are small zooplankton found in freshwater inland lakes and are thought to switch their mode of reproduction from asexual to sexual in response to extreme temperatures (Mitchell 1999). Lakes containing have an average summer surface temperature of 20°C (Harper 1995) but may increase by more than 15% when expose to warm water effluent from power plants, paper mills, and chemical industry (Baker et al. 2000). Could an increase in lake temperature caused by industrial thermal pollution affect the survivorship and reproduction of ?
The sex of is mediated by the environment rather than genetics. Under optimal environmental conditions, populations consist of asexually reproducing females. When the environment shifts may be queued to reproduce sexually resulting in the production of male offspring and females carrying haploid eggs in sacs called ephippia (Mitchell 1999).
The purpose of this laboratory study is to examine the effects of increased water temperature on survivorship and reproduction. This study will help us characterize the magnitude of environmental change required to induce the onset of the sexual life cycle in . Because are known to be a sensitive environmental indicator species (Baker et al. 2000) and share similar structural and physiological features with many aquatic species, they serve as a good model for examining the effects of increasing water temperature on reproduction in a variety of aquatic invertebrates.
We hypothesized that populations reared in water temperatures ranging from 24-26 °C would have lower survivorship, higher male/female ratio among the offspring, and more female offspring carrying ephippia as compared with grown in water temperatures of 20-22°C. To test this hypothesis we reared populations in tanks containing water at either 24 +/- 2°C or 20 +/- 2°C. Over 10 days, we monitored survivorship, determined the sex of the offspring, and counted the number of female offspring containing ephippia.
Comments:
Background information
· Opening paragraph provides good focus immediately. The study organism, gender switching response, and temperature influence are mentioned in the first sentence. Although it does a good job documenting average lake water temperature and changes due to industrial run-off, it fails to make an argument that the 15% increase in lake temperature could be considered “extreme” temperature change.
· The study question is nicely embedded within relevant, well-cited background information. Alternatively, it could be stated as the first sentence in the introduction, or after all background information has been discussed before the hypothesis.
Rationale
· Good. Well-defined purpose for study; to examine the degree of environmental change necessary to induce the Daphnia sexual life
cycle.
How will introductions be evaluated? The following is part of the rubric we will be using to evaluate your papers.
0 = inadequate (C, D or F) | 1 = adequate (BC) | 2 = good (B) | 3 = very good (AB) | 4 = excellent (A) | |
Introduction BIG PICTURE: Did the Intro convey why experiment was performed and what it was designed to test?
| Introduction provides little to no relevant information. (This often results in a hypothesis that “comes out of nowhere.”) | Many key components are very weak or missing; those stated are unclear and/or are not stated concisely. Weak/missing components make it difficult to follow the rest of the paper. e.g., background information is not focused on a specific question and minimal biological rationale is presented such that hypothesis isn’t entirely logical
| Covers most key components but could be done much more logically, clearly, and/or concisely. e.g., biological rationale not fully developed but still supports hypothesis. Remaining components are done reasonably well, though there is still room for improvement. | Concisely & clearly covers all but one key component (w/ exception of rationale; see left) clearly covers all key components but could be a little more concise and/or clear. e.g., has done a reasonably nice job with the Intro but fails to state the approach OR has done a nice job with Intro but has also included some irrelevant background information
| Clearly, concisely, & logically presents all key components: relevant & correctly cited background information, question, biological rationale, hypothesis, approach. |
After following the initial steps, the researcher should be able to create a hypothesis that can be tested. A hypothesis is a proposed statement that is intended to explain a theory for why something happens. To create a solid hypothesis, make sure it is not listed as a question, but as a prediction statement. To create a research hypothesis there has to be both a dependent and independent variable, and an expected outcome. Independent variables are what may be changed in the experiment to create an outcome. The dependent variable is what the experiment is intended to measure based on changes made to the independent variable. Defining the expected outcome creates the predictive component of the hypothesis that can be tested. Incorporating these elements into a simple predictive statement ensures that you can determine an outcome from the experiment. Ensure that any variables are taken into consideration, and that the results from the hypothesis are measurable.
There are many types of hypotheses, but the seven most common are the following:
For more information about how to create a hypothesis, have a look at the Fundamentals of Research Methodology by Engwa Godwill.
Based on the hypothesis created, the researcher will need to determine the best research design for the experiment.
The first few paragraphs of a journal article serve to introduce the topic, to provide the author's hypothesis or thesis, and to indicate why the research was done. A thesis or hypothesis is not always clearly labled; you may need to read through the introductory paragraphs to determine what the authors are proposing.
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
The Scientific Method consists of observing the world around you and creating a hypothesis about relationships in the world. A hypothesis is an informed and educated prediction or explanation about something. Part of the research process involves testing the hypothesis , and then examining the results of these tests as they relate to both the hypothesis and the world around you. When a researcher forms a hypothesis, this acts like a map through the research study. It tells the researcher which factors are important to study and how they might be related to each other or caused by a manipulation that the researcher introduces (e.g. a program, treatment or change in the environment). With this map, the researcher can interpret the information he/she collects and can make sound conclusions about the results.
Research can be done with human beings, animals, plants, other organisms and inorganic matter. When research is done with human beings and animals, it must follow specific rules about the treatment of humans and animals that have been created by the U.S. Federal Government. This ensures that humans and animals are treated with dignity and respect, and that the research causes minimal harm.
No matter what topic is being studied, the value of the research depends on how well it is designed and done. Therefore, one of the most important considerations in doing good research is to follow the design or plan that is developed by an experienced researcher who is called the Principal Investigator (PI). The PI is in charge of all aspects of the research and creates what is called a protocol (the research plan) that all people doing the research must follow. By doing so, the PI and the public can be sure that the results of the research are real and useful to other scientists.
