouns, and active voice will help you write clearly and precisely, as will the following strategies. To be concise, eliminate wasted words and filler— not ideas, information, description, or details that will interest readers or help them follow your thoughts. (For more on conciseness, see Editing Focus: Sentence Structure .)

Use Action Verbs

Using action verbs is one of the most direct ways to cut unneeded words. Whenever you find a phrase like the ones below, consider substituting an action verb.

Cut Unnecessary Words and Phrases

Eliminate words and phrases that do not add meaning. Consider the following sentences, which say essentially the same thing.

Wordy In almost every situation that I can think of, with few exceptions, it will make good sense for you to look for as many places as possible to cut out needless, redundant, and repetitive words and phrases from the papers, reports, paragraphs, and sentences you write for college assignments. (49 words) Concise Whenever possible, cut needless words and phrases from your college writing. (11 words)

The wordy sentence is full of early-draft language in three chunks. The first chunk comes at the beginning of the sentence. Notice how In almost every situation that I can think of, with few exceptions, it will make good sense for you to look for as many places as possible is reduced to Whenever possible in the concise sentence.

The second chunk of the wordy sentence is needless, redundant, and repetitive. The concise version reduces those four words to needless because the words have the same meaning. The third chunk of the wordy sentence comes at the end. Notice how papers, reports, paragraphs, and sentences you write for college assignments is reduced to your college writing. The meaning, although expanded to all writing, remains the same.

The following phrases are common fillers that add nothing to meaning. They should be avoided.

• a person by the name of
• for all intents and purposes
• in a manner of speaking
• more or less

Some common filler phrases have single-word alternatives, which are preferable.

Avoid there is/there are and it is

Starting a sentence with there is, there are, or it is can be useful to draw attention to a change in direction. However, starting a sentence with one of these phrases often forces you into a wordy construction. Wordiness means the presence of verbal filler; it does not mean the number of words, the amount of description, or the length of a composition. (For more on these constructions, see Editing Focus: Sentence Structure .)

Wordy underline There is often uncertainty about whether or not employees end underline are required to turn on their cameras during online meetings, and underline there are end underline some employees underline who end underline don’t. However, underline it is the expectation of employers end underline that cameras underline be end underline turned on. Concise underline Employees are often uncertain whether they end underline must turn on their cameras during online meetings, and underline some don’t end underline . However, underline employers expect end underline cameras to be turned on.

Parallelism

Within a sentence, parallelism —the repetition of a word or grammatical construction— creates symmetry and balance, makes an idea easier to remember, and sounds pleasing to the ear. In the first example below, the parallelism is established by the repetition of the phrase beginning with who . In the second example, the parallelism is created by the underlined nouns.

Unparallel After 25 years, the battle over the reintroduction of wolves continues between environmental activists, underline who support it end underline , and underline hunters and people who own cattle ranches and are opposed end underline . Parallel After 25 years, the battle over the reintroduction of wolves continues between environmental activists, underline who support it end underline , and cattle ranchers and hunters, underline who oppose it end underline . Unparallel Exercises that improve core strength include underline crunches end underline , underline leg lifts end underline , and underline when you do push-ups and planks end underline . Parallel Exercises that improve core strength include underline crunches end underline , underline leg lifts end underline , underline push-ups end underline , and underline planks end underline .

Varying the length and structure of sentences makes your writing more interesting to read.

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence has one idea expressed in a single main clause (also known as an independent clause). A main clause contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence. A simple sentence can be short or long, as shown in the examples below. The phrases in the long sentence add information, but the sentence remains a simple sentence nonetheless because it has only one clause.

The underline coronavirus end underline double underline spread end double underline around in the world in 2020. School-age underline children end underline and college underline students end underline double underline were pushed end double underline into virtual learning environments in March 2020, with schools closing for unspecified lengths of time.

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence contains two or more main clauses that are equally important to the meaning of the sentence. (A main clause contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence.) You can create compound sentences in the following ways:

Compound Sentence Using a Coordinating Conjunction

Create a compound sentence by using a coordinating conjunction — for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so (fanboys)— to join main clauses . To remember the coordinating conjunctions, use the mnemonic device fanboys.

underline Restaurants end underline and small underline retailers end underline double underline experienced end double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic, and underline many end underline double underline were forced end double underline to close. underline Restaurants end underline and small underline retailers end underline double underline experienced end double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic, yet underline many end underline double underline survived end double underline the downturn.

Compound Sentence Using a Semicolon

A semicolon can join two main clauses that are closely related in meaning. When using a semicolon, you must have a complete sentence before and after it.

underline Restaurants end underline and small underline retailers end underline double underline experienced end double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic ; underline many end underline double underline were forced end double underline to close.

Compound Sentence Using a Semicolon and Transitional Word or Phrase

A transitional words or phrases such as however, in fact, meanwhile, therefore, consequently, as a result, instead, or furthermore indicates the relation of two or more equally important ideas in the main clauses.

underline Restaurants end underline and small underline retailers end underline double underline experienced end double underline steep drops in revenue during the pandemic ; however , underline many end underline double underline survived end double underline the downturn.

Complex Sentences

A complex sentence contains one main clause (a clause that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence) and one or more subordinate clauses (also known as dependent clauses). Subordinate clauses begin with a subordinating word or phrase such as although, because, even if, when, whenever, since, as though, whether, as long as, until, or while. The main clause expresses the main idea of the sentence, and the subordinate clause expresses the less important idea. Like a main clause, a subordinate clause has a subject and verb; however, unlike a main clause, it cannot stand alone as a sentence. A subordinate clause punctuated as a sentence is a type of sentence fragment. The subordinate clauses in the following sentences are underlined.

underline Although the federal government provided financial assistance end underline , the money came too late for many businesses. underline When schools and universities shut down in March of 2020 end underline , students had to learn at home, underline a situation that proved challenging for many households end underline .

Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence contains two or more main clauses (clauses that contain subjects and predicates and can stand alone as sentences) and one or more subordinate clauses (clauses that begin with a subordinating word such as although, because, even if, when, whenever, since, as though, whether, as long as, until, and while ). A compound-complex sentence is an effective structure to use when you want to express three or more ideas in a single sentence. The example sentence has two main clauses (double underline) and three subordinate clauses (single underline).

underline When school districts reopened end underline , double underline parents had to decide end double underline underline whether they wanted their children to attend classes in person end underline , double underline and they had to be ready for classes to move online end double underline underline if there were outbreaks of the coronavirus in their community. end underline

H 4 . Sentence Errors

These four common sentence errors can make your writing hard to read: fragments, comma splices, run-on sentences, and mixed constructions.

Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a group of words that lacks a subject, a verb, or both, or it is a subordinate clause (a clause that begins with a subordinating word such as although, because, since, and so on) punctuated as though it were a sentence by itself. Although most are grammatical errors, sentence fragments can be used judiciously in conventional writing so long as the purpose is clear to readers and the fragment is clearly intended.

Unintentional Sentence Fragments

Often a sentence fragment follows a complete sentence and expands on it, as illustrated in the examples below (fragments are underlined). You can correct most fragment errors by attaching the fragment to the sentence to which it belongs or by rewriting the fragment as a complete sentence.

Sentence Fragment People think that they will be happy if they are well off. underline That money will make everything better. end underline Revised by Attaching the Fragment to a Complete Sentence People think that they will be happy if they are well off underline and end underline that money will make everything better. Sentence Fragment Psychologist David Myers explains how students have increasingly chosen to attend college to make more money. Thus underline further explaining his point of people’s desire to use money to gain happiness. end underline Revised by Attaching the Fragment to a Complete Sentence Psychologist David Myers explains how students have increasingly chosen to attend college to make more money, underline thus further explaining his point of people’s desire to use money to gain happiness. end underline Sentence Fragment Although income grew, people’s happiness did not. underline With rich people reporting that even though they had plenty of money, their happiness had not changed much. end underline Revised by Adding a Verb Although income grew, people’s happiness did not. underline Rich people reported end underline that even though they had plenty of money, their happiness had not changed much. Sentence Fragment For many people, increased income is being spent on the things that people are unable to pay less for. underline Things like taxes, childcare, transportation, and housing. end underline Revised by Adding a Subject and a Verb For many people, increased income is being spent on things that people are unable to pay less for. underline These include end underline taxes, childcare, transportation, and housing.

Intentional Sentence Fragments

Intentional sentence fragments force quick reading, inviting readers to stitch meaning to together. Intentional fragments are most common in creative writing and advertising.

The rabbit darted out of the shadows. underline A flash of movement. end underline The dog lunged and strained at the leash.

Comma Splices

A comma splice is a common error that occurs when two complete sentences are joined by a comma. You can correct a comma splice by adding a coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so), adding a period and creating two sentences, adding a coordinating conjunction and creating a compound sentence, or subordinating one clause and creating a complex sentence.

Comma Splice The author sheds light on the financial sacrifice many mothers make , they take care of their children without compensation and often lose professional status. Revised with a Coordinating Conjunction The author sheds light on the financial sacrifice many mothers make, underline for end underline they take care of their children without compensation and often lose professional status.

Comma Splice Many college students see their education as the way to become wealthy , some are sacrificing happiness to pursue high-paying careers. Revised with a Period Many college students see their education as the way to become wealthy . S ome are sacrificing happiness to pursue high-paying careers.

Comma Splice Psychologist David Myers conducted multiple surveys asking people about their attitudes about money , the results revealed that people felt they needed more regardless of how much they had. Revised with a Semicolon Psychologist David Myers conducted multiple surveys asking people about their attitudes about money ; the results revealed that people felt they needed more regardless of how much they had.

Comma Splice Love cannot be paid for , it is a gift that parents give because they love their children. Revised with a Semicolon and Transitional Word or Phrase Love cannot be paid for ; underline indeed end underline , it is a gift that parents give because they love their children.

Comma Splice Students are choosing majors to enable them to earn more money , they are under the misconception that earning money guarantees happiness. Revised with a Subordinate Clause Students are choosing majors to enable them to earn more money underline because end underline they are under the misconception that earning money guarantees happiness.

Run-on Sentences

In a run-on sentence , two or more complete sentences are not separated by any punctuation. Like comma splices, most run-on sentences can be revised in one or more of the following ways: adding a coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so ), adding a period and creating two sentences, separating the sentences with a semicolon, separating the sentences with a semicolon and transitional word or phrase (such as on the other hand, however, consequently, and so on), or turning the less important sentence into a subordinate clause starting with a subordinating word such as although, because, if, when, since , and so on.

Run-on Sentence The DNR eventually designated the area as crucial habitat the protection came too late to save the nesting birds. Revised with a Comma and a Coordinating Conjunction The DNR eventually designated the area as crucial habitat , underline but end underline the protection came too late to save the nesting birds. Run-on Sentence Most people realize that being wealthy won’t just happen many college students choose a major that will ensure they make money. Revised with a Period Most people realize that being wealthy won’t just happen . Many college students choose a major that will ensure they make money. Run-on Sentence Parents do not expect any financial reward they care for their children out of love and responsibility. Revised with a Semicolon Parents do not expect any financial reward ; they care for their children out of love and responsibility. Run-on Sentence The average American family’s expenses have risen faster than incomes they have saved less than prior generations. Revised with a Semicolon and Transitional Word or Phrase The average American family’s expenses have risen faster than incomes ; underline as a result end underline , they have saved less than prior generations. Run-on Sentence College students have the opportunity to choose any major they tend to choose those that offer immediate opportunities to earn money when they graduate. Revised with a Subordinate Clause underline Although end underline college students have the opportunity to choose any major underline , end underline they tend to choose those that offer immediate opportunities to earn money when they graduate.

Mixed Sentence Constructions

A mixed sentence contains parts that do not fit together because of grammar or meaning. In the following example, the writer needs to revise either the second part to fit with the first part or the first part to fit with the second. (See Editing Focus: Mixed Sentence Constructions for more on mixed sentence constructions.)

Mixed Sentence underline By starting my general studies classes last semester end underline underline gave me the opportunity to take classes in my major this fall end underline . Second Part Revised By starting my general studies classes last spring, underline I had end underline the opportunity to take classes in my major this fall. First Part Revised underline Starting end underline my general studies classes last spring gave me the opportunity to take classes in my major this fall.

Just because . . . doesn’t mean Constructions. Just because . . . doesn’t mean constructions are common in speech but should be avoided in writing.

Just because underline Just because end underline I want to be a doctor underline doesn’t mean end underline I will get into medical school. Revised Simply wanting to be a doctor doesn’t guarantee admission to medical school. Revised Although I want to be a doctor, I will need to work hard to get into medical school.

H 5 . Words and Language

The English language is rich and always evolving, offering you many ways and words to express yourself in writing and speech.

Language Varieties

English is not one language but many, made up of regional and social dialects. In addition, groups speak using specialized language among themselves that can be difficult for outsiders to understand. As a writer, be aware of the audience for your writing. Use language that your readers will understand directly or from context.

English dialects are distinctive versions of the language used in geographical regions and/or by particular social or ethnic groups. Standard American English, the English spoken by newscasters, is one such dialect, as are African American Vernacular English, Creole, Appalachian English, and others. English dialects have many features in common, but each has particulars of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. (For an in-depth discussion of dialects and academic writing, see Spotlight on … Variations of English .)

Groups of people with similar skills and interests often develop slang that allows them to express ideas quickly and vividly. Slang also signals knowledge about a particular topic, such as meme culture, music, sports, and more. Slang is generally considered too casual for most academic writing, but it may be appropriate for personal essays. In your papers, be aware of your purpose and audience when choosing to use slang. Avoid using slang that your readers are unlikely to understand.

Technical Expressions

Experts in many professional fields use specialized and technical expressions that allow them to communicate efficiently and clearly with each other. Such language is often incomprehensible for nonexperts and should be avoided in writing for general readers. (For tips on writing about a technical topic for an audience of nonspecialists, see Spotlight on … Discipline-Specific and Technical Language .)

Biased Language

Biased words and expressions exclude or demean people on the basis of gender, sex, sexual orientation, age, ethnicity, social class, or physical or mental traits.

Biased Language Based on Sex and Gender

English includes words and expressions that are considered biased based on sex and gender, such as mankind, businessman, chairman, fireman, and so on. These are commonly replaced by gender-neutral words such as humanity, businessperson, chair or chairperson, and firefighter. (See Spotlight on … Bias in Language and Research for more on language bias.)

In addition, the English pronoun he has traditionally been used as the gender-neutral pronoun. For example, the construction A underline doctor end underline should have a caring attitude toward underline his end underline patients was once common but is now widely viewed as gender biased because many doctors are not men. For a discussion of the pronoun he used as the gender-neutral pronoun, see Pronouns .