The research paper introduction section, along with the Title and Abstract, can be considered the face of any research paper. The following article is intended to guide you in organizing and writing the research paper introduction for a quality academic article or dissertation.
The research paper introduction aims to present the topic to the reader. A study will only be accepted for publishing if you can ascertain that the available literature cannot answer your research question. So it is important to ensure that you have read important studies on that particular topic, especially those within the last five to ten years, and that they are properly referenced in this section. 1 What should be included in the research paper introduction is decided by what you want to tell readers about the reason behind the research and how you plan to fill the knowledge gap. The best research paper introduction provides a systemic review of existing work and demonstrates additional work that needs to be done. It needs to be brief, captivating, and well-referenced; a well-drafted research paper introduction will help the researcher win half the battle.
The introduction for a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:
The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper. Some research paper introduction examples are only half a page while others are a few pages long. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper; its length depends on the size of your paper as a whole.
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What is the introduction for a research paper, what are the parts of introduction in the research, 1. introduce the research topic:, 2. determine a research niche:, 3. place your research within the research niche:, how to use paperpal to write the introduction section, frequently asked questions on research paper introduction, key points to remember.
The introduction in a research paper is placed at the beginning to guide the reader from a broad subject area to the specific topic that your research addresses. They present the following information to the reader
The research paper introduction conveys a lot of information and can be considered an essential roadmap for the rest of your paper. A good introduction for a research paper is important for the following reasons:
A good research paper introduction section should comprise three main elements: 2
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The first step in writing the research paper introduction is to inform the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening statement. The second step involves establishing the kinds of research that have been done and ending with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to address. Finally, the research paper introduction clarifies how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses. If your research involved testing hypotheses, these should be stated along with your research question. The hypothesis should be presented in the past tense since it will have been tested by the time you are writing the research paper introduction.
The following key points, with examples, can guide you when writing the research paper introduction section:
Example: The inclusion of experiential and competency-based learning has benefitted electronics engineering education. Industry partnerships provide an excellent alternative for students wanting to engage in solving real-world challenges. Industry-academia participation has grown in recent years due to the need for skilled engineers with practical training and specialized expertise. However, from the educational perspective, many activities are needed to incorporate sustainable development goals into the university curricula and consolidate learning innovation in universities.
Example: There have been plausible efforts to integrate educational activities in higher education electronics engineering programs. However, very few studies have considered using educational research methods for performance evaluation of competency-based higher engineering education, with a focus on technical and or transversal skills. To remedy the current need for evaluating competencies in STEM fields and providing sustainable development goals in engineering education, in this study, a comparison was drawn between study groups without and with industry partners.
Example: The study evaluates the main competency needed in the applied electronics course, which is a fundamental core subject for many electronics engineering undergraduate programs. We compared two groups, without and with an industrial partner, that offered real-world projects to solve during the semester. This comparison can help determine significant differences in both groups in terms of developing subject competency and achieving sustainable development goals.
Paperpal is a generative AI-powered academic writing assistant. It’s trained on millions of published scholarly articles and over 20 years of STM experience. Paperpal helps authors write better and faster with:
With Paperpal, create a research paper introduction effortlessly. In this step-by-step guide, we’ll walk you through how Paperpal transforms your initial ideas into a polished and publication-ready introduction.
Step 1: Sign up on Paperpal and click on the Copilot feature, under this choose Outlines > Research Article > Introduction
Step 2: Add your unstructured notes or initial draft, whether in English or another language, to Paperpal, which is to be used as the base for your content.
Step 3: Fill in the specifics, such as your field of study, brief description or details you want to include, which will help the AI generate the outline for your Introduction.
Step 4: Use this outline and sentence suggestions to develop your content, adding citations where needed and modifying it to align with your specific research focus.
Step 5: Turn to Paperpal’s granular language checks to refine your content, tailor it to reflect your personal writing style, and ensure it effectively conveys your message.
You can use the same process to develop each section of your article, and finally your research paper in half the time and without any of the stress.
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The purpose of the research paper introduction is to introduce the reader to the problem definition, justify the need for the study, and describe the main theme of the study. The aim is to gain the reader’s attention by providing them with necessary background information and establishing the main purpose and direction of the research.
The length of the research paper introduction can vary across journals and disciplines. While there are no strict word limits for writing the research paper introduction, an ideal length would be one page, with a maximum of 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs. Generally, it is one of the shorter sections of the paper as the reader is assumed to have at least a reasonable knowledge about the topic. 2 For example, for a study evaluating the role of building design in ensuring fire safety, there is no need to discuss definitions and nature of fire in the introduction; you could start by commenting upon the existing practices for fire safety and how your study will add to the existing knowledge and practice.
When deciding what to include in the research paper introduction, the rest of the paper should also be considered. The aim is to introduce the reader smoothly to the topic and facilitate an easy read without much dependency on external sources. 3 Below is a list of elements you can include to prepare a research paper introduction outline and follow it when you are writing the research paper introduction. Topic introduction: This can include key definitions and a brief history of the topic. Research context and background: Offer the readers some general information and then narrow it down to specific aspects. Details of the research you conducted: A brief literature review can be included to support your arguments or line of thought. Rationale for the study: This establishes the relevance of your study and establishes its importance. Importance of your research: The main contributions are highlighted to help establish the novelty of your study Research hypothesis: Introduce your research question and propose an expected outcome. Organization of the paper: Include a short paragraph of 3-4 sentences that highlights your plan for the entire paper
Cite only works that are most relevant to your topic; as a general rule, you can include one to three. Note that readers want to see evidence of original thinking. So it is better to avoid using too many references as it does not leave much room for your personal standpoint to shine through. Citations in your research paper introduction support the key points, and the number of citations depend on the subject matter and the point discussed. If the research paper introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, it is better to cite a few review articles rather than the individual articles summarized in the review. A good point to remember when citing research papers in the introduction section is to include at least one-third of the references in the introduction.