Labels and Stereotypes

Be sensitive to labels and stereotypes that may insult a group of people you are writing about. Avoid labels that don’t put people first, such as cancer victim and wheelchair-bound. Don’t make assumptions about entire groups of people that promote stereotypes, such as teenagers are rebellious, elderly people don’t hear well, conservatives are rich, or women are more emotional than men . (See Spotlight on … Bias in Language and Research for more on language bias.)

Exact Words

As a general rule, use plain, direct words in your writing. Avoid reaching for a word that sounds fancy or impressive, especially if you are unsure about the meaning. If you use a word that is only vaguely familiar to you, look it up in a dictionary to ensure you are using it correctly. (You can type the word and “def” to get a definition.) Doing so has the added benefit of building your vocabulary.

Words Commonly Confused

The words in the following list are commonly confused or misused by writers. As you write, consult this list or use a reliable online tool, such as Merriam-Webster , to check the meanings and usage of words you’re unsure of. Keep a list of words that cause you trouble as you become aware of them. Then, after you draft a document, do a search for the words on your list. (For a discussion of homonyms, homographs, and homophones, see Editing Focus: Words Often Confused .)

H 6 . Point of View

Point of view refers to the vantage point from which a story, event, report, or other written work is told. The point of view in which you write depends on the genre in which you are writing. For example, you will likely use first person in personal narrative writing. For most academic writing, you’ll use third person. (See Editing Focus: Characterization and Point of View for a related discussion of point of view in narrative writing.)

First Person

In the first-person point of view, the writer or narrator ( I, we ) is present in the writing. First person is commonly used in personal writing genres, such as literacy narratives, memoirs, and profiles, as well as in fiction.

After midnight—my paper started, my exam studied for—I leave the library and head back to my apartment. In the dark, I listen closely when I hear footsteps behind me, and I step to the edge of the sidewalk to let a man pass. At my door, I fumble for my key, open the door, turn on the light, and step inside. I am safe, ready to eat, read a bit, and return to my paper.

Second Person

Second-person point of view is used occasionally when an outsider ( you ) becomes part of a story. It should not be confused with a writer or speaker using “you” when directly addressing an audience ( you ). Nor should it be confused with giving instructions ( drive forward, add one cup of brown sugar, close the door ) or with its similar use in textbooks such as this one. However, second person is not considered appropriate in most academic writing.

Writers often slip into second person when they intend to write in third person. In the example below, the writer starts in third person and shifts by accident to second person. To check your sentences for second person, search your documents for you , and revise as needed.

Shift from Third Person to Second Person The federal government should raise the minimum wage because it has the responsibility to ensure underline people end underline earn a wage underline you end underline can live on. The current minimum wage, $7.25 per hour, is not enough to pay underline rent end underline , let alone support a family. Many people cannot lift themselves out of poverty. A higher minimum wage can help you. Revised The federal government should raise the minimum wage because it has the responsibility to ensure underline workers end underline earn a wage underline they end underline can live on. The current minimum wage, $7.25 per hour, is not enough to pay underline a single person’s end underline rent, let alone support a family. Many people cannot lift themselves out of poverty. A higher minimum wage can help them.

Third Person

The third-person point of view ( he, she, it, they ) is customary for fiction and for academic writing, such as research papers, reports, visual and textual analysis papers, argumentative essays, and the like. Third-person point of view emphasizes the information instead of the writer.

The hikers and other passive trail users argue that mountain bikes should not be allowed on narrow trails traditionally traveled by foot and horse. underline They end underline point out that the bikes’ wide, treaded tires cause erosion, that the bikers’ high speeds startle hikers and horses, and that underline their end underline presence on trails disrupts the tranquility that hikers and bird watchers seek.

H 7 . Verbs

In a sentence, a verb expresses an action, an occurrence, or a state of being.

Subject-Verb Agreement

In many sentences, making the verb agree with the subject is straightforward: underline I end underline underline run end underline every day. My underline sister end underline underline runs end underline every other day. Sometimes our underline brother end underline underline joins end underline us, and underline all end underline of us underline run end underline together. However, subject-verb agreement gets tricky in the following circumstances. (See Editing Focus: Subject-Verb Agreement for more on subject-verb agreement.)

Agreement with Compound Subjects

Two or more subjects joined by and take a plural verb in most sentences:

underline Yoga and meditation end underline double underline are end double underline effective activities for relieving stress.

However, when the parts of the subject form a single idea or unit, the verb is singular:

underline Macaroni and cheese end underline double underline is end double underline my favorite meal.

When compound subjects are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the word closest to it:

Either your aunts or your underline mother end underline double underline remembers end double underline where your great-grandmother’s grave is located. Neither the image nor the underline words end underline double underline convey end double underline the message of the advertisement clearly.

Agreement When Words Come between Subject and Verb

The verb must agree with the subject even when words and phrases come between them:

The underline cost end underline of the flights double underline is end double underline prohibitive. A underline box end underline of invitations with stamps and return addresses double underline was end double underline on the desk.

Agreement When the Verb Comes Before the Subject

The verb must agree with the subject, even when it comes before the subject:

double underline Are end double underline underline James and Tamara end underline at the front of the line? There double underline were end double underline three underline people end underline ahead of us in line. Under the table double underline are end double underline a underline newspaper end underline and a underline magazine end underline .

Agreement with Everyone and Other Indefinite Pronouns

An indefinite pronoun is general; it does not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. Most indefinite pronouns take a singular verb, but not all. Those that take a singular verb include anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, and something .

underline Everyone end underline in the class double underline has prepared end double underline a research proposal. underline Nobody end underline among the accused suspects double underline admits end double underline to the crime.

The following indefinite pronouns take a plural verb: both, few many, others, and several.

underline Several end underline of the students in the class double underline have proposed end double underline researching hurricanes. underline Both end underline of the suspects double underline deny end double underline committing the crime.

Several indefinite pronouns take a singular or plural verb depending on whether the word they refer to is singular or plural. These include all, any, enough, more, most, neither, none, and some.

underline Most end underline of the class double underline has proposed end double underline researching a topic related to climate change. ( Most refers to class. ) underline Most end underline of the students in the class double underline have proposed end double underline researching a topic related to climate change. ( Most refers to students. ) underline Neither end underline the students underline nor end underline the teachers double underline have proposed end double underline a field trip. ( Neither/nor refers to students and teachers .)

Agreement with Collective Nouns

Collective nouns such as audience, band, class, crowd, family, group, or team can take a singular or a plural verb depending on the context. When the group acts as a single unit, which is the most common construction, use a singular verb:

The underline band end underline double underline rehearses end double underline every day.

When the group acts individually, use a plural verb, or to avoid confusion, add the word members and use a plural verb.

The underline jury end underline double underline do not agree end double underline on a verdict. The underline jury end underline members double underline do not agree end double underline on a verdict.

Agreement with Words Such as News and Statistics

Some nouns that end in -s , such as athletics, economics, measles, news, physics, politics, and statistics seem plural but are usually regarded as singular in meaning. In most situations, these words take a singular verb:

Day after day, the underline news end underline double underline was end double underline bad. underline Statistics end underline double underline fulfills end double underline a math requirement for many college majors.

When a word like economics, politics, or statistics refers to a specific situation, use a plural verb:

The underline economics end underline of the situation double underline are end double underline hard to comprehend.

Agreement with Titles and Words Used as Words

Whether singular or plural in form, titles and words used as words take singular verbs:

Directed by Spike Lee, underline Da 5 Bloods end underline double underline centers end double underline around four veterans returning to Vietnam to find the remains of their squad leader and the fortune they hid together. underline Children end underline double underline is end double underline the plural form of child .

Tense expresses the time of a verb’s action—the past, present, or future. Tense comes naturally in speech, but it can be tricky to control in writing. The following guidelines will help you choose the appropriate tense for your writing and use it consistently. (See Editing Focus: Verb Tense Consistency for a related discussion of consistent verb tense.)

Verb Tense in Narrative Writing

Personal experience stories, such as literacy narratives, memoirs, personal essays, or profiles, can be written in either the past or the present tense. Although the most natural way to tell a story about a past experience is to write in the past tense, the present tense can draw readers into the story and give the illusion that the experience is happening as they are reading it. In the following examples, the writer describes driving with her Native American grandfather to a tribal conference. Notice the difference between the past and present tense.

Narrative Writing Using Past Tense I double underline sat end double underline silently next to Grandfather and double underline watched end double underline him slowly tear the thin white paper from the tip of the cigarette. He double underline gathered end double underline the tobacco in one hand and double underline drove end double underline the van with the other. I double underline memorized end double underline his every move as he double underline went end double underline through the motions of the prayer, which double underline ended end double underline when he double underline blew end double underline the tobacco out the window and into the wind. Narrative Writing Using Present Tense I double underline sit end double underline silently next to Grandfather and double underline watch end double underline him slowly tear the thin white paper from the tip of the cigarette. He double underline gathers end double underline the tobacco in one hand and double underline drives end double underline the van with the other. I double underline memorize end double underline his every move as he double underline goes end double underline through the motions of the prayer, which double underline ends end double underline when he double underline blows end double underline the tobacco out the window and into the wind.

Verb Tense in Academic Writing

Academic disciplines differ in their tense preferences for signal phrases used in formal essays and reports to introduce and discuss evidence. A signal phrase is a verb that tells readers the words or ideas that follow come from another source. Signal phrases include words such as argues, asserts, claims, comments, denies, discusses, implies, proposes, says, shows, states, and suggests. (For more discussion and a more extensive list of signal phrases, see Editing Focus: Integrating Sources and Quotations .)

If you are writing for a course in English, a foreign language, or a related discipline and using MLA documentation style, you generally will use the present tense or the present perfect tense in signal phrases.

Present Tense The film critic Manohla Dargis double underline claims end double underline that . . . Present Perfect Tense The film critic Manohla Dargis double underline has claimed end double underline that . . .

When you are analyzing a work of literature, common practice is to use the literary present tense in discussing both the work of the author and the action that occurs in the work:

Being cool double underline is end double underline key to the lives of the speakers in “We Real Cool,” a poem by Gwendolyn Brooks. Brooks double underline uses end double underline short lines and stanzas in which speakers double underline list end double underline what it means to be cool: dropping out of school, staying out late, playing pool, drinking, carousing, and so on. Being cool double underline unites end double underline the speakers, and they double underline celebrate end double underline their lifestyle, even as they double underline acknowledge end double underline in the final line of the poem that their coolness double underline may cause end double underline them to die young.

(For more on literary present tense, see Editing Focus: Literary Works Live in the Present .)

If you are writing for a course in history, art history, philosophy, religion, or a related discipline in the humanities, you generally will use the present tense or the present perfect tense in signal phrases.

Present Tense The historian Eduardo Galeano double underline argues end double underline that . . . Present Perfect Tense The historian Eduardo Galeano double underline has argued end double underline that . . .

On the other hand, if you are writing for a course in the social sciences, such as psychology, political science, or economics; a course in the natural sciences, such as biology, chemistry, or physics; or a technical field such as engineering, you will generally use past tense or present perfect tense for most signal phrases.

Past Tense The study double underline found end double underline that individuals who identify as transgender . . . (past tense) Present Perfect Tense: Several recent studies double underline have found end double underline that individuals who identify as transgender . . .

Verb Tense Consistency

Whichever tense you choose, be consistent throughout a piece of writing. You may need to shift tenses to indicate actual changes in time, but the governing tense should remain constant. (See Editing Focus: Verb Tense Consistency for a related discussion of consistent verb tense.)

Inconsistent Blinking back tears, I double underline clutched end double underline my two-year-old son to my chest, double underline kiss end double underline his forehead, and double underline will gather end double underline my things. It double underline is end double underline 2003, and I double underline was end double underline headed to active duty in Iraq with the National Guard. I double underline hug end double underline my spouse, my mom, my dad, my brothers, and my grandma. Then I double underline turn end double underline and double underline climbed end double underline on the bus that double underline takes end double underline me to a future that, in all honesty, double underline was end double underline terrifying to me. Consistent Blinking back tears, I double underline clutched end double underline my two-year-old son to my chest, double underline kissed end double underline his forehead, and double underline gathered end double underline my things. It double underline was end double underline 2003, and I double underline was end double underline headed to active duty in Iraq with the National Guard. I double underline hugged end double underline my spouse, my mom, my dad, my brothers, and my grandma. Then I double underline turned end double underline and double underline climbed end double underline on the bus that double underline would take end double underline me to a future that, in all honesty, double underline was end double underline terrifying to me.

Irregular Verbs

Most verbs are regular and form the past tense and past participle forms by adding -d or -ed.

• I bake/I baked/I have baked
• She discovers/she discovered/she has discovered
• They shovel/they shoveled/they have shoveled

Some verbs, however, are irregular and form the past tense and participle in another way. Below are a few of the approximately 200 irregular verbs in English. For a comprehensive list of irregular verbs, see this list .

• begin/began/begun
• bring/brought/brought
• buy/bought/bought
• do/did/done
• drive/drove/driven
• fall/fell/fallen
• go/went/gone
• have/had/had
• is/was/been
• lead/led/led
• hide/hid/hidden
• ring/rang/rung
• run/ran/run
• see/saw/seen
• sing/sang/sung
• sit/sat/sat
• shake/shook/shaken
• speak/spoke/spoken
• take/took/taken
• wear/wore/worn
• write/wrote/written

Verbs have three moods: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive. Mood can be said to indicate a speaker’s attitude or intention.

Indicative Mood

Use the indicative mood to state a fact or an opinion or to ask a question:

Thousands of women currently double underline serve end double underline in the military. I double underline think end double underline college tuition double underline is end double underline expensive. The weather double underline was end double underline awful for much of the winter but double underline will improve end double underline soon. double underline Have end double underline you double underline submitted end double underline your request for time off?

Imperative Mood

Use the imperative mood to give instructions and commands. The subject, you , is often implied but not stated:

double underline (You) Use end double underline the online form to request time off. double underline (You) Submit end double underline your request for time off by Friday. double underline You must submit end double underline your request on time.

Subjunctive Mood

Use the subjunctive mood to express wishes, suggestions, or requirements or to state hypothetical or unlikely conditions:

The rules state that every member double underline be end double underline present for the vote. I wish you double underline were end double underline here to see the exhibition. The governing board could be more effective if all members double underline were end double underline active. Students who failed the class would have passed double underline had end double underline they double underline completed end double underline all assignments.