The literature review plays a significant role in the research paper introduction section. A good literature review accomplishes the following: Introduces the topic – Establishes the study’s significance – Provides an overview of the relevant literature – Provides context for the study using literature – Identifies knowledge gaps However, remember to avoid making the following mistakes when writing a research paper introduction: Do not use studies from the literature review to aggressively support your research Avoid direct quoting Do not allow literature review to be the focus of this section. Instead, the literature review should only aid in setting a foundation for the manuscript.
Remember the following key points for writing a good research paper introduction: 4
To summarize, the research paper introduction section should be brief yet informative. It should convince the reader the need to conduct the study and motivate him to read further. If you’re feeling stuck or unsure, choose trusted AI academic writing assistants like Paperpal to effortlessly craft your research paper introduction and other sections of your research article.
1. Jawaid, S. A., & Jawaid, M. (2019). How to write introduction and discussion. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia, 13(Suppl 1), S18.
2. Dewan, P., & Gupta, P. (2016). Writing the title, abstract and introduction: Looks matter!. Indian pediatrics, 53, 235-241.
3. Cetin, S., & Hackam, D. J. (2005). An approach to the writing of a scientific Manuscript1. Journal of Surgical Research, 128(2), 165-167.
4. Bavdekar, S. B. (2015). Writing introduction: Laying the foundations of a research paper. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 63(7), 44-6.
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npj Science of Food volume 8 , Article number: 65 ( 2024 ) Cite this article
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In food circular economy, the utilization of food manufacturing side streams (FMSS) offers significant potential instead of being discarded. However, reincorporating FMSS into the food value chain raises food safety concerns due to potential food hazards. This perspective explores food safety risks associated with circular management of FMSS by using a ‘Quad-Modal hazard dynamic’ approach with case studies. Future research and advancements in food safety control strategies are also discussed.
Introduction.
Food loss and waste (FLW), alongside unsustainable resource use associated with the traditional model of food production and consumption 1 , 2 , as well as its important global environmental and socioeconomic impacts 3 , have outlined the critical need for a paradigm shift in our global resource management strategies 4 . Within this context, the circular economy (CE) has been conceived as a transformative approach focused on the restorative use of resources, emphasizing on efficiency, waste reduction, and sustainability 5 . The global food systems face significant challenges, with an alarming 25–30% of FLW of the total food produced worldwide, contributing to ~8–10% of total anthropogenic GHG emissions and costing about 1 trillion USD per year between 2010 and 2016 3 . The CE model inspires a vision of a food circular economy (FCE) 6 , promising to alleviate the strain on limited resources by endorsing a model of production and consumption, where waste and loss are minimized through the continuous prevention of waste, and the reuse, recycling, and regeneration of resources in a closed-loop system 7 , 8 .
Yet, as we evolve into this transformative landscape towards more sustainable systems, the imperative of food safety cannot be overstated. Significantly, food manufacturing side streams (FMSS) present a growing area of interest for reutilization as viable materials and products that are reinserted into the food supply chain, including valuable food ingredients 9 . However, the reintegration of these substances into the food supply chain potentially carries the inherent risk of introducing chemical, biological, physical hazards and allergens 10 , 11 .
This potential public health concern, while limitedly addressed in literature that primarily focuses on the valorization of side streams 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , remains a crucial discussion on the potential food hazards emerging from their reuse within a FCE framework. However, the comprehensive reviews by Rao et al. 12 , Focker et al. 11 , and Socas-Rodríguez et al. 13 , alongside other related studies, notably bridge this gap by highlighting the valorization of FMSS, addressing the balance between food safety and sustainability, with an orientation to the European Union (EU) context. They establish a foundation in understanding the valorization process’s complexities, particularly emphasizing the importance of food safety, by identifying food hazards related to products derived from food side streams, which will be reissued in different stages of the food supply chain.
As has been explored by the available body of evidence, as the food system moves towards more sustainable and circular models, understanding the full spectrum of food safety risk factors associated with FMSS becomes paramount, including the food hazards dynamics along closed-loop chains. However, as has also been briefly noted, the food safety implications of reintroducing FMSS into the food supply chain expand beyond a hazard-based perspective. This critical overview highlights a pressing need for adopting holistic perspectives on control strategies.
To do so, here we provide our perspective seeking to broaden the discussion on the multiple considerations in the complex interplay of food safety and circular economy principles. Illustrated at a very general level, we discuss the intersections that we envision for the scope of food side streams, via an integrative and food-chain approach. By advocating for a quad-modal approach grounded in the evidence available, we propose to delve into and elucidate some pathways through which food safety hazards in circular systems may emerge, particularly focusing on the reintroduction of FMSS into the food value chain. Enriched with targeted case studies, we seek to not only present some potential food safety risks but also to discuss strategies and interventions that may fortify our food control systems.
Within the circular economy (CE) paradigm, waste is avoided and resources are continuously reused, recycled and regenerated in a closed-loop system 5 . In the context of the food circular economy (FCE), these principles will be applied to address sustainability issues associated with FLW throughout the multiple stages of the food supply chain.
As previously reported 14 , there is a high heterogeneity on the definition of FLW, resulting in not only conceptual differences, but also substantial differences in root-causes and driving factors, mitigation strategies and challenges applicable to different types of FLW. This may be led by their inherent nature and characteristics of the waste, the stage of the food chain where they are generated, as well as the specific national context 3 , 14 , 15 . The United Nations built a harmonized conceptual and monitoring framework for FLW, which recognizes differences in the terms of food loss and food waste, establishing scopes based on the stages of the food chain that each covers 16 , 17 , 18 (Table 1 ).
In this article, food manufacturing side streams (FMSS) refer to substances or residual materials generated from primary food production that are not the primary intended food product. These may include waste, by-products, and initially inedible “fragments” as defined in the conceptual framework for FLW proposed by FAO 16 . However, cultural, economic, and technological factors should also be considered when assessing the categorization of these food fragments as edible or inedible. For instance, soybean residue (okara), often viewed as inedible residue of soy beverage or tofu production, is a valued food ingredient in some countries, such as unohana in Japan, kongbiji jjigae in Korea and xiao doufu in China. Considering this, defining side streams based on their production processes may provide a more inclusive approach. In addition, it is also important to note the distinction between side streams and by-products. While side streams encompass a broader category of materials with varying degrees of commercial viability, the term “by-products” is frequently used, often interchangeably with “side streams”, though it is a subset of side streams characterized by their immediate commercial value and are desired products. In this article, we use FMSS to include both materials with current commercial applications and those in the research stage that may hold potential for future utilization.
To narrow our discussion within the established scope of this perspective article, our examination will be focused on the food safety implications related to food loss scope FMSS. Globally, around 14% of food produced, valued at $400 billion per year, is lost during post-harvest up to the point just before retail 19 , reaching over 20% in regions like Central and Southern Asia 16 . In that sense, it is imperative to sustainably manage these food losses and FMSS. Specifically for food loss, some interlinks are distinguished between food safety and the management measures applied. During routine food safety monitoring, several issues can arise from various points of the food supply chain, such as the detection of pathogens or breaks in the cold chain, compromising on food safety and quality and hence generating production discards, which are considered as food loss. This relationship highlights that adhering to general principles of food hygiene 16 is a way to minimize food loss. On the contrary, certain measures applied by food business operators to minimize food loss, such as the excessive use of pesticides and preservatives, may represent practices that compromise food safety.
On the other hand, within the facets of reusing, recycling and regenerating food loss and FMSS in a closed-loop system of FCE, specific food safety implications are also identified. Conventionally used in animal feed and fertilizers, FMSS are increasingly recognized for their potential in the production of materials and compounds, demonstrating the expansive scope of upcycling within the food manufacturing industry 20 , 21 , 22 . Furthermore, the growing interest in converting FMSS into valuable food ingredients, packaging materials, underscores the potential to increase the longevity of these resources while maximizing their value 9 . However, this raises distinct and multifaceted challenges, particularly concerning food safety in the instance where the reintegration of these materials carries the risk of introducing food safety hazard into the food chain 10 , 11 . The intrinsic variability in foods due to diverse factors, including genetic variation, is further compounded in FMSS generated from secondary food processing that have undergone various food processing. This variability imparts FMSS with diverse properties and hazards prior to their reuse (Table 2 ).
To effectively mitigate potential food safety risk associated with these cases, it is essential to recognize the potential and varied dynamics in the occurrence and levels of food safety hazards that could happen throughout the stages of transformation of side streams to by-products that will be reintroduced into the food chain. These dynamics would depend on several factors, such as the occurrence and previous levels of hazards in the raw material, raw material characteristics, reprocessing methods, and handling conditions. Each side stream and by-product have distinctive characteristics that influence their specific considerations for its reuse and consumption. Throughout various stages of reprocessing and rehandling, they undergo transformations, including in food hazard aspects, termed the ‘quad-modal hazard dynamic approach’. This comprises four key modalities through which food safety hazards can evolve in food circular systems, defined in Table 3 .
Figure 1 provides a cohesive illustration of the interconnection between food safety and food loss and FMSS within the framework of a food circular economy. At its core, the diagram represents solely the stages of the food supply chain (highlighted in green tones) where food loss occurs (shown in red tones), and the FMSS are generated. The links with preceding and succeeding stages of the chain are represented in gray. The chain becomes circular via the FCE’s closed-loop approach. Encircling this core, the diagram presents the primary components of the food circular economy in orange. This layer is divided into two primary objectives: preventing food losses at all stages of the supply chain, and the reintroduction of reclaimed food loss and FMSS back into the cycle, highlighting the potential to repurpose valuable food ingredients derived. The outermost layer, in yellow, depicts the crucial considerations for food safety pertinent to each component of the FCE, integrating a quad-modal approach for comprehensive coverage.
The diagram illustrates three key components: (1) Food supply chain segment, represented by gray sectors near the center of the circle. The critical food chain stages from which food loss and FMSS (in red tones) originate are highlighted in dark gray tones. (2) The orange sections represent the components of the circular food economy integrated throughout various stages of the food chain, emphasizing the reintegration of valuable ingredients from FMSS into the food chain through closed-loop systems. (3) The yellow sectors denote considerations for food safety within the context of food circular economy.
To illustrate the ‘Quad-Modal hazard dynamics’ approach to evaluate food safety hazards in food circular systems, we assess selected hazards within three FMSS that have gained significance in the food industry due to its large production quantities. By analyzing these FMSS as case studies, we gain critical insights into the complex nature of food safety hazards present in these materials when reintegrated into circular food system. The focus is on discerning the nuanced interplay of chemical, biological, and physical hazards within these FMSS, given their extensive utilization and the consequent potential for widespread impacts on food safety within FCE.