H 8 . Pronouns

A Pronouns is a word used in place of a noun. Some pronouns are I, you, he, she, we, they, who, and everyone . The noun a pronoun replaces or refers to is its antecedent . (See Editing Focus: Pronouns for a related discussion of pronouns.)

Pronoun Reference

A pronoun should refer to a clear and specific antecedent.

Clear Antecedent All nine underline members end underline of the school board voted in favor of changing the district’s mascot. underline They end underline explained their reasoning during the meeting. ( They refers clearly to members. ) Unclear Antecedent In Smith’s essay, underline she end underline explains why many American families have less money saved and more debt than families in the 1970s. Revised In underline her end underline essay, underline Smith end underline explains why many American families have less money saved and more debt than families in the 1970s.

Problems with pronoun reference occur in the following situations:

Vague this, that, which, or it . The pronouns this, that, which, and it should not refer to words expressing an idea, an event, or a situation.

Vague Reference The school board voted to change the district’s mascot without holding special meetings with the public. underline This end underline made some community members angry. ( Are community members angry about the vote or about the lack of special meetings? ) Revised The school board voted to change the district’s mascot without holding special meetings with the public. underline Their decision to avoid public discussion before the vote end underline made some community members angry.

Indefinite it, they, or you . The pronouns it, they, and you should have a definite antecedent in a sentence.

Indefinite it Crittenden explains that mothers are taken for granted and disrespected, even though our society calls underline it end underline the most important job in the world. Revised Crittenden explains that mothers are taken for granted and disrespected, even though our society calls underline motherhood end underline the most important job in the world. Indefinite they Japan has considerable wealth compared to Ireland, but underline they end underline have a low subjective well-being index. Revised Japan has considerable wealth compared to Ireland, but underline Japanese citizens end underline have a low subjective well-being index. Indefinite you The federal government should raise the minimum wage to ensure underline you end underline earn a wage underline you end underline can live on. Revised The federal government should raise the minimum wage to ensure underline workers end underline earn a wage underline they end underline can live on.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

In many sentences, making a pronoun agree with its antecedent is straightforward: My underline neighbors end underline gave me the keys to underline their end underline apartment. However, pronoun-antecedent agreement gets tricky in the following circumstances.

Agreement with Generic Nouns and Indefinite Pronouns

Generic nouns refer to a type of person or job someone performs, such as athlete, child, scientist, doctor, or hairdresser. Indefinite pronouns include words such as anyone, each, everyone, everything, many, most, and none.

All generic nouns and most indefinite pronouns are singular in meaning. Traditionally, these words took the singular pronouns he/him/his because English does not have a gender-neutral third-person pronoun that refers to people: Everyone has his own opinion or A doctor needs to show that he cares about his patients.

More recently, writers have been replacing he/him/his or his/her with they/them/their when the person’s gender is unknown or unimportant or when the person has indicated a preference for non-gendered pronouns:

Everyone has underline their end underline own opinion. A doctor needs to show that underline they end underline care about underline their end underline patients.

These plural pronouns are increasingly accepted and intentionally used by writers, teachers, and editors. Many prominent publications and style guides indicate that the plural pronoun should replace binary or singular ones in most cases. If using a plural pronoun does not fit the situation (such as in a paragraph where the pronoun they is also used several times to indicate a group), try rewriting the sentence in either of these ways:

Remove the pronoun. Everyone has underline an end underline opinion. Make the antecedent plural. underline People end underline have their own opinions. underline Doctors end underline need to show that they care about their patients.

Collective nouns such as audience, band, class, crowd, family, group, or team can take a singular or plural pronoun depending on the context. When the group acts as a single unit, which is the most common construction, use a singular pronoun. When the group members act individually, use a plural pronoun. If using the plural sounds awkward, add the word members so that the plural is clear.

The band went through underline its end underline complete playlist. The band loaded underline their end underline instruments on the bus. The band underline members end underline loaded underline their end underline instruments on the bus.

Pronoun Case

Pronouns have three cases: subjective, objective, and possessive. Pronouns change case according to their function in a sentence.

Subjective case pronouns function as subjects: I, we, you, he/she/it, they, who/whoever :

Antonio and underline I end underline share an apartment downtown in a neighborhood underline we end underline like.

Objective case pronouns function as objects: me, us, you, him/her/it, them, whom/whomever :

The manager gave underline us end underline a tour of the building.

Possessive case pronouns show ownership: my/mine, our/ours, your/yours, his/her/hers/its, their/theirs, whose :

underline Our end underline friends live in the building too.

Pronoun case gets tricky in the circumstances explained below.

Case in Compound Structures

Compound subjects use subjective case pronouns. Compound objects use objective case pronouns.

Subjective Case underline Antonio end underline and underline I end underline have occasional disagreements about the dishes. Objective Case Occasional disagreements about the dishes come up between underline Antonio end underline and underline me end underline .

Case After than or as

In a comparison, the case of the pronoun indicates which words have been left out:

Antonio cares more about having a clean kitchen than underline I end underline [do]. Sometimes I think Antonio cares more about a clean kitchen than [he cares about] underline me end underline .

Who or Whom

Use the subjective case who in place of a subject—whether it is the subject of the sentence or the subject of a clause:

underline Who end underline is going to the concert? (subject of sentence) Give the tickets to underline whoever end underline can use them. (subject of clause) She is the person underline who end underline is best qualified for the job. (subject of clause) She is the person underline who end underline I think is best qualified for the job. (subject of clause; the intervening words “I think” don’t change the subject or verb of the clause)

Use the objective case whom in place of an object, whether it is the object of a verb, preposition, or clause:

I don’t know underline whom end underline to ask. (object of verb) To underline whom end underline should I give the extra concert tickets? (object of preposition) Give the tickets to underline whomever end underline you choose. (object of clause)

We or us with a Noun

Use we with a subject. Use us with an object.

underline We end underline citizens must vote in order to make our voices heard. (subject) Legislators need to hear from underline us end underline citizens. (object)

Case Before or After an Infinitive

Use the objective case before and after an infinitive (the to form of a verb: to run, to walk, to eat ):

The agent asked Antonio and underline me end underline to write a review. We agreed to give underline him end underline a positive review.

Case Before a Gerund

Generally, use the possessive case of a pronoun before a gerund (the -ing form of a verb used as a noun: gentle underline snoring end underline , elegant underline dining end underline ):

He grew tired of underline their end underline partying late into the night. The rental agreement depends on underline your end underline approving the lease terms.

H 9 . Punctuation

This section covers the major marks of punctuation: commas, apostrophes, semicolons, colons, periods, question marks, exclamation points, dashes, and parentheses. (For using brackets and ellipses, see Quotations .)

Commas alert readers to brief pauses within sentences.

Commas with Main Clauses

Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so) joining main clauses:

Businesses in the metropolitan area are growing underline , and end underline unemployment is down. Many job seekers use online sites like Indeed.com underline , but end underline a few still send traditional cover letters and résumés through the mail. A solution must be determined soon underline , or end underline the problem will continue.

Commas with Introductory Information

Use a comma after an introductory element at the start of a sentence:

underline After class is over , end underline we should get lunch and review our notes. underline Shuffling his feet nervously , end underline he waited for the train. underline However end underline , the circumstances have not changed.

Commas with Nonessential and Essential Information

(See Editing Focus: Commas with Nonessential and Essential Information for a related discussion of commas.)

Nonessential information refers to information that is usually not necessary to the basic meaning of a sentence. Nonessential information is set off by commas. In the following sentence, the word original tells readers which labs no longer meet the needs of the teachers and students. The underlined information adds information but does not change the meaning of the sentence and thus is nonessential to the basic meaning:

The original technical education labs underline , which were installed 50 years ago , end underline no longer meet the needs of the teachers and students.

Essential information , on the other hand, is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. In following example, the word original is no longer part of the sentence; the underlined words convey necessary information about the labs:

The technical education labs underline that were installed 50 years end underline ago no longer meet the needs of the teachers and students.

You can test whether information is nonessential by removing the information. If the meaning of the sentence is unchanged, the information is nonessential. If the meaning becomes too general or changes, the information is essential. In the sentence above, only the labs installed 50 years ago, as opposed to other labs, no longer meet the needs of teachers and students. Note, also, the use of which with nonessential information and that with essential information.

Commas Around Nonessential Information

Place commas around information that is not essential to the meaning of a sentence:

The entire technology department underline , which consists of nine teachers and five staff members , end underline has contributed to a report on the needed updates to the technical education labs. The technology department chair underline , who teaches welding , end underline wrote the final report. Updates to the labs will begin in June underline , when school is not in session end underline .

No Commas Around Essential Information

Do not place commas around essential information:

According to the technical education teachers, the labs need equipment underline that students are likely to encounter in the workplace end underline . Faculty underline who teach auto mechanics end underline have requested updates to their lab. The teachers are concerned about the labs underline because students are not learning the skills they need end underline . The amount of lab space underline that needs to be updated end underline is substantial. The department has consulted the industry expert underline Stacy James end underline .

Serial (Oxford or Harvard) Commas

For clarity, use a comma between items in a series:

He studied all the notes , emails , memos , and reports related to the data breach.

Be aware, however, that certain style manuals, such as the AP Stylebook, do not use the serial comma, also called the Oxford or Harvard comma.

Commas with Numbers, Dates, Titles with Names, and Addresses

The sign gave the city’s population as 122 , 887. Nobel Prize winner Toni Morrison died on August 5 , 2019. Diana Wong , M.D. , is a practicing obstetrician. The mailing address for the Smithsonian Institution is 600 Maryland Avenue SW , Washington , D.C. , 20002.

Common Comma Errors

Misplaced commas can make sentences choppy and obscure the intended meaning.

No Comma after a Subject or a Verb

Anyone who was still at the party underline , end underline left when the band stopped playing. The party ended underline , end underline after the band stopped playing.

No Comma after a Conjunction Connecting Parts of a Compound Subject, Verb, or Object

Some musicians in the band underline , end underline and many of the guests danced until midnight. (compound subject) The band stopped after two hours underline , end underline and took a well-deserved break. (compound verb) Guests enjoyed the music underline , end underline and the dancing. (compound object)

No Comma after a Series

The band played 80s rock underline , end underline punk , and new wave , all night long.

No Comma before an Indirect Quotation

Online reviews say underline , end underline that the band is the best in the area.

Apostrophes

An apostrophe has two functions. It indicates possession, and it forms contractions.

Apostrophes to Show Possession

Use an apostrophe and -s to indicate possession with a singular noun or an indefinite pronoun:

underline Jack ’ s end underline brother is my underline sister ’ s end underline coworker. In their family, underline everyone ’ s end underline favorite dessert is ice cream.

If the ’s in a singular noun is pronounced, add apostrophe -s :

The underline business ’ s end underline inconsistent hours caused customers to go elsewhere. Los underline Angeles ’ s end underline airport, LAX, is one of the busiest in the United States.

If the ’s is not pronounced in a singular noun, some writers choose to add an apostrophe alone; however, MLA, APA, and Chicago use the apostrophe and s in these cases:

David underline Myers ’ end underline book, The Pursuit of Happiness , was published in 1992. David underline Myers ’s end underline book, The Pursuit of Happiness , was published in 1992.

When the noun is plural and ends in -s , place the apostrophe after the final -s :

American underline households ’ end underline incomes have grown since the 1970s because more women have entered the workforce. These underline families ’ end underline expenses have risen too.

When the noun is plural and does not end in -s, add an apostrophe and -s:

Social underline media ’ s end underline effect on contemporary life cannot be underestimated. During the pandemic, parents’ stress grew as they helped with their underline children ’ s end underline schooling.

Apostrophes to Form Contractions

Contractions are common in speech and in informal writing. Use an apostrophe in contractions:

When I say I underline can ’ t end underline , I mean I underline won ’ t end underline . underline It ’ s end underline the best option under the circumstances. “ underline You ’ re end underline the best friend anyone can have,” Mikayla said. underline They ’ re end underline driving to their favorite hangout spot.

Common Apostrophe Errors

Apostrophes are not used to form plural nouns, singular verbs, or personal or relative pronouns.

Not in Plural Nouns

How many hotel underline rooms end underline [not room’s ] should be reserved for the wedding? The Lewises and the Riveras [not Lewis’s and Rivera’s or Lewis’ and Riveras’ ] have confirmed their reservations.

Not with Verbs Ending in -s

Nikki underline runs end underline [not run’s ] every day. Jamal underline walks end underline [not walk’s ] to work.

Not with Possessive Personal Pronouns or Relative Pronouns

The book is underline yours end underline [not your’s ]. The dog was barking and wagging underline its end underline [not it’s ] tail. underline Whose end underline [not who’s ] apartment is this?

Other Punctuation

The semicolon joins main clauses (a clause that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence). A semicolon is also used to separate items in a series that contain commas.

Use a semicolon to join main clauses that are closely related in meaning and that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so ).

Originally built in 1928, the school had been remodeled multiple times underline ; end underline the result was an architectural mashup.

Use a semicolon to join main clauses that are connected by a transitional word or phrase such as for example, however, therefore, indeed, or after all :

The governor has proposed increased funding to K-12 public schools underline ; however, end underline the legislature must approve the budget.

Use a semicolon between items in a series that contain internal commas:

The candidates for the award are Michael, who won the essay competition ; Sasha, the top debater; and Giselle, who directed several student productions.

A colon introduces lists, summaries, and quotations. A colon also separates titles from subtitles.

A colon can introduce a list:

Successful athletes have the following qualities underline : physical ability, mental toughness, commitment, and optimism end underline .

A colon can also introduce a summary or an explanation, which may or may not be a main clause (a clause that contains a subject and a predicate and can stand alone as a sentence):

The team had one goal left before the end of the season underline : to win the state championship end underline .

Book titles often include a subtitle. A colon separates the subtitle from the title:

Forcing the Spring : Inside the Fight for Marriage Equality

End Punctuation

A sentence ends with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point.

A period ends declarative (statement) and imperative (command) sentences:

The administration canceled classes . Do not attempt to drive to school this morning .

A question mark ends a direct question and indicates uncertainty in dates:

Where is Times Square ? She asked, “What time is it ? ”

An exclamation point ends an emphatic or emotional sentence:

“What a mess ! ” she blurted out. “Stop ! That hurts ! ” he shouted.

Dashes and Parentheses

Dashes and parentheses enclose nonessential information in a sentence.

Use a dash or dashes to set off nonessential information, to indicate a contrast or a pause, or to mark a change of direction.

We did not notice the rain at first — it began so softly — but soon we were soaked. Nothing is as exciting as seeing a snowy owl in a winter farm field — except maybe seeing two snowy owls.