Seafood side streams, encompassing large quantities of unused fish and crustacean parts, are rich in high value nutrients like omega-3 fatty acids and proteins 23 , 24 . In fish processing, the side streams constitute a considerable portion of the total weight of fish (~50%), comprising unused parts of the fish such as viscera, heads, trimmings, skin, scale, fin, bone, and damaged or unsuitable fish 25 . These seafood side streams are economical sources of useful ingredients for culinary applications 26 , 27 , 28 . However, reutilizing seafood side streams is not without its food safety challenges, and it necessitates an assessment of the associated food safety hazards that may arise from its reintegration within the FCE. Seafood is subject to various food safety hazards, among which chemical hazards are predominant, and seafood side streams that are reprocessed for foods, feed and supplements are no exception 29 , 30 .
Biogenic amines (BAs) may be introduced into seafood side streams during improper handling, storage, and processing 29 . Seafood side streams are highly perishable, with their quick spoilage driven largely by processes such as microbial metabolism, autolysis, and lipid oxidation 31 . Factors such as higher temperatures can promote the growth and enzymatic activities of decarboxylase-producing bacteria like Enterobacteriaceae , Pseudomonas , and lactic acid bacteria, favoring formation of BAs 32 . In addition, during the processing of the seafood side streams, processes like fermentation can result in increased levels of BAs 33 . In a study of Korean fermented foods by Moon et al. 33 , elevated levels of histamine, a derivative of histidine identified as a key causative toxin of scombroid poisoning, were found to have increased across all tested fermented food samples 29 , 33 . The formation of histamine poses as a food hazard as it cannot be easily eliminated due to its thermal stability 34 .
The bioaccumulation of heavy metals is particularly pronounced in seafood side streams. Some types of fishmeal produced using fish parts that are unsuitable for human consumption, may be fed to farmed finfish and shellfish, leading to the bioaccumulation of contaminants such as methylmercury (MeHg) in muscle 35 . Fishmeal is also often used as feed for poultry and swine, and can lead to significant mercury accumulation in these livestock, exceeding safety limits 36 . Mercury that is present in the feed may then accumulate further in chicken feathers, a poultry side stream often repurposed into feather meal for livestock and aquaculture, thus perpetuating the cycle of contamination within the closed loop of FCE 37 .
Depending on the food processing methods utilized, food safety hazards may be reduced in the process, which is a crucial step in ensuring the safe use of seafood side streams. Techniques like ultrasonic cleaning have proven effective in reducing heavy metals and other contaminants in shellfish side streams, enhancing their suitability for various applications, such as in calcium supplements 38 , 39 . Depending on the technological interventions used for food processing, food safety hazards may be lowered, and hence reducing the need to dispose of waste, aligning with the goals of circular food systems.
Besides histamine, the formation of other BAs, notably putrescine and cadaverine, are also closely linked to spoilage of seafood, which can affect the resulting quality of the seafood side streams that would be made into by-products. Putrescine and cadaverine are formed by bacterial decarboxylation of ornithine and lysine, respectively 29 . More importantly, the presence of putrescine and cadaverine can aggravate the toxicity effects of histamine poisoning through synergistic interactions 29 . These BAs have been found to facilitate histamine transport across the intestinal lumen and enhance its absorption, increasing histamine bioavailability, or may inhibit histamine-metabolizing enzymes like diamine oxidase (DAO), leading to reduced histamine breakdown and clearance from the body 40 .
The dairy industry generates an estimated 180 to 190 million tons of whey each year, a valuable side stream utilized as a by-product derived from cheese and casein-based dairy production 41 . Whey constitutes a substantial proportion of the total milk volume and retains a significant amount of nutrients, such as protein, lactose, minerals and vitamins, making it a nutritious and functional resource for various applications in food and beverage products 42 , 43 .
The repercussions of veterinary drug use in dairy production become increasingly evident in the context of whey utilization 44 . The reliance of the dairy industry on heat treatment to ensure the safety of milk products falls short when it comes to antibiotics. Studies report that the extent of heat degradation, a standard process in milk treatment, is insufficient for removing antibiotic residues 45 . This shortfall means that these substances can remain present despite the heat treatment. The correlation between antibiotic levels in milk and its derivatives such as whey and fresh cheese is remarkably direct. Research indicates that the levels of antibiotics in whey and fresh cheese closely mirror those found in the original milk, with as much as 85.9% of these substances being transferred from the milk source to whey 46 , 47 . This suggests a predictable and consistent contamination of whey when originating from antibiotic-laden milk.
The persistence and transfer of antibiotic residues from milk to whey not only concentrate these substances but also elevate the potential risk of fostering antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Moreover, the acquisition of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) by pathogens through horizontal gene transfer poses severe health and environmental risks 48 . For instance, Fraiture et al.‘s study highlights this concern, identifying ARGs from Bacillus subtilis in a notable percentage of vitamin B2-enriched feed samples 49 . Similarly, the investigation conducted by Lányi et al. into raw milk samples from public markets reveals the alarming presence of various bacterial genetic materials, including complete ARGs 46 . These ARGs have the capacity to compromise the effectiveness of a broad spectrum of antibiotics, including cephalosporin, cephamycin, fluoroquinolone, peptide antibiotics, and tetracycline 46 . The accumulated presence of antibiotic residues in whey, stemming from standard dairy processing practices, emerges as a critical issue. It not only represents a direct threat to food safety but also contributes to the broader, more complex challenge of AMR.
Brewer’s spent grain (BSG) is a significant side stream of the brewing industry, accounting for about 85% of the solid waste generated, reaching an annual production of 39 million tons worldwide 50 . BSG is composed of various valuable components such as hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, and proteins 51 . Despite its potential value, BSG presents food safety challenges that need to be addressed. For instance, the prevalence of fungal secondary metabolites, namely mycotoxins, in BSG pose as a hazard that might affect human health, due to their toxicity to cause various health issues. Pereyra et al. 52 evaluated the mycotoxins content in 33 brewer’s spent grain samples and found that all the samples are contaminated with fumonisin B1 (FB1) (104 – 145 μg kg -1 ), with 18% of the samples containing aflatoxin B 1 (AFB 1 ) at levels between 19 and 44.52 μg kg −1 52 .
Mycotoxins can also be introduced after its production, due to the fungi contamination. The high moisture and nutritional contents of BSG makes it especially susceptible to microbial growth and spoilage, in particular common fungal species such as Fusarium 53 . This genus is known for producing mycotoxins, including deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FBs), which pose significant risks to animal and human health 54 , 55 , 56 . In the study by Penagos-Tabares et al., compounds like Zearalenone (ZEA), T-2, and HT-2 toxins were detected, even though they were found to be below European maximum limits for animal feeds 57 , 58 . Their persistent presence, however, is a stark reminder of the potential dangers if accumulated. BSG may initially meet acceptable standards for food use, however its microbial profile is subject to rapid alteration post-production, characterized by increases in microaerophilic bacteria and anaerobes 59 . Particularly disturbing are the high levels of Penicillium-derived metabolites, often indicative of post-production contamination during storage, which exacerbate the already serious issue of toxin accumulation 58 .
Grains, which serve as the raw materials for the brewery industry, are frequently contaminated with mycotoxins. However, the concentration of mycotoxins in beer is usually reduced as they are primarily absorbed and accumulated in the spent grains during the brewing process 60 . This was also corroborated by another study, in which 60% of the ZEA and 18% of the 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-ADON) presented on the malt grist before the brewing process were found remaining in the spent grains 61 . Cumulatively, the gradual accumulation of mycotoxins in brewer’s spent grain, together with the newly produced mycotoxins after BSG production, can escalate to concentrations that pose acute health risks, underscoring the necessity for continuous monitoring and strict control measures in the management of BSG.
Interestingly, research indicates that biological detoxification can effectively reduce the production and concentration of mycotoxin. Gomaa et al. demonstrated the ability of lactic acid bacteria, Lactobacillus brevis , to reduce the production of aflatoxin B 1 by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus , by 96.31% and 90.43% 62 . Luz et al. successfully reduced ochratoxin A (OTA) by 97% and 95% using Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Lactobacillus plantarum 63 . Several cutting-edge technologies, such as cold plasma, moderate electric field (MEF), pulsed electric field (PEF), ultrasound, and ohmic heating, have shown significant positive outcomes together with fermentation for mycotoxin detoxification, suggesting these technologies may interact synergistically to degrade mycotoxins in food 64 .
BSG is likely to be co-contaminated by several mycotoxins during complex processing and storage. The interaction between different mycotoxins might result in more severe toxic effects than exposure to individual mycotoxin. The simultaneous presence of, AFB 1 and ZEA, or, AFB 1 and DON, in agricultural products, for example, could be more hepatotoxic than either mycotoxin acting alone 65 .
Overall, these case studies of high-volume FMSS demonstrate that while these resources present a valuable opportunity for resource reutilization in circular food systems, they require a good assessment and understanding of the potential food safety hazards arising from food circularity. The ‘Quad-Modal hazard dynamics’ offers a structured approach to identify, characterize, and therefore able to manage these hazards through a targeted manner, ensuring the safe integration of FMSS into the food value chain while aligning with the principles of a sustainable circular economy.
In the transition towards a circular food economy, aimed at sustainability and resource efficiency, the various aspects of food safety that we have described, particularly the multiple dynamics that food safety hazards could experience, underscore the critical need for a deeper understanding of these phenomena. Based on this, tailoring appropriate approaches to mitigate food safety risks associated with food loss and waste (FLW) across diverse stages of the food supply chain is imperative. These insights, grounded in scientific evidence and a risk-based perspective, are pivotal for developing effective food control strategies to ensure food safety within circular economy frameworks.
As highlighted in previous studies 11 , 12 , 13 , food safety challenges inherent in FCE practices remain inadequately understood or addressed, particularly in the reuse of food side streams for food ingredient purposes. While the reuse of these side streams within the food supply chain effectively reduces losses, it also may pose a risk of (re)introducing contaminants into the food stream. Our ‘Quad-Modal hazard dynamic’ approach aims to illustrate that the occurrence and concentration levels of both new and pre-existing contaminants in raw materials depend largely on the nature and composition of the food Table 4 by-products, the processes employed to transform them into food ingredients, and the hygiene conditions maintained by operators during these processes. These dynamics of food hazards within the closed-loop section of the FCE model contribute to the complexities of ensuring effective food safety control measures.
From a food control standpoint, competent authorities and partners can build up on the insights provided here to develop food control strategies tailored to the needs of more sustainable food systems. Adhering to international risk analysis principles for food safety, hazard assessment investigations must meticulously identify and evaluate these hazard dynamics, with particular attention to potential new hazards. This involves comprehensively understanding the adverse health effects associated with these agents and characterizing the relationship between dosage and the likelihood of adverse effects occurring. However, to advance comprehensive risk-based control measures, other elements of risk assessment and management, as well as other food control aspects. Table 5 provides examples demonstrating how these food safety control elements can integrate the quad-modal approach to understanding the dynamics of food safety hazards, along with other pertinent considerations.