Use parentheses to enclose nonessential information such as explanations, asides, examples, and dates.

He graduated with high honors ( magna cum laude ) and found a job immediately. The city of Madison ( home of the University of Wisconsin ) is the state capital of Wisconsin.

H 10 . Mechanics

Capital letters.

Use capital letters in the following situations.

• Capitalize the first word of a sentence: The weather is rainy today.
• Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives: Monday, New Orleans, Mexico, Florida, Halloween, United States Constitution, Department of Education, University of Texas, Native American, Islam, Italian, Freudian.
• Capitalize titles that precede a person’s name: Dr. Atul Gawande, Senator Tammy Baldwin. [But: Atul Gawande, a doctor; Tammy Baldwin, a senator]

Many online resources, such as this one , list words that should be capitalized. You can also consult a dictionary, such as Merriam-Webster , to determine whether to capitalize a word.

Titles of Works

Titles of books, articles, stories, plays, poems, films, and other works are handled differently depending on the documentation style you are using. The guidelines here follow MLA style.

Capitalization in Titles and Subtitles

Capitalize the first and last words in a title and subtitle and other important words. Do not capitalize articles ( a, an, the ), coordinating conjunctions ( for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so ), or prepositions ( above, with, of, in, through, beyond, under ) unless they are the first or last words in the title or subtitle.

• Forcing the Spring: Inside the Fight for Marriage Equality (book)
• Judas and the Black Messiah (film)
• “American Military Performance in Vietnam: Background and Analysis” (article)

Italics for Titles of Long Works

Use italics for long works that are published, produced, or released separately from other works. These include books, long poems, plays, movies, videos, published speeches, periodicals (newspapers, magazines, and academic and professional journals), websites, long musical works, works of visual art, computer software, TV or radio programs and series, and pamphlets.

• Four Fish: The Future of the Last Wild Food (book)
• The New Yorker (periodical)
• The Los Angeles Times (newspaper)
• American Idiot (album)
• Parasite (film)
• Saturday Night Live (TV program)

Quotation Marks for Titles of Shorter Works

Put quotation marks around the titles and subtitles of individual shorter works or those that are published or released within larger works. These include articles in periodicals (newspapers, magazines, and academic and professional journals), pages or works on a website, short stories, short poems, essays, songs, episodes of TV or radio programs and series, book chapters, and unpublished speeches.

• “Living with a Visionary” (article in a magazine)
• “A World of Fields and Fences” (work on a website)
• “New York Day Women” (short story)
• “Corson’s Inlet” (short poem)
• “Return from ISIS” (TV episode)

H 11 . Quotations

A quotation reproduces the exact written or spoken words of a person or an author, which may include a group. (See Editing Focus: Quotations for a related discussion of direct quotations and Editing Focus: Integrating Sources and Quotations for help with integrating quotations from sources.)

Quotations from Written or Spoken Sources

Put quotation marks around quotations from a written or spoken source.

Quoting a Source

When quoting the words of a source, introduce quoted material with a signal phrase so that readers know the source and purpose of the quotation. Place the quotation inside double quotation marks. When using parenthetical citations, note that the sentence period comes after the parentheses. If you include the author’s name in your signal phrase, give only the page number in parentheses (first example). If you do not give the author’s name in your signal phrase, give the name in parentheses (second example):

In Walden , Thoreau sets forth one individual’s antidote against the “ lives of quiet desperation ” led by the working class in mid-nineteenth-century America (5).

Walden sets forth one individual’s antidote against the “ lives of quiet desperation ” led by the working class in mid-nineteenth-century America (Thoreau 5).

Abraham Lincoln wrote “ that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth ” in his Gettysburg Address.

Quoting or Writing Dialogue

When quoting or writing dialogue between speakers, including characters in a fictional work, place their words in double quotation marks, and start a new paragraph for each speaker:

“ It’s good to see you—I guess, ” Brayden said, as Christopher walked up to the door. “ I thought you were gone for good. ” “ I missed you too much, ” Christopher said, looking down at his feet.

Single and Double Quotation Marks

Put single quotation marks around a quotation within a quotation, using double quotation marks around the full quotation:

Kennedy writes that after a year of teambuilding work, including improvements in communication, evaluation, and small-group quarterly meetings, morale among staff members “ improved from ‘ average ’ to ‘ excellent ’ ” (17).

Long Quotations

Introduce a long quotation (four typed lines in MLA style; 40 or more words in APA style) with a signal phrase that names the author and ends with a colon. Indent this entire block quotation one-half inch. If you quote more than one paragraph, indent the first line of each subsequent paragraph one-half inch. Do not use quotation marks. Note that the sentence period comes before the parenthetical citation:

In her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull-House , reformer Jane Addams recounts vivid stories of child labor:

public domain text The visits we made in the neighborhood constantly discovered women sewing upon sweatshop work, and often they were assisted by incredibly small children. I remember a little girl of four who pulled out basting threads hour after hour, sitting on a stool at the feet of her Bohemian mother, a little bunch of human misery. For even for that there was no legal redress, for the only child labor law in Illinois, with any provision for enforcement, had been secured by the coal miners’ unions, and was confined to the children employed in the mines. (199) end public domain text

Poetry Quotations

When you quote one, two, or three lines from a poem, use the following format, putting quotation marks around the line or group of lines and separating the lines with a slash:

The 17th-century writer Aphra Behn (1640–1689) wrote humorous poems about love and heartbreak, including “Love’s Power,” which opens with “ Love when he Shoots abroad his Darts / Regards not where they light ” (1-2).

When you quote more than three lines from a poem, set them off from your text. Indent the quotation one-half inch, and do not use quotation marks. Note that the sentence period comes before the parenthetical citation.

In the poem “The Character,” Aphra Behn (1640–1689) uses the familiar alternate rhyme scheme, also known as ABAB: Such Charms of Youth, such Ravishment Through all her Form appear’d, As if in her Creation Nature meant, She shou’d a-lone be ador’d and fear’d. (1-4)

Altering Quotations

When you alter a quotation to fit into your sentence, you must indicate the change you made.

An ellipsis [. . .] indicates that you have omitted words from a quotation. In the example below, the writer omitted words from the middle of the sentence.

In her memoir, Twenty Years at Hull-House , reformer Jane Addams explains that there were no enforceable laws against small children helping their mothers with sweatshop sewing work, and that “the only child labor law in Illinois . . . had been secured by the coal miners’ unions, and was confined to the children employed in the mines” (199).

If you omit the end of a sentence or a complete sentence, include the sentence period:

The author explains as follows: “Damage to the Broca’s area of the brain can affect a person’s ability to comprehend spoken language . . . . A person may understand speech relatively well when the sentence grammar is simple and the content familiar but may struggle when the grammar and content are more complex” (Hollar-Zwick 45).

Use brackets [ ] to indicate a change you have made to a quotation:

Abruzzi cited the study, noting that “ [ t ] he results provide hope to patients [ with muscular dystrophy ] .”

Punctuating Quotations

Place the period inside quotation marks if no source is cited:

The meteorologist said, “ Today’s weather will be sunny and mild .”

If you are citing a source in parentheses, place the quotation marks at the end of the quotation, followed by the citation and the sentence period:

In Twenty Years at Hull-House , Jane Addams recalls vivid images of child labor: “ I remember a little girl of four who pulled out basting threads hour after hour, sitting on a stool at the feet of her Bohemian mother, a little bunch of human misery ” (199) .

(See Long Quotations and Poetry Quotations above for exceptions to this rule.)

Commas go inside quotation marks:

“ Tomorrow’s weather will be cool and rainy ,” the meteorologist said.

Colons and Semicolons

Colons and semicolons go outside quotation marks:

The sign read “ Closed ”: No more films would be shown at the theater. (Note: Use a capital letter if a complete sentence follows the colon.)

Question Marks and Exclamation Points

Question marks and exclamation points go inside quotation marks if they are part of the quotation:

“ Would you like a sandwich ?” asked Adelaide.

Question marks and exclamation points go outside quotation marks if they are not part of the quotation:

“I can’t believe you haven’t read “ The Lottery ”!

H 12 . Index and Guide to Documentation

Although formal differences exist among the conventions for documenting sources, the underlying principle of all documentation systems is the same: When borrowing words, facts, or ideas from someone else, writers must indicate that the material is borrowed. They do this by providing a citation in the text of their paper that points readers to detailed publication information about the source of the material, usually at the end of the paper but sometimes in footnotes. The following examples are in MLA style:

Citation in the Text Describing Martin Luther King, Jr.’s visit to India, underline Isabel Wilkerson end underline notes that King was taken aback by the suggestion that Black Americans were the equivalent of the Dalits in the Indian caste system underline (22) end underline . Works-Cited Entry Wilkerson, Isabel. Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents. Penguin, 2020.

Documentation Styles by Discipline

Each discipline has its own authority or authorities that provide rules about issues such as spelling of technical terms, preferred punctuation, and editing mechanics, as well as documentation style. In addition, if you write for publication in a magazine, professional journal, book, or website, the publisher will have a “house” style, which may vary in some details from the conventions listed in the authoritative guidelines for the discipline in which you are writing. Below are the sources of style manuals for various disciplines. Always check with your instructor about which style to use in a class.

Index to MLA Documentation Models

The models, listed numerically, provide examples of in-text citations and works-cited entries (MLA). The models themselves are located in Handbook Section 13 (H13).

In-Text Citation Models

• Two or more works by the same author
• Two authors
• Three or more authors
• Authors with the same last name
• Organization, government, corporation, or association as author
• Unknown author
• Work in more than one volume
• Work with no page or other reference numbers
• One-page or entire work
• Source quoted in another source (indirect quotation)

Poetry and verse plays

Fiction and prose plays

• Two or more works in the same citation
• Sacred text

Endnotes and Footnotes (MLA)

Format of the list of works cited (mla), authors and contributors (mla).

• Book: one author
• Book: two authors
• Book: three or more authors
• Book: two or more works by the same author
• Author and editor
• Author and translator
• Author and illustrator
• Work by an organization, a government, a corporation, or an association

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers (MLA)

• Basic format for a journal article in a database
• Editorial or letter to the editor

Books and Parts of Books (MLA)

• Basic entry for a book
• Book, anthology, or collection with an editor
• Work in an anthology or chapter in an edited collection
• Two or more works in an anthology or edited collection
• Revised or later edition
• Multivolume work
• One volume of a multivolume work
• Book in a series
• Republished work
• Introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword
• Published letter
• Conference paper

Websites and Parts of Websites (MLA)

• Basic format for a short work or page on a website
• Short work or page on a website
• Entire website

Social Media (MLA)

• Basic format for a social media post
• Social media post
• Online forum post
• Online comment

Personal Communication (MLA)

• Text message
• Personal letter

Video, Audio, and Other Media Sources (MLA)

• Online video

Original work

Reproduction

Personal interview

• Video game, software, or app

Other Sources (MLA)

• Live lecture, speech, address, or reading
• Live performance
• Letter in an archive
• Dissertation

Index to APA Documentation Models

The models, listed numerically, provide examples of in-text citations and reference entries (APA). The models themselves are located in Handbook Section 14 (H14).

In-Text Citation Models (APA)

• Work with no page numbers
• Entire work
• Personal communication

Format of the References List (APA)

Authors (apa).

• Three to twenty authors

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers (APA)

• Basic format for an article in an academic journal

Without DOI or URL

Database or print

• Published interview

Books and Parts of Books (APA)

• Print book or e-book
• Article in an edited book, anthology, or collection
• Translated or reprinted book
• Revised edition
• Report or publication by a government agency or other organization

Web Sources (APA)

• Basic format for a page or work on a website
• Page or work on a website

Social Media (APA)

Video, audio, and other media sources (apa).

• Music recording
• Painting or other visual artwork
• Map, photograph, or other visual

H 13 . MLA Documentation and Format

MLA style is the preferred form for documenting research sources in English and other humanities disciplines. The following are general features of MLA style:

• All material borrowed from sources is cited in the text of a paper by the author’s name and page number (if available).
• A works-cited list at the end of a paper provides full publication data for each source cited in the text of the paper.
• Additional explanatory information provided by the writer (but not from external sources) goes in either footnotes or endnotes. These notes are optional.

The instruction in this section follows the MLA Handbook , 8th edition (2016). For more information on MLA style, see this site . For examples of student papers in the textbook using MLA documentation style, see Section 4 in Chapters 5, 7, 9, 12, and 16.

MLA In-Text Citations

In-text citations feature author names, page numbers, and sometimes titles, depending on what information is available. The Index located in H12 provides a listing of the models that are included below.

1. One author

When you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, include the last name of the source’s author, if known, in a signal phrase or in parentheses at the end of your sentence. Provide the page or pages on which the original material appeared. Do not include the word page or the abbreviations p. or pp. Use a hyphen [-] to indicate a number range (See Spotlight on … Citation for more on quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing sources):

Becker points out that Joe Biden’s views on same-sex marriage changed during a personal visit to a family while he was vice president (285-86). While he was vice president, Joe Biden’s views on same-sex marriage changed during a personal visit with a family (Becker 285-86).

2. Two or more works by the same author

If you cite two or more works by the same author in your paper, give the title of the specific work in your sentence or a short version of the title in parentheses:

According to Lewis Thomas in Lives of a Cell , many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins (76). According to Lewis Thomas, many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins ( Lives 76). Many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins (Thomas, Lives 76).

See Model 18 for how to cite two works by the same author in the works-cited list.

3. Two authors

If you cite a work with two authors, include both authors’ names in a signal phrase or in parentheses:

In the preface to Half the Sky , Kristof and WuDunn explain their focus on the issues of sex trafficking and sex work, violence against women, and maternal mortality (xxi). In the preface to Half the Sky , the authors explain their focus on the issues of sex trafficking and sex work, violence against women, and maternal mortality (Kristof and WuDunn xxi).

4. Three or more authors

For works with more than two authors, give the last name of the first author followed by “et al.”:

Of the survey respondents, twenty-two percent described themselves as concerned about future job prospects (Pronkowski et al. 9).

5. Authors with the same last name

When authors of different sources have the same last name, include their initials:

Since the legalization of marijuana for recreational use, frequent use among adults has risen (J. T. Greene 21; M. Greene 30).

6. Organization, government, corporation, or association as author

When no author is given for a work published by a corporation, a government, an organization, or an association, indicate the group’s name in a signal phrase or in parentheses:

The United States Forest Service describes its mission as “sustain[ing] the health, diversity, and productivity of the nation’s forests and grasslands to meet the needs of present and future generations” (8).

7. Unknown author

When the author of a work is unknown, use the work’s title in a signal phrase or a shortened version of the title in parentheses and a page number if available. Put quotation marks around article titles, and put book or journal titles in italics:

In a pointed 2020 editorial, “Don’t Let the Games Begin,” The New York Times argued that college athletic departments should support public health by canceling sports seasons until athletes and the public were vaccinated. In a pointed 2020 editorial, The New York Times argued that college athletic departments should support public health by canceling sports seasons until athletes and the public were vaccinated (“Don’t Let”).

8. Work in more than one volume

If you cite only one volume of a multivolume work, give the page number in parentheses. If you cite more than one volume of a multivolume work, give the volume number for each citation before the page number, and follow it with a colon and one space:

Hill notes that Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Adventure of the Dancing Men was first published in the Strand Magazine and later in Collier’s Weekly (1: 332).

9. Work with no page or other reference numbers

When the work has no page numbers, give the author’s name in a signal phrase or in parentheses. If the source has paragraph, chapter, or section numbers, use them with the abbreviations par., ch., or sec. :

Chen reports that the number of Americans seeking help with mental health rose during the pandemic that began in 2020. (ch. 2) The number of Americans seeking help with mental health rose during the pandemic that began in 2020 (Chen, ch. 2).

For an audio or a video recording, give the start and stop times for the segment you are citing shown on the player in hours (if available), minutes, and seconds:

It is well known that maternity leave is available in countries around the world, including Norway, which popularized its policy in a comic YouTube video showing a pregnant woman on skis announcing the start of her one-year paid leave (01:48-02:07).

10. One-page work or entire work

When you cite a work that is one page long or an entire work, such as a book, website, single-page article, tweet, video, or film, you do not need to cite a page or give a reference number:

In Da 5 Bloods, director Spike Lee connects the Civil Rights movement to the war in Vietnam through the music, montages of the era, and characters’ stories.

11. Source quoted in another source (indirect quotation)

When a quotation or any information in your source is originally from another source, try to track down the original source. If you cannot find it, use the abbreviation “qtd. in”:

The group, which has researched global health including access to food, sounded the alarm about a potential “worldwide food crisis” in the early 2000s (qtd. in Sing 32).

12. Literary works

For poems, provide line numbers for reference, and include line or lines in the first reference:

In “The Character,” Aphra Behn describes a lovely young woman, starting with her eyes: “Her Eyes all sweet, and languishingly move” (line 4).

Cite verse plays using act, scene, and line numbers, separated by periods: ( Hamlet 4.4.31-39)

When citing a prose literary work available in various editions, provide additional information after the page number, such as the chapter, act, or scene number, for readers who may be consulting a different edition. Use a semicolon to separate the page number from this additional information: (331; ch. 5) or (78; act 2).

13. Two or more works in the same citation

When you cite more than one work in parentheses, use a semicolon between them:

Americans who resisted or ignored civil defense are often portrayed as heroic people who chose not to build fallout shelters or as marginalized people who could not afford them (Garrison 57; Mechling and Mechling 109).

14. Sacred text

When you cite passages from the Bible or another sacred text such as the Qur’an, give the title of the edition you are consulting the first time you refer to it. Then give the book (abbreviate the title if it is longer than four letters), chapter, and verse, separated by periods:

Several times in the New Testament of the Bible, Jesus comments on wealth, telling his disciples, “And again I say unto you, It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God” ( King James Version, Matt. 19.24).

Endnotes and Footnotes

Writers use notes to offer comments, explanations, or additional information that cannot easily be integrated into the rest of a paper. Use notes to cite several sources within a single context if a series of in-text citations will detract from the readability of the text.

Text with Superscript

The standard ingredients for guacamole include avocados, lemon juice, onion, tomatoes, coriander, salt, and pepper. 1 Hurtado’s poem, however, gives this traditional dish a whole new twist.

1. For variations see Beard 314, Egerton 197, Eckhardt 92, and Kafka 26. Beard’s version, which includes olives and green peppers, is the most unusual.

A note may be placed as a footnote at the bottom of the page on which the in-text citation appears or on a separate page of endnotes at the end of the paper. This should be titled “Notes” or “Endnotes” and appear between the last page of the paper and the works-cited list. Include all sources given in notes in the works-cited list.

MLA Works Cited

Each source cited in the text of your paper refers readers to the list of works cited, a complete list of all the sources you quoted, paraphrased, or summarized. Every source cited in the text of your paper must be included in the works-cited list, and every source in the works-cited list must be cited in the text of your paper.

After the last page of the paper, start a new page with the centered title “Works Cited” at the top. Create an entry for each source using the following guidelines and examples:

• Begin each entry at the left margin, and indent subsequent lines one-half inch. (In Microsoft Word, you can also highlight the entire page when you are finished and select “Hanging” from the Special options on the Indentation section of the Paragraph menu.)
• Alphabetize the entries according to authors’ last names. If two or more authors have the same last name, alphabetize by first name or initial. Alphabetize sources with unknown authors by the first word of the title, excluding a, an, or the.
• Double-space the entire page.

Core Elements (MLA)

Each entry in the list of works cited consists of core elements:

• Author. Who is responsible for the work?
• Title. What is the work called?

Publication information. Where can the work be found so that others can consult it? Publication information includes the date of publication and any larger work, which MLA calls a “container,” in which a shorter work is published, such as a journal, magazine, newspaper, database, streaming service, and so on.

A note on access dates. Although access dates for online sources are not required, MLA acknowledges that an access date can indicate the version of a source you consulted. If you add an access date, place it at the end of the works-cited entry in this format: “Accessed 4 Apr. 2020.” Ask your instructors whether they require access dates.

Authors and Contributors for Books and Articles (MLA)

• Authors. Give the author’s last name, a comma, the author’s first name and any middle name or middle initial, and then a period. For works with more than one author, an organization as an author, or an unknown author, see the models below.
• Contributors. People who contributed to the work in addition to the author are called contributors. Refer to them by their role in a phrase such as “adapted by,” “directed by,” “edited by,” “illustrated by,” “introduction by,” “narrated by,” “performance by,” and “translated by.” (See Models 19, 20, 21, 30, and 58 for examples.)

15. Book: one author

Sotomayor, Sonia. My Beloved World. Vintage Books, 2013.

16. Book: two authors

Kristoff, Nicholas D., and Sheryl WuDunn. Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide. Alfred A. Knopf, 2009.

17. Book: three or more authors

Barlow, David H., et al. Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach. 8th ed., Cengage Learning, 2017.

18. Book: two or more works by the same author

When you cite two works by the same author, use three hyphens in place of the author’s name, and alphabetize the works by title:

Trethewey, Natasha. Memorial Drive: A Daughter’s Memoir. Ecco, 2020.

---. Native Guard: Poems. Mariner Books, 2007.

19. Book author and editor

Add the editor’s name after the title:

Hemingway, Ernest. Conversations with Ernest Hemingway , edited by Matthew J. Bruccoli, UP of Mississippi, 1986.

20. Book author and translator

Add the translator’s name after the title:

Ferrante, Elena. My Brilliant Friend. Translated by Ann Goldstein, Europa Editions, 2012.

If you are citing the work of the translator, place the translator’s name in the author position:

Goldstein, Ann, translator. My Brilliant Friend. By Elena Ferrante, Europa Editions, 2012.

21. Book author and illustrator

Add the illustrator’s name after the title. If you are citing the work of the illustrator, place the illustrator’s name in the author position, as shown in the preceding example:

Fasler, Joe. Light in the Dark: Writers on Creativity, Inspiration, and the Artistic Process. Illustrated by Doug McLean, Penguin Books, 2017.

22. Work by an organization, a government, a corporation, or an association

If the author and publisher are not the same, start with the author:

United States Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration. Healthy Living Resource Guide. Government Printing Office, 2020.

If the author and the publisher are the same, give the title of the work in place of the author, and list the organization as the publisher:

MLA Handbook. 8th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2016.

“This Is Who We Are.” U.S. Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Mar. 2019, www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/This-is-Who-We-Are.pdf.

23. Unknown author

If no author is given, start with the title.

“The Most Beautiful Battalion in the Army.” Grunt Magazine , 1968, pp. 12-15.

Articles, reviews, editorials, and other short works are published in journals, newspapers, and magazines. They appear in print, on databases, and on websites (though often through a paywall). As a student, you are likely to access many articles and other short research sources primarily through databases available through your library.

24. Basic format for a journal article in a database

Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal , volume number, issue number, Date of Publication, page numbers. Title of Database , DOI or URL.

• Author. Give the last name, a comma, the first name, and any middle name or initial. Do not list an author’s professional title, such as Dr . or PhD . End with a period.
• Title of the article. Give the full title and any subtitle, separating them with a colon. Capitalize all significant words in the title. Put the title of the article in quotation marks. End with a period inside the closing quotation mark.
• Title of the journal. Put the title of the journal in italics. Capitalize all significant words in the title. End the title with a comma.
• Volume and issue numbers. Use the abbreviations vol. and no. followed by the number and a comma.
• Publication date. Give the month or season and the year of publication, if available. Use the following abbreviations for months: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., and Dec. Do not abbreviate May, June, or July.
• Page numbers. Give p . (singular) or pp. (plural) and the page number or numbers of the article, followed by a period.
• Title of the database. Put the database title in italics, followed by a comma.
• Location. Give a DOI if available, and end with a period. If there is no DOI, give a URL, preferably a permalink, without http://.

25. Article in an academic journal

Daddis, Gregory A. “Out of Balance: Evaluating American Strategy in Vietnam, 1968–72.” War & Society, vol. 32, no. 3, Oct. 2013, pp. 252-70. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1179/0729247313Z.00000000026.

Daddis, Gregory A. “Out of Balance: Evaluating American Strategy in Vietnam, 1968–72.” War & Society, vol. 32, no. 3, Oct. 2013, pp. 252-70.

Squires, Scot. “Do Generations Differ When It Comes to Green Values and Products?” Electronic Green Journal, no. 42, 2019, escholarship.org/uc/item/6f91213q.

The journal in the example numbers issues only, so no volume number is given.

26. Article in a weekly or biweekly magazine

To cite an article in a weekly or biweekly magazine, give the author, title of the article, title of the magazine, publication date (day, month, year), and page numbers. If you found the article through a database, add the title of the database and a DOI or URL. If you found the article online, add the URL.

Sanneh, Kelefa. “The Color of Money.” The New Yorker, 8 Feb. 2021, pp. 26-31. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=aph&AN=148411685&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Sanneh, Kelefa. “The Color of Money.” The New Yorker, 8 Feb. 2021, pp. 26-31.

Ferrer, Ada. “My Brother’s Keeper.” The New Yorker, 22 Feb. 2021, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/03/01/my-brothers-keeper.

27. Article in a monthly or bimonthly magazine

To cite an article in a monthly or bimonthly magazine, give the author, title of the article, title of the magazine, publication month and year, and page numbers. If you found the article through a database, add the title of the database and a DOI or URL. If you found the article online, add the URL.

Sneed, Annie. “Giant Shape-Shifters.” Scientific American, Sept. 2017, pp. 20-22. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1017-20.

Sneed, Annie. “Giant Shape-Shifters.” Scientific American, Sept. 2017, pp. 20-22.

Stewart, Jamila. “A Look Inside the Black Designers of Canada Initiative.” Essence, July 2020, www.essence.com/fashion/black-designers-of-canada-digital-index/.

To cite a comment on an article, see Model 54.

28. Article in a newspaper

To cite an article in a newspaper, give the author, title of the article, title of the newspaper, publication date (day, month, year), and the page numbers. If you found the article through a database, add the title of the database and a DOI or a URL. If you found the article online, add the URL.

Krueger, Alyson. “When Mom Knows Best, on Instagram.” The New York Times, 27 Nov. 2019, pp. B1-B4. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType =aph&AN=139891108&site=ehost-live&scope=site.

Krueger, Alyson. “When Mom Knows Best, on Instagram.” The New York Times, 27 Nov. 2019, pp. B1-B4.

Smith, Doug. “They’re Building Affordable Housing for the Homeless—Without Government Help.” Los Angeles Times, 10 Feb. 2021, www.latimes.com/california/story/2021-02-10/theyre-building-affordable-housing-for-the-homeless-without-government-help.

29. Editorial or letter to the editor

An editorial may or may not have an author’s name attached to it. If it does, give the author’s name first. If it does not, start with the title. In both situations, add the designation Editorial or Letter to the Editor after the title.

“For Better Elections, Copy the Neighbors.” Editorial. The Wall Street Journal, 16 Feb. 2021, www.wsj.com/articles/for-better-elections-copy-the-neighbors-11613518448.

To cite a review of a book, film, television show, or other work, give the name of the reviewer and title of the review, add Review of before the title of work being reviewed, and give the name of the work’s author, director, or creator after the title.

Girish, Devika. “Refocusing the Lens on Race and Gender.” Review of Test Pattern, directed by Shatara Michelle Ford. The New York Times, 18 Feb. 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/02/18/movies/test-pattern-review.html.

Use the following guidelines for books and parts of books, such as a selection from an anthology, an article in a collection, a published letter, and so on.

31. Basic entry for a book

Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year of Publication.

• Author. Give the last name, a comma, the first name, and any middle name or initial. Do not list an author’s professional title, such as Dr. or PhD. End with a period.
• Title of the book. Put the book’s title in italics. Give the full title and any subtitle, separating them with a colon. Capitalize all significant words in the title, even if the book’s cover does not use conventional capitalization. End the title with a period.
• Publisher. List the publisher’s name without words such as “Inc.” or “Company.” Shorten “University Press” to “UP.” End with a comma.
• Year of publication. Provide the publication date, and end with a period.

32. Print book

Wilkerson, Isabel. The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration. Vintage Books, 2010.

33. E-book formatted for a specific reader device or service

Wilkerson, Isabel. The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration. Kindle ed., Vintage Books, 2010.

34. Book, anthology, or collection with an editor

Add the abbreviation ed. or eds. (if more than one) after the editor’s first name:

Lunsford, Andrea, ed. Reclaiming Rhetorica: Women in the Rhetorical Tradition. U of Pittsburgh P, 1995.

35. Work in an anthology or chapter in an edited collection

After the author and title of the work, give the title of the anthology or edited collection, name of the editor, publication information, and page numbers of the work:

Royster, Jacqueline Jones. “To Call a Thing by Its True Name: The Rhetoric of Ida B. Wells.” Reclaiming Rhetorica: Women in the Rhetorical Tradition, edited by Andrea Lunsford, U of Pittsburgh P, 1995, pp. 167-84.