Likewise, the scientific community should engage in rigorous research that examines the entire lifecycle of these by-products within circular systems. The research should focus on understanding how processing, storage, and handling in circular systems contribute to the safety profiles of these FMSS. There is a pressing need to develop and validate new methodologies for contaminant detection and quantification, assessing current decontamination techniques, and exploring innovative approaches to manage these food safety hazards. Furthermore, with better understanding of the food safety hazards, research into the integration of advanced food processing technologies like High Pressure Processing (HPP), Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF), and Atmospheric Cold Plasma (ACP) can offer promising technological solutions to minimize waste within food circular systems, through their capabilities of reducing microbiological activity, chemical contaminants, and food allergens in food products 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 . These technologies, alongside advanced detection methods like Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS), quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR), utility of stable isotopes, and various spectroscopy techniques, provide comprehensive tools for tracking and monitoring changes in FMSS in the context of food safety 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 . The use of biosensors for real-time monitoring and the combination of multiple detection technologies with chemometric and omics approaches, augmented by artificial intelligence, present innovative avenues for detecting food hazards 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 .
By undertaking this crucial research, the scientific community can provide indispensable insights and guidelines that will aid policymakers, industry stakeholders, and regulatory bodies in harmonizing sustainability goals with uncompromised food safety in circular economy food systems. This alignment is essential for the sustainable and safe growth of our global food systems, ensuring that our pursuit of environmental sustainability goes hand in hand with the protection of public health.
This perspective article has examined the interlink between food safety and food circular economy model, with emphasis on the complexities of food hazards dynamic that can occur in the reuse of food manufacturing side streams (FMSS) and their reintegration into the supply food chain.
The transition towards circularity in food systems via the reprocessing of food manufacturing side streams and by-products holds significant promise for waste reduction, resource conservation, and the promotion of more sustainable consumption and production patterns. However, to ensure the success of this transition, it is crucial to thoroughly understand the complexities potential occurrences and harmful alterations of the hazard levels associated with these reprocessing practices. The proposed quad-modal approach addresses these food safety hazards dynamics by describing their potential modalities of introduction, accumulation, reduction, and interaction. This underscores the critical need for a deeper understanding and developing effective management strategies for potential food safety risks to ensure the safety and sustainability of food systems. These strategies should encompass rigorous hazard assessment, but should also address appropriate exposure assessments, risk characterization, and proactive risk management practices. Based on this, the competent authorities must deploy appropriate actions to control food safety, which must be applied within the framework of the food circular economy.
Future research should focus on the compositional changes and risks associated with reprocessing food manufacturing side streams, to develop safer and more efficient processing techniques. The advancement of new detection, monitoring, and analysis technologies will also be essential for assessing and managing risks and ensuring food safety.
As we advance our understanding and implementation of circular food systems, it becomes clear that the goals of environmental sustainability and food safety are not only compatible, but are integral, complementary pillars essential for building a truly sustainable food system. Therefore, we call upon industry stakeholders, policymakers, and researchers to unite in their efforts to innovate on robust solutions that not only advance sustainable food system objectives but also ensure the safety and well-being of consumers. Through such collaborative efforts, we can craft a food system that upholds the principles of sustainability while safeguarding public health, thereby achieving a sustainable future for all.
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We thank FoodTech@NTU from Nanyang Technological University, and Singapore Future Ready Food Safety Hub (FRESH) for funding support.
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Ying Tong Yeo, Cia Min Lim, Alfonso Isaias Vargas Huaco & Wei Ning Chen
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Conceptualization—W.N.C., Y.T.Y., and C.M.L. Writing—original draft—Y.T.Y. and C.M.L. Writing—review and editing—Y.T.Y., C.M.L., and A.H. Visualization—Y.T.Y., C.M.L., and A.H. Supervision—W.N.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
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Yeo, Y.T., Lim, C.M., Huaco, A.I.V. et al. Food circular economy and safety considerations in waste management of urban manufacturing side streams. npj Sci Food 8 , 65 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41538-024-00309-3
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Methodology
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :
Second, decide how you will analyze the data .
Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.
Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.
Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.
For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .
If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .
Qualitative | to broader populations. . | |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | . |
You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.
Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).
If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
Primary | . | methods. |
---|---|---|
Secondary |
In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .
In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .
To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.
Descriptive | . . | |
---|---|---|
Experimental |
Research method | Primary or secondary? | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|---|
Primary | Quantitative | To test cause-and-effect relationships. | |
Primary | Quantitative | To understand general characteristics of a population. | |
Interview/focus group | Primary | Qualitative | To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic. |
Observation | Primary | Either | To understand how something occurs in its natural setting. |
Secondary | Either | To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic. | |
Either | Either | To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study. |
Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.
Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.
Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:
Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .
Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).
You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:
Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.
Research method | Qualitative or quantitative? | When to use |
---|---|---|
Quantitative | To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations). | |
Meta-analysis | Quantitative | To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner. |
Qualitative | To analyze data collected from interviews, , or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated. | |
Either | To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words). |
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Research bias
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.
In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .
A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.
In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.
The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .
Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.
Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).
In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .
In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.
Other students also liked, writing strong research questions | criteria & examples.
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We examine the impact of family firms’ historical ownership on corporate fraud. Our results show that restructured family firms from state-owned enterprises are more likely to violate and commit more fraud than entrepreneurial family firms. This finding is robust to the difference-in-difference-in-differences estimation, an instrument variables regression, fixed effects research design, and propensity score matching (PSM) approach analysis. Mechanism analysis shows that restructured family firms result in lower financial performance, high labor redundancy, inefficient investments, and cash volatility. Therefore, restructured family firms have a stronger incentive to conceal these problems through corporate fraud. Furthermore, the effects of family firms’ historical ownership on corporate fraud are weakened for a more extended period after SOE ownership reform and the restructuring approach adopted by equity takeover.