36. Two or more works in an anthology or edited collection

When you cite two or more selections from the same anthology or edited collection, list the anthology separately under the editor’s name. In the entries for the selections you cite, include the editor’s name and the page numbers on which the selections appear:

Lipscomb, Drema R. “Sojourner Truth: A Practical Public Discourse.” Lunsford, pp. 227-46.

Royster, Jacqueline Jones. “To Call a Thing by Its True Name: The Rhetoric of Ida B. Wells.” Lunsford, pp. 167-84.

37. Revised or later edition

For a book published in an edition other than the first, give the edition number after the title:

Strunk, William, Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style, 4th ed., Pearson, 2019.

38. Multivolume work

For a book published in more than one volume, give the total number of volumes after the title:

Klinger, Leslie S. The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes. 2 vols., W. W. Norton, 2005.

39. One volume of a multivolume work

Klinger, Leslie S. The New Annotated Sherlock Holmes. Vol. 2, W. W. Norton, 2005.

When each volume of a multivolume set has an individual title, list the volume’s full publication information first, followed by series information (number of volumes, dates). When separate volumes were published in different years, give inclusive dates:

Churchill, Winston S. Triumph and Tragedy. Houghton Mifflin, 1953. Vol. 6 of The Second World War. 6 vols. 1948-53.

However, if the volume you are using has its own title, you may cite the book without referring to the other volumes as if it were an independent publication.

40. Book in a series

Add the title of the series at the end of the entry:

Thaiss, Christopher. Language across the Curriculum in the Elementary Grades. WAC Clearinghouse, 2011, wac.colostate.edu/books/landmarks/thaiss/. Landmark Publications in Writing Studies.

41. Republished book

Give the original publication date after the title and the date the book was republished after the publisher:

Evans, Elizabeth E. G. The Abuse of Maternity. 1875. Arno, 1974.

42. Sacred text

Give the complete title of the version you consulted followed by the name of the editor and/or translator, the edition, the publisher, and the publication date:

The Bible. Authorized King James Version . Edited by Robert Carroll and Stephen Prickett, Oxford UP, 2008.

The Koran. Translated by N. J. Dawood, rev. ed., Penguin Books, 2015.

43. Introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword

Start with the author of the introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword, followed by a description of the work you are citing, such as “Foreword.” Give the author of the work after the title:

Offill, Jenny. Foreword. Mrs. Dalloway, by Virginia Woolf, Penguin Classics, 2021, pp. vii-xiv.

44. Published letter

Roosevelt, Theodore. Letter to Upton Sinclair. 15 Mar. 1906. Theodore Roosevelt: Letters and Speeches, edited by Louis Auchincloss, 2004, pp. 310-11.

45. Conference paper

Killi, Stainer, and Andrew Morrison. “Could the Food Market Pull 3D Printing Appetites Further?” Industry 4.0—Shaping the Future of the Digital World: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sustainable & Smart Manufacturing, edited by Paulo Bartolo et al., CRC Press, 2021, pp. 197-203.

Use the following guidelines for works that are published only online and do not have an overarching publication, such as a journal, newspaper, magazine, or database.

46. Basic format for a short work or page on a website

Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Short Work.” Title of Website, Publisher, Publication Date, URL.

• Author. Give the last name, a comma, the first name, and any middle name or initial. Do not list an author’s professional title, such as Dr . or PhD. End with a period.
• Title of the short work. Put the title in quotation marks. Give the full title and any subtitle, separating them with a colon. Capitalize all significant words in the title. End with a period inside the closing quotation mark.
• Title of the website. Put the title of the website in italics. Capitalize all significant words in the title. End the title with a comma.
• Publisher. If the publisher of the website is different from the title of the website (as shown in Model 48), give it next, followed by a comma. If they are the same (as shown in Model 47), give only the title of the website.
• Publication date. Give the day, month, and year the work was posted, if available. Use the following abbreviations for months: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., and Dec. Do not abbreviate May, June, and July.
• URL. Give the URL, without “http://.”

47. Short work or page on a website

Shetterly, Margot Lee. “Katherine Johnson Biography.” NASA , 24 Feb. 2020, www.nasa.gov/content/katherine-johnson-biography.

If the source you are citing has no author listed, start with the title. If the page has no title, give the name of the site and a descriptive label, such as “Home page” or “Blog post.”

48. Blog post

Blazich, Frank A. “The Cold Morning of the Day After.” Smithsonian Voices , Smithsonian Magazine, 5 Feb. 2021, www.smithsonianmag.com/blogs/national-museum-american-history/2021/02/05/cold-morning-day-after/.

49. Entire website

Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Yale U, 2021, beinecke.library.yale.edu/.

If the website lists an editor, give the person’s name as you would an author, followed by a comma and ed.

“Coronavirus.” Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 22 Feb. 2021, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus.

Social media include posts made to various platforms and forums, comments made by individuals to posts, and online articles.

51. Basic format for a social media post

Author. “Text of untitled post” or “Title of post” or Descriptive label. Title of Site , Date of Post, Time of Post, URL.

• Author. Give the author’s handle and name. End with a period.
• Text, title, or description of post. Match the capitalization exactly, add quotation marks, and end with a period inside the closing quotation mark.
• Title of the social media site. Put the title of the site in italics, ending with a comma.
• Publication date and time. Give the day, month, year, and time of the post. Use the following abbreviations for months: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., and Dec. Do not abbreviate May, June, and July.

52. Social media post

@Holleratcha (James Holler). “People go out and vote tomorrow!” Twitter, 2 Nov. 2020, 2:08 p.m., twitter.com/holleratcha/status/1270432672544784384.

Death Valley National Park. “What does it mean to protect something you love?” Facebook, 23 Feb. 2021, 5:01 p.m., www.facebook.com/DeathValleyNPS/posts/4108808255810092.

See Model 54 for how to cite a comment.

53. Online forum post

@Duckpond318. “Turkeys in the arboretum.” Reddit, 15 Mar. 2021, 11:22 a.m., www.reddit.com/r/Wildlife/comments/lqlbo3/turkeys_in_the_arboretum/. Accessed 4 Feb. 2021.

54. Online comment

AKJersey. Comment on “Can We Stop Fighting about Charter Schools?” The New York Times, 22 Feb. 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/02/22/opinion/charter-schools-democrats.html#commentsContainer.

Use the following guidelines to cite email, text messages, and letters that you sent or received.

Roberts, Jeffrey. “Study results.” Received by Kenneth Berg, 21 Oct. 2020.

56. Text message

Igoe, Beverlee. Text message. Received by Alison McGrath, 2 Apr. 2020.

57. Personal letter

Atwood, Margaret. Letter to the author. 11 Mar. 2007.

Use the following guidelines to cite various media sources.

Begin with the title, followed by the director, the studio, and the year released.

Casablanca. Directed by Michael Curtiz, Warner Brothers, 1942.

You may also cite other contributors and their roles after the title (as illustrated below). If your paper is concerned with a particular person’s work on a film, such as the director, an actor, or someone else, begin with that person’s name and arrange all other information accordingly. For a film you stream, add the title of the streaming service and the URL:

Moonlight. Directed by Barry Jenkins, performances by Mahershala Ali, Naomie Harris, and Trevante Rhodes. A24, 2016. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80121348?trackId=13752289&tctx=8%2C.

59. Online video

NASA. “Apollo 11 Moonwalk – Original NASA EVA Mission Video.” 20 July 1969. YouTube, 17 July 2014, www.youtube.com/watch?v=S9HdPi9Ikhk.

60. Television series or episode

The Good Place. Michael Schur, creator. NBC, 2016-20.

Streamed TV episode

“Jason Mendoza.” The Good Place, season 1, episode 4, NBC, 2016. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/80191852?trackId=13752289&tctx=%2C%2C.

61. Advertisement

XOFLUZA. Flu medication advertisement. The New Yorker, 8. Feb. 2021, pp. 5-6.

General Motors. “Will Ferrell Super Bowl Ad.” YouTube, 3 Feb. 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdsPvbSpB2Y&t=24s.

62. Cartoon or comic

Davis, Jim. “Garfield.” Cartoon. Courier [Findlay, OH], 17 May 1996, p. 18.

If the source you cite appears in a local newspaper, as it does here, give the city and state in brackets after the name of the newspaper if the city is not part of the newspaper’s name.

Gauld, Tom. “Waiting for Godot to Join the Zoom Meeting.” You’re All Just Jealous of My Jetpack, 31 Jan. 2021, myjetpack.tumblr.com/.

63. Painting or other visual artwork

Rivera, Diego. Detroit Industry Murals. 1932-33. Detroit Institute of Art.

If the city is not part of the name of the museum, add it after museum. For example, if the work you viewed was at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, you would end the entry as follows: Museum of Modern Art, New York.

Neel, Alice. Elenka. 1936. Alice Neel: People Come First, by Kelly Baum and Randall Griffey, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2021, p. 142.

Basquiat, Jean-Michel. Untitled. 1983. Museum of Modern Art, www.moma.org/collection/works/63997?artist_id=370&page=1&sov_referrer=artist. Accessed 24 Sept. 2020.

64. Map, chart, or diagram

Everglades National Park. National Geographic Society Maps, 2019.

“Map: Expedition of Lewis and Clark.” National Park Service, 2 Jan. 2018, nps.gov/subjects/travellewisandclark/map.htm.

65. Sound recording

Sound recordings include songs, albums, and spoken word. If you stream a sound recording or watch a performance online, add the name of the streaming service, such as Spotify, Apple Music, or Amazon Music, after the date. If you access the recording online, add the name of the website and the URL after the date.

Prince. Purple Rain. Warner Brothers, 1984.

The Supremes. “Baby Love.” Where Did Our Love Go, Motown, 1964. Spotify.

Gorman, Amanda. “The Hill We Climb.” 20 Jan. 2021, YouTube, www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZ055ilIiN4.

The Road to Higher Ground. Hosted by Jonathan Overby. WPR, 9 Jan. 2021.

If you listened to the radio program online, add the URL after the date.

67. Podcast

McEvers, Kelly, host. “This Is Not a Joke.” Embedded, season 9, episode 2, NPR, 7 Nov. 2019, Apple Podcasts.

If you listened to the podcast on the web, add the URL instead of the podcast service.

68. Interview

Wilkerson, Isabel. Interview. Fresh Air, NPR, 4 Aug. 2020.

Sowell, Thomas. Interview. Hoover Institution , 3 Jan. 2015, www.wsj.com/video/uncommon-knowledge-thomas-sowell-basic-economics/51837CB6-9FF2-305AE55D179A.html.

Wong, Diana. Personal interview. 12 Sept. 2020.

69. Video game, software, or app

Houser, Dan, et al., writers. Grand Theft Auto V. Rockstar Games, 2013. Xbox 360.

70. Live lecture, speech, address, or reading

Diaz, Shanna. “Your Dazzling Brain: The Symphony of Sleep.” Community Lecture Series, University of New Mexico Health Science and the City of Albuquerque, 13 Mar. 2018, Albuquerque Academy.

71. Live performance

Hamilton. By Lin-Manuel Miranda, directed by Thomas Kail, 11 Mar. 2018, CIBC Theater, Chicago.

If you watch a video of a performance online, cite it as you would cite an online video.

72. Letter in an archive

Mucklestone, Ada. Letter to Maj. Gen. Ralph J. Olson. 6 Nov. 1958. Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison, Alphabetical Subject File, 1950-66, 1715, Box 13.

73. Dissertation

Park, Eun Jung. Korean American Artists and the 1992 Los Angeles Riots. 2013. U of California, San Diego, PhD dissertation. ProQuest, www.proquest.com/doc-view/1425303659.

Boothby, Daniel W. The Determinants of Earnings and Occupation for Young Women. 1978. U of California, Berkeley, PhD dissertation.

74. Pamphlet

“Facts about Fallout.” Civil Defense Administration, 1961.

MLA Paper Format

Follow your instructor’s formatting guidelines or those indicated here. For sample papers with MLA format and works-cited pages, visit this site .

• Margins. Use one-inch margins on all sides.
• Spacing. Double-space throughout the paper, including the works-cited page.
• Paragraph format. Indent paragraphs one-half inch.
• Page numbers. Start numbering on the first page of your paper and continue to the end of the works-cited page. Place page numbers in the upper-right corner, and add your last name before the page number: “Coleman 3.”
• Identifying information. Put your name, your instructor’s name, the course title, and the date in the left corner of the first page of the body of the paper, not in the header. Double-space this information.
• Title. Center the title on the first page. Do not use italics, boldface, all capitals, or quotation marks. Do not add extra space below the title.
• Long quotations and quotations from poetry. See Quotations for how to cite long quotations and poetry quotations.

H 14 . APA Documentation and Format

Disciplines in the social sciences—psychology, sociology, anthropology, political science, economics, social work, and often education—use the APA name-and-date system of documentation. APA style highlights authors and dates of publication because timeliness of published material is of primary importance in these disciplines. The following are general features of APA style:

• All material borrowed from sources is cited in the text of a paper by the author’s name, date of publication, and page numbers (if available).
• A list of references at the end of a paper provides full publication data for each source cited in the text of the paper.

The instruction in this section follows the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition (2020). For more information on APA style, visit this site . For examples of student papers in the textbook using APA documentation style, see Section 4 in Chapters 6, 8, and 15.

In-text citations feature author names, dates of publication, and page numbers, depending on what information is available. The Index located in H12 provides a listing of the models that are included below.

75. One author

When you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source, include the last name of the source’s author, if known, in a signal phrase or in parentheses at the end of your sentence. Give the publication date after the author’s name. Provide the page or pages on which the original material appeared preceded by p. or pp. See Spotlight on … Citation .

According to Thomas (1974), many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins (p. 76). Many bacteria become dangerous only if they manufacture exotoxins (Thomas, 1974, p. 76).

If you cite two or more works by the same author, published in the same year, use letters after the year to distinguish them: (Gallivan, 2019a, 2019b, 2019c).

76. Two authors

Smith and Hawkins (1990) confirmed that bacteria producing exotoxins are harmful to humans (p. 17). The study confirmed that bacteria producing exotoxins are harmful to humans (Smith & Hawkins, 1990, p. 17).

77. Three or more authors

The results indicate that alcohol use rose during the period of the study (Dominic et al., 2021, p. 16).

78. Authors with the same last name

When authors of different sources have the same last name, include their initials: Since the legalization of marijuana for recreational use, frequent use among adults has risen (J. T. Greene, 2019, p. 21; M. Greene, 2020, p. 30).

When authors of the same source have the same name, do not include their initials: (Kim & Kim, 2018, p. 47).

79. Organization, government, corporation, or association as author

When citing a well-known organization, government agency, corporation, or association, introduce an abbreviation of the name in the first reference and use it in subsequent references:

On multiple occasions, the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA, 2018) reported that formal efforts to reintegrate combat veterans into civilian life were beneficial.

80. Unknown author

When the author of a work is unknown, use the work’s title in a signal phrase, or put the title in parentheses. Put quotation marks around article titles, and put book or journal titles in italics:

In a pointed editorial, The New York Times argued that college athletic departments should support public health by canceling sports seasons until athletes and the public were vaccinated (”Don’t Let the Games Begin,” 2020). In its pointed editorial, “Don’t Let the Games Begin” (2020), The New York Times argued that college athletic departments should support public health by canceling sports seasons until athletes and the public were vaccinated.

81. Two or more works in the same citation

When you cite more than one work in parentheses, put the works in the same order that they appear in your list of references, and use a semicolon between them:

Americans who resisted or ignored civil defense were later cast as heroic people who chose not to build fallout shelters or as marginalized people who could not afford them (Garrison, 2006; Mechling & Mechling, 1991).

82. Work with no page numbers

If the work you are citing has no page numbers, help readers find the quotation by providing a heading, a section name, and/or a paragraph number (using the abbreviation para. or paras. ):

According to the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH, 2019), research on PTSD includes gene research and brain imaging technologies (Next Steps for PTSD Research section, para. 6).

For audio or visual works, give the time stamp of the beginning of the source: (Wong, 2020, 34:16).

83. Source quoted in another source (indirect quotation)

When a quotation or any information in your source is originally from another source, try to track down the original source. If you cannot find the original, use the words “as cited in”:

The research collective, which has studied global health including access to food, sounded the alarm about a potential “worldwide food crisis” in the early 2000s (as cited in Sing, 2018, p. 32).

84. Entire work

When you cite an entire work, you do not need to give a page number. See Models 79 and 80. When you mention an entire website, link to the website directly or give the URL. You do not need to include the website in the references list:

The Department of Veterans Affairs maintains a website for PTSD, which contains resources and help for families and healthcare providers as well as veterans (https://www.ptsd.va.gov/).

85. Personal communication

Because personal communications such as emails, letters, personal interviews, and the like cannot be found by other researchers, cite them in the text only:

During our interview, Morales explained that she had quit her job to help her children with their schooling (personal communication, January 4, 2021).

APA References

Each source cited in the text of your paper refers readers to the list of references, a complete list of all the sources you quoted, paraphrased, or summarized. Every source cited in the text of your paper must be included in the references list, and every source in the references list must be cited in the text of your paper.

After the last page of your paper, start a new page with the centered, boldfaced title References at the top. Create an entry for each source using the following guidelines and examples.

• Alphabetize the entries according to authors’ last names. If two or more authors have the same last name, alphabetize by the initials of their first and middle names. Alphabetize sources with unknown authors by the first word of the title, excluding a, an, or the.

Core Elements (APA)

Each entry in the list of references consists of core elements:

• Date of publication. When was the work published?
• Publication information. Where can the work be found so that others can consult it?

Sometimes core elements are unknown or missing. In such cases, the entry in the reference list entry must be adapted:

• No author? If the source has no known author, cite it by the title. See Models 90 and 98.
• No date of publication? If the source has no publication date, write n.d . instead of the publication date. See Model 110.
• No title? If the work has no title, put a brief description in square brackets.
• No publication information? If the source is a personal communication that only you have a record of, cite the source in your text, not in the references, because it cannot be retrieved by other readers. See “Personal communication” above.

A note on retrieval dates: APA recommends adding a retrieval date for sources that are not archived or are likely to change over time, such as a developing news story. If you add a retrieval date, place it at the end of the references entry in this format: “Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.nytimes.com.” Ask your instructors if they require retrieval dates.

Give the author’s last name, comma, and first and middle initials if available. For works with more than one author, put a comma and an ampersand (&) before the final author’s name, even when there are two authors.

86. One author

Milanovic, B. (2016). Global inequality: A new approach for the age of globalization. Harvard UP.

87. Two authors

Kristoff, N. D., & WuDunn, S. (2009). Half the sky: Turning oppression into opportunity for women worldwide. Alfred A. Knopf.

88. Three to twenty authors

Provide last names and initials for up to and including 20 authors.

Barlow, D. H., Durand, V. M., & Hofmann, S. G. (2017). Abnormal psychology: An integrative approach. Cengage Learning.

For more than 20 authors, include the first 19 authors’ names, insert an ellipsis, and then add the final author’s name.

89. Work by an organization, a government, a corporation, or an association

Works published by organizations often have the same author and publisher, which is frequently the title of a website. When the author and publisher are not the same, give the author and the title of the website:

National Institute of Mental Health. (2020). Post-traumatic stress disorder. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml.

When the author and the publisher or title of the website are the same, omit the latter:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021, February 17). Variants of the virus. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/variants/index.html.

90. Unknown author

If no author is given, start with the title:

The most beautiful battalion in the army. (1968). Grunt magazine, 12-15.

91. Two or more works by the same author

List two or more works by the same author (or the same author team listed in the same order) chronologically by year in the reference list, with the earliest first. Arrange works published in the same year alphabetically by title, placing lowercase letters after the publication dates:

Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Bandura, A. (1977a). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1977b). Social learning theory. Prentice Hall.

Articles, reviews, editorials, and other short works are published in journals, newspapers, and magazines, and they appear in print, on databases, and on websites (though often through a paywall). As a student, you are likely to access many articles and other short research sources primarily through databases available through your library.

92. Basic format for an article in an academic journal

Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Date of Publication). Title of article. Title of Journal, Volume (number), Pages. DOI or URL.

• Author. Give the last name, a comma, and the initials of the first name and middle name (if available). Do not list an author’s professional title, such as Dr. or PhD. End with a period.
• Date of Publication. In parentheses, give the year of publication, a comma, and the month or season of publication. End with a period outside the closing parentheses.
• Title of the article. Give the full title and any subtitle, separating them with a colon. For articles and book chapters, do not use quotation marks or italicize the title. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the first word of a subtitle and any proper nouns.
• Title of the journal. Put the journal title in italics. Capitalize all significant words in the title. End the title with a comma.
• Volume and issue numbers. Italicize the volume number, and follow it with the issue number in parentheses (not italicized). End with a comma.
• Page numbers. Give inclusive page numbers without p. or pp . End with a period.
• DOI or URL. Provide a DOI (if available) or a URL. Include “http://,” and do not add a period at the end. The preferred format for a DOI is “https://doi.org/” followed by the number. You may encounter older formats for DOI; if so, change them to this format. If the article is online and does not have a DOI, give the URL instead.

93. Article in an academic journal

Gawande, A. A. (2017, April). It’s time to adopt electronic prescriptions for opioids. Annals of Surgery, 265 (4), 693-94. https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0000000000002133

Squires, S. (2019). Do generations differ when it comes to green values and products? Electronic Green Journal, 42 . http://escholarship.org/uc/item/6f91213q

The online journal in the example numbers issues only, so no volume number or page numbers are given.

Lowther, M. A. (1977, Winter). Career change in mid-life: Its impact on education. Innovator, 8 (7), 9-11.

An older journal article you consult in print may not have a DOI. In that case, end with the page numbers.

94. Article in a magazine

For a magazine article you read on a database or online, give the DOI if the article has one; otherwise give the URL. For a magazine article you consulted in print, end the entry after the page number unless a DOI is provided.

Sneed, A. (2017, September 19). Giant shape-shifters. Scientific American, 317 (4), 20. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican1017-20

Sneed, A. (2017, September 19). Giant shape-shifters. Scientific American, 317 (4), 20.

Myszkowski, S. (2018, October 10). On the trail of missing American Indian women. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2018/10/trail-missing-american-indian-women/571657/

95. Article in a newspaper

For a newspaper article that you read on a database or in print, end the entry after the page numbers. For a newspaper article that you read online, give the URL instead of page numbers.

Krueger, A. (2019, November 27). When mom knows best, on Instagram. The New York Times, B1-B4.

Healy, J. (2021, January 12). Tribal elders are dying from the pandemic, causing a cultural crisis for American Indians. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/12/us/tribal-elders-native-americans-coronavirus.html

96. Blog post

Blazich, F. A. (2021, February 5). The cold morning of the day after. Smithsonian Voices. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/blogs/national-museum-american-history/2021/02/05/cold-morning-day-after/

97. Published interview

Beard, A. (2013, May). Life’s work: An interview with Maya Angelou. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2013/05/maya-angelou

98. Editorial or letter to the editor

An editorial may or may not have an author’s name attached to it. If it does, give the author’s name first. If it does not, start with the title. In both situations, add Editorial or Letter to the Editor in square brackets after the title.

For better elections, copy the neighbors [Editorial]. (2021, February 16). The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/for-better-elections-copy-the-neighbors-11613518448

To cite a review of a book, film, television show, or other work, begin with the reviewer’s last name, followed by the first and middle (if any) initials. In parentheses, add the year, followed by the title, month, and day of the review. Then in square brackets, add Review of the and the type of work being reviewed, followed by the title and the name of the author, director, or creator and their role. Then give the publication in which the review appeared, ending with a period, and the URL:

Girish, D. (2021, February 18). Refocusing the lens on race and gender [Review of the film Test Pattern, by S. M. Ford, Dir.]. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/18/movies/test-pattern-review.html

Use the following guidelines for books and parts of books, such as a selection from an anthology, a chapter in a collection, a published conference paper, and so on.

100. Basic entry for a book

Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Year of Publication). Title of book. Publisher.

• Author. Give the last name, a comma, and the initials of the first name and middle name (if available). Do not list an author’s professional title, such as Dr . or PhD . End with a period.
• Year of publication. In parentheses, give the year of publication, ending with a period outside the closing parentheses.
• Title of the book. Put the book’s title in italics. Give the full title and any subtitle, separating them with a colon. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the first word of a subtitle and any proper nouns.
• Publisher. Give the publisher’s name as shown on the work, omitting words such as Inc. or Company.

101. Print book or e-book

Aronson, L. (2019). Elderhood: Redefining aging, transforming medicine, reimagining life. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Use the same format for an e-book when the content is the same. If you consult a book that has a DOI, provide it after the publisher, using the format “https://doi.org/” followed by the number. (If you encounter older formats for DOI, change them to this format.) If you read a book online, give the URL.

102. Book, anthology, or collection with an editor

Schaefer, C. E., & Reid, S. E. (Eds.). (2001). Game play: Therapeutic use of childhood games (2nd ed.) . Wiley.

103. Article or chapter in an edited book, an anthology, or a collection

Burks, H. F. (2001). Using the imagine game as a projective technique. In C. E. Schaefer & S. E. Reid (Eds.), Game play: Therapeutic use of childhood games (2nd ed., pp. 39-66). Wiley.

104. Translated or reprinted book

Freud, S. (1950). The interpretation of dreams (A. A. Brill, Trans.). Modern Library. (Original work published 1900)

105. Revised edition

Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (2019). The elements of style (4th ed.). Pearson.

106. One volume of a multivolume work

Waldrep, T. (Ed.). (1988). Writers on writing (Vol. 2). Random House.

107. Report or publication by a government agency or other organization

National Institute of Mental Health. (2020). Post-traumatic stress disorder. U.S. Department of Health and Human Service, National Institutes of Health.

If you consulted the publication online, include the URL after the publisher. See Model 89.

108. Conference paper

Killi, S., & Morrison, A. (2021). Could the food market pull 3D printing appetites further? In J.D. da Silva Bartolo, F. M. da Silva, S. Jaradat, & H. Bartolo (Eds.), Industry 4.0—shaping the future of the digital world: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sustainable & Smart Manufacturing (pp. 197-203). CRC Press.

Use the following guidelines for works published only online that do not have an overarching publication, such as a journal, newspaper, or magazine.

109. Basic format for a page or work on a website

Author’s Last Name, Initials. (Publication Date). Title of work. Title of website. URL.

• Author. Give the last name, a comma, and the initials of the first name and middle name (if available). Do not list an author’s professional title, such as Dr. or PhD . End with a period.
• Date of publication. In parentheses, give the year of publication and a comma, followed by the month and the day. End with a period outside the closing parentheses.
• Title of the work. Put the title of the work in italics. Give the full title and any subtitle, separating them with a colon. Capitalize only the first word of the title and the first word of a subtitle and any proper nouns.
• Title of the website. Give the title of the website and end with a period. If the author and the website title are the same, you can omit the title of the site.
• URL. Copy and paste the URL from your browser window.

110. Page or work on a website

Shetterly, M. L. (2020, February 24). Katherine Johnson biography. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/content/katherine-johnson-biography

U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. (n.d.). What is PTSD? National Center for PTSD. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand/what/index.asp

If the source you are citing has no author listed, start with the title. See Model 90.

Coronavirus. (2021, February 22). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus

When you cite a social media post as a source, use labels in square brackets to indicate the type of post and whether images were attached to it.

112. Social media post

Holler, J. [@holleratcha]. (2020, November 2). Everyone get out and vote tomorrow! [Tweet]. Twitter. http://twitter.com/holleratcha/status/1270432672544784384

Death Valley National Park. (2021, February 23). What does it mean to protect something you love? [Images attached] [Status update]. Facebook. www.facebook.com/DeathValleyNPS/posts/4108808255810092.

113. Online forum post

National Aeronautics and Space Administration [NASA]. (2020, November 14). We’re engineers, astronaut trainers, and other specialists working to launch humans on commercial spacecraft from U.S. soil! Ask us anything about the NASA SpaceX Crew-1 mission! [Online forum post]. Reddit. https://www.reddit.com/r/space/comments/jsx91g/were_engineers_astronaut_trainers_and_other/

When you cite nonprint sources, such as visual and multimedia sources, use labels in square brackets to indicate the type of source, such as a film, a TV episode, a song, a painting, a photograph, and so on.

When you cite a film that you saw in a theater or streamed, you do not need to specify how you watched it.

Jenkins, B. (Director). (2016). Moonlight [Film]. A24.

115. Online video

For an online video, give the name of the person or organization that uploaded it as the author:

TED. (2017, February 27). Sue Klebold: My son was a Columbine shooter. This is my story [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXlnrFpCu0c

116. Television program

Schur, M., Miner, D., Sackett, M., & Goddard, D. (Executive Producers). (2016-20). The good place [TV series]. Fremulon; 3 Arts Entertainment; Universal Television; NBC.

Mande, J. (Writer), & Benz, P. (Director). (2016, September 29). Jason Mendoza (Season 1, Episode 4) [TV series episode]. In M Schur, D. Miner, M. Sackett, & D. Goddard (Executive Producers), The good place. Fremulon; 3 Arts Entertainment; Universal Television; NBC.

117. Music recording

For an artist whose music is available only through a website, include the URL. If the artist’s music is available on multiple platforms, you do not need to specify how you accessed it.

Prince. (1984). Purple rain [Album]. Warner Brothers.

The Supremes. (1964). Baby love [Song]. On Where did our love go. Motown.

Overby, J. (Host). (2021, January 9). The road to higher ground: World music with African roots and more. WPR.

119. Podcast

McEvers, K. (Host). (2019, November 7). This is not a joke (Season 9, Episode 9) [Audio podcast episode]. In Embedded. NPR.

120. Painting or other visual artwork

For a work of visual art, give the location of the museum or gallery. If you saw the work online, add the URL after the location:

Rivera, D. (1932-33). Detroit industry murals [Painting]. Detroit Institute of Art, Detroit, MI, United States.

Basquiat, J-M. (1983). Untitled [Painting]. Museum of Modern Art, New York, NY, United States. https://www.moma.org/collection/works/63997?artist_id=370&page=1&sov_referrer=artist

121. Map, photograph, infographic, or other visual

If the work you consulted names an author, start with the author. If there is no author, start with the title and a description of the work in square brackets, such as [Map], [Photograph], [Infographic], [Diagram], or another appropriate descriptor:

Expedition of Lewis and Clark [Map]. (2018). National Park Service. http://nps.gov/subjects/travellewisandclark/map.htm

122. Video game, software, or app

Benzies, L., & Sarwar, I. (2017). Grand theft auto V [Video game]. Rockstar Games. https://www.rockstargames.com/games/V

APA Paper Format

Follow your instructor’s formatting guidelines or those indicated here. For sample papers showing APA paper format, see this site .

• Title page. Give the title of the paper in bold, centered. Then, on separate lines and not boldfaced, give your name, academic department, name of your college or university, course number and name, instructor’s name, and the due date, all centered. Repeat only the title on the first page of the text of your paper.
• Spacing. Double-space throughout the paper, including the references page.
• Headings. Give headings for the major sections of your paper, such as Method, Results or Findings, and Discussion . Put the headings in bold and center them on the page. Put the next level of headings in bold and place them flush left.
• Page numbers. Start numbering on the title page of your paper and continue to the end of the references page. Place page numbers in the upper-right corner.
• Long quotations. See Quotations for how to cite long quotations.

H 15 . Further Reading

MLA Handbook , 8th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2016.

MLA Handbook, 9 th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2020.

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , 7th ed., American Psychological Association, 2020.

H 16 . Works Cited

Addams, Jane. Twenty Years at Hull-House. Digital Public Library of America , 1910, dp.la/primary-source-sets/theodore-dreiser-s-sister-carrie-and-the-urbanization-of-chicago/.

Becker, Jo. Forcing the Spring: Inside the Fight for Marriage Equality. Penguin Press, 2014.

Behn, Aphra. “The Character.” The Works of Aphra Behn. Edited by Montague Summers, vol. 6, Project Gutenberg , 2014, www.gutenberg.org/files/45777/45777-h/45777-h.htm#Page_113.

Behn, Aphra. “Love’s Power.” The Works of Aphra Behn. Edited by Montague Summers, vol. 6, Project Gutenberg, 2014, www.gutenberg.org/files/45777/45777-h/45777-h.htm#Page_113.

Brooks, Gwendolyn. “We Real Cool.” Blacks , Third World Press, 1994.

Da 5 Bloods. Directed by Spike Lee. Netflix, 2020.

Eisenberg, Richard. “How to Fix Social Security for Vulnerable Americans.” Forbes , 5 July 2018, www.forbes.com/sites/nextavenue/2018/07/05/how-to-fix-social-security-for-vulnerable-americans/.

“Environmental Impacts of Natural Gas.” Union of Concerned Scientists, 19 June 2014, www.ucsusa.org/resources/environmental-impacts-natural-gas.

Garrison, Dee. Bracing for Armageddon: Why Civil Defense Never Worked. Oxford UP, 2006.

Hollar-Zwick, Carol. Me, Hemorrhage: Recovery from a Ruptured Arteriovenous Malformation. Amazon, 2020.

The King James Bible. Project Gutenberg, 1989, www.gutenberg.org/files/10/10-h/10-h.htm#The_Gospel_According_to_Saint_Matthew.

Konish, Lorie. “Some Retirees Get by on Just Social Security. Experts Disagree on How Many.” CNBC, 10 Feb. 2020, www.cnbc.com/2020/02/10/some-retirees-live-on-social-security-experts-disagree-on-how-many.html.

Mechling, Elizabeth Walker, and Jay Mechling. “The Campaign for Civil Defense and the Struggle to Naturalize the Bomb.” Western Journal of Speech Communication, vol. 55, no. 2, Spring 1991, pp. 105-33.

Myers, David. “The Funds, Friends, and Faith of Happy People.” American Psychologist , vol. 55, no. 1, Jan. 2000, pp. 56-67.

“This Is Who We Are.” U.S. Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Mar. 2019, http://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/This-is-Who-We-Are.pdf.

Thomas, Lewis. Lives of a Cell: Notes of a Biology Watcher. Penguin Books, 1978.

Thoreau, Henry David. Walden. Project Gutenberg, 1995, http://www.gutenberg.org/files/205/205-h/205-h.htm.

University of Agder. “Sorry (not sorry).” YouTube , 6 Feb. 2021, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mi3JQa1ynDw.

Wilkerson, Isabel. Caste: The Origins of Our Discontents. Random House, 2020.

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Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/writing-guide/pages/1-unit-introduction

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Essay Papers Writing Online

Various formats for writing essays – tips and guidelines.

Welcome to the comprehensive guide that will enhance your understanding of various essay writing formats. Crafting a well-structured and organized essay is a crucial skill for students and professionals alike. Different types of essays require adherence to specific formatting guidelines to effectively communicate ideas and arguments.

Whether you are writing a persuasive essay, analytical essay, narrative essay, or any other type, this guide will provide you with valuable insights into the key elements of each format. By mastering the nuances of essay writing formats, you will be able to express your thoughts clearly, logically, and persuasively, captivating your readers and achieving your communication goals.

Through this comprehensive guide, you will learn about the essential components of various essay formats, including thesis statements, introductions, body paragraphs, supporting evidence, and conclusions. By understanding the specific requirements of each format, you can tailor your writing style to meet the expectations of your audience and effectively convey your message.

The Complete Essay Format Guide

Understanding the proper essay format is essential for writing effective essays. Whether you are a student or a professional writer, knowing how to structure your essays can greatly impact the clarity and coherence of your writing. In this guide, we will walk you through the essential elements of essay formats and provide tips on how to structure your essays effectively.

1. Introduction

• The introduction is the first paragraph of your essay and should provide a brief overview of the topic you will be discussing.
• It should also include a thesis statement, which explains the main argument or point of your essay.

2. Body Paragraphs

• The body of your essay should consist of several paragraphs that develop and support your thesis statement.
• Each paragraph should focus on a single idea or point and include evidence or examples to support it.

3. Conclusion

• The conclusion is the final paragraph of your essay and should summarize your main points and restate your thesis.
• It should also provide a closing thought or reflection on the topic you have discussed.

4. Formatting

• Essays should be double-spaced and formatted with a clear font, such as Times New Roman, in 12-point size.
• Margins should be set to one inch on all sides of the page.

By following these guidelines, you can ensure that your essays are well-structured and easy to read. Remember to revise and edit your essays carefully to ensure that they are well-written and coherent.

Understanding Essay Structure Basics

When it comes to writing an essay, understanding the basic structure is essential. A typical essay consists of three main parts: an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Each of these sections serves a specific purpose and contributes to the overall coherence of the essay.

• Introduction: This is where you introduce the topic of your essay and provide some background information. The introduction should also include a thesis statement, which is the main idea or argument that you will be discussing in the essay.
• Body Paragraphs: The body of the essay consists of several paragraphs that develop and support the thesis statement. Each paragraph should focus on a single point or idea and provide evidence and examples to support it.
• Conclusion: The conclusion brings the essay to a close by restating the thesis statement and summarizing the main points of the essay. It is also a good place to discuss the broader implications of your argument or suggest areas for further research.

By following this basic structure, you can ensure that your essay is well-organized and easy for readers to follow. Remember to use transitions between paragraphs to help connect your ideas and create a smooth flow of information throughout the essay.

Types of Essay Formats

When it comes to writing essays, there are several different formats that you may encounter. Each format has its own unique structure and requirements. Here are some of the most common types of essay formats:

• Argumentative Essay: This type of essay presents a claim or argument and supports it with evidence and reasoning.
• Descriptive Essay: Descriptive essays focus on describing a person, place, object, or event in detail.
• Narrative Essay: Narrative essays tell a story and often include personal experiences or anecdotes.
• Expository Essay: Expository essays aim to explain and inform the reader about a specific topic.
• Persuasive Essay: Persuasive essays are similar to argumentative essays but focus more on convincing the reader to adopt a particular point of view.
• Compare and Contrast Essay: This type of essay analyzes the similarities and differences between two or more subjects.
• Cause and Effect Essay: Cause and effect essays explore the reasons behind a particular phenomenon and its outcomes.

It’s important to understand the requirements of each essay format and tailor your writing style accordingly to effectively convey your ideas and arguments.

Exploring Common Essay Styles

When it comes to writing essays, there are several common styles that you may encounter. Understanding the different types of essays can help you determine the best approach for your writing task. Here are some of the most common essay styles that you may come across:

1. Narrative Essays: These essays tell a story or recount an event. They often include personal anecdotes and can be quite engaging for the reader.

2. Descriptive Essays: In a descriptive essay, the writer paints a vivid picture of a person, place, object, or event. These essays appeal to the reader’s senses and emotions.

3. Expository Essays: Expository essays provide information, explain a topic, or analyze a concept. They are typically objective and present facts or opinions in a logical manner.

4. Persuasive Essays: Persuasive essays are meant to convince the reader of a particular point of view or argument. They often use evidence and reasoning to support a specific position.

5. Argumentative Essays: Similar to persuasive essays, argumentative essays present a claim or thesis and support it with evidence and analysis. However, argumentative essays also address counterarguments and refute opposing viewpoints.

By familiarizing yourself with these common essay styles, you can better tailor your writing to meet the requirements of your assignment and effectively communicate your ideas to your audience.

Comparing Argumentative and Narrative Essays

When it comes to essay writing, two common types of essays are argumentative and narrative essays. While they both aim to convey a message or argument, they differ in their purpose and structure.

• Argumentative Essays: Argumentative essays are designed to persuade the reader to adopt a particular point of view or take a specific action. These essays present a clear thesis statement and provide evidence to support the argument. They often involve research and logical reasoning to make a compelling case.
• Narrative Essays: Narrative essays, on the other hand, focus on telling a story or recounting an experience. They are often more personal and emotional, using descriptive language to engage the reader. Narrative essays may not have a thesis statement but instead focus on engaging the reader through vivid storytelling.

While argumentative essays rely on facts and evidence to support a specific viewpoint, narrative essays rely on personal experiences and storytelling to draw the reader in. It’s essential to understand the differences between these two essay formats to effectively convey your message and engage your audience.

Elements of a Well-Formatted Essay

Introduction : The introduction sets the stage for your essay, providing an overview of the topic and presenting the thesis statement.

Body Paragraphs : The body of the essay presents your arguments and evidence in support of the thesis statement. Each paragraph should focus on a single idea and provide clear evidence to support it.

Transitions : Transitions help to smoothly move from one idea to the next, connecting paragraphs and ensuring the essay flows logically.

Conclusion : The conclusion restates the thesis statement and summarizes the main points of the essay. It may also provide insights or recommendations based on the arguments presented.

Citations : Proper citations are essential in academic writing to give credit to the sources used and avoid plagiarism. Use the appropriate citation style required by your instructor.

Formatting : Pay attention to formatting elements such as font size, margins, spacing, and referencing style. Consistent formatting enhances readability and professionalism of your essay.

Key Components for a Strong Essay

When crafting a strong essay, there are several key components that you should consider to ensure that your writing is clear, coherent, and effective. These key components include:

1. A clear and concise thesis statement that presents the main argument or point of your essay.

2. Well-developed paragraphs that support and expand upon your thesis statement with relevant evidence and analysis.

3. Smooth transitions between paragraphs and ideas to guide the reader through your essay and maintain coherence.

4. Proper organization and structure, including an introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion that effectively communicate your ideas.

5. Attention to detail, including grammar, punctuation, and spelling to ensure that your writing is polished and professional.

By incorporating these key components into your essay writing, you can create a strong and compelling piece that effectively conveys your message to your audience.

Choosing the Right Format for Your Essay

When it comes to writing an essay, choosing the right format is crucial for effectively communicating your ideas and arguments. There are several different essay formats to choose from, each with its own unique structure and guidelines. Here are some tips to help you select the best format for your essay:

1. Consider your audience: Think about who will be reading your essay and what format would be most appropriate for them. For example, a formal academic essay might require a more structured format, while a personal essay could be more freeform.

2. Determine your purpose: Consider the purpose of your essay and choose a format that will best suit your goals. If you’re trying to persuade your reader, a persuasive essay format might be most effective. If you’re analyzing a topic, an analytical essay format could be more suitable.

3. Follow guidelines: If you’re writing an essay for a class or publication, make sure to follow any specific guidelines provided. This could include requirements for formatting, citation style, and overall structure.

4. Experiment and revise: Don’t be afraid to experiment with different formats to see what works best for your essay. Once you’ve written a draft, revise and refine your work to ensure that the format enhances your message.

By taking these factors into account, you can choose the right format for your essay and ensure that your ideas are conveyed effectively to your readers.

Considerations for Selecting Essay Styles

When selecting an essay style, consider the purpose of your essay. Are you trying to persuade, inform, or analyze? The style you choose should align with your overall goal and message.

Think about your target audience. Are you writing for a scholarly audience, a general audience, or a specific group of readers? The style of your essay should be tailored to resonate with your intended readers.

Consider the requirements of your assignment. Does your instructor specify a particular style or format to follow? Make sure to adhere to any guidelines provided to ensure you meet the expectations of the assignment.

Reflect on your own writing strengths and weaknesses. Are you more comfortable with a formal, structured style, or do you excel in a more creative, narrative format? Choose a style that plays to your strengths as a writer.

Lastly, consider the conventions of the discipline or field you are writing in. Different subjects may have specific expectations for essay styles, so make sure to research and understand the norms of your field.

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