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Acknowledge financial support from National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 72373169). Acknowledge financial support from Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (No. 2021A1515110992 and No. 2022A1515010204). Acknowledge financial support from China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. 2023M741072 and No. 2024T170248). Acknowledge financial support from Social Science Evaluation Committee Foundation of Hunan Province (No. XSP2023GLC112). Acknowledge financial support from Scientific Research Foundation of Hunan Provincial Department of Education (No. 23B0589). Acknowledge Henan Province Science and Technology Innovation Talent Program(No. 2023-CXRC-01).
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International Business School, Hunan University of Technology and Business, Changsha, 410205, China
Business School, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
Business School, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
International Business School Suzhou, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, Suzhou, 215123, China
Lingnan College, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, China
Guanchun Liu
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This table presents definitions of the key variables used in our regressions, including dependent variables, independent variable and control variables (Table 14 ).
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Huang, X., Li, W., Cheng, C. et al. Historical Ownership of Family Firms and Corporate Fraud. J Bus Ethics (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05817-6
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This technical note discusses WRI's Climate Finance Calculator , which is designed to calculate countries’ contributions to international climate finance based on their capacity to pay (economic metrics) and climate responsibility (emissions metrics). It extends WRI’s previous work by providing users with more flexibility to explore the implications of different combinations of countries’ emissions and economic metrics on their climate finance contributions.
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Climate finance is a vital element of the negotiations under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). In 2009, through the Copenhagen Accord, developed countries pledged to mobilize US$100 billion annually in climate finance for developing nations by 2020, a goal that was later extended through 2025. In 2023, at COP28 in Dubai, countries established a loss and damage fund to support developing countries. At COP29, countries are supposed to agree on a new finance goal that will replace the US$100 billion commitment to support developing countries’ climate action needs and priorities.
The global finance gap for climate transition is widening. According to data from the Climate Policy Initiative, the annual climate finance needed through 2030 increases steadily from $8.1 to $9 trillion before surging to over $10 trillion annually from 2031 to 2050. This marks at least a sixfold increase from the US$1.3 trillion annual climate finance flows between 2021 and 2022. Emerging markets and developing countries (excluding China) may need around $2.4 trillion annually by 2030 in external finance for mitigation and adaptation to meet climate and nature goals. Developing country nationally determined contributions list nearly $6 trillion in needs between 2020 and 2030. Securing sustained climate finance is crucial to increasing and maintaining climate action implementation.
The Climate Finance Calculator provides scenarios that allow users to compare countries’ climate finance shares based on their emissions levels and economic status. The climate finance shares are the indicative minimum threshold of what a country could contribute toward the selected finance target, depending on its responsibility and capability to pay, measured by its historical emissions and income, respectively. The calculator aims to inform UNFCCC climate finance negotiations around, for example, the new collective quantified goal (NCQG) and the capitalization and replenishment of the loss and damage fund and the Green Climate Fund (GCF).
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5. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways. To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if…then form. The first part of the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable. If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will improve.
Simple hypothesis. A simple hypothesis is a statement made to reflect the relation between exactly two variables. One independent and one dependent. Consider the example, "Smoking is a prominent cause of lung cancer." The dependent variable, lung cancer, is dependent on the independent variable, smoking. 4.
It seeks to explore and understand a particular aspect of the research subject. In contrast, a research hypothesis is a specific statement or prediction that suggests an expected relationship between variables. It is formulated based on existing knowledge or theories and guides the research design and data analysis. 7.
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. It is a preliminary answer to your question that helps guide the research process. Consider a study designed to examine the relationship between sleep deprivation and test ...
A research hypothesis (also called a scientific hypothesis) is a statement about the expected outcome of a study (for example, a dissertation or thesis). To constitute a quality hypothesis, the statement needs to have three attributes - specificity, clarity and testability. Let's take a look at these more closely.
INTRODUCTION. Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses.1,2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results.3,4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the ...
INTRODUCTION. We live in times of digitization that radically changes scientific research, reporting, and publishing strategies. Researchers all over the world are overwhelmed with processing large volumes of information and searching through numerous online platforms, all of which make the whole process of scholarly analysis and synthesis complex and sophisticated.
Table of contents. Step 1: Introduce your topic. Step 2: Describe the background. Step 3: Establish your research problem. Step 4: Specify your objective (s) Step 5: Map out your paper. Research paper introduction examples. Frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.
It's essentially an educated guess—based on observations—of what the results of your experiment or research will be. Some hypothesis examples include: If I water plants daily they will grow faster. Adults can more accurately guess the temperature than children can. Butterflies prefer white flowers to orange ones.
A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation ('x affects y because …'). A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses.
Variables in a hypothesis. In any research hypothesis, variables play a critical role. These are the elements or factors that the researcher manipulates, controls, or measures. Understanding variables is essential for crafting a clear, testable hypothesis and for the stages of research that follow, such as data collection and analysis.
Hypotheses in research need to satisfy specific criteria to be considered scientifically rigorous. Here are the most notable qualities of a strong hypothesis: Testability: Ensure the hypothesis allows you to work towards observable and testable results. Brevity and objectivity: Present your hypothesis as a brief statement and avoid wordiness.
The research hypothesis at the basis of this prediction is "the product of the KLF2 gene is involved in the development of the cardiovascular system in mice"—and this hypothesis is probably ... the hypothesis or statement of purpose is placed at the end of the Introduction section. How to Write a Hypothesis for a Research Paper.
The term null hypothesis refers to a research hypothesis type that assumes no statistically significant relationship exists within a set of observations or data. It represents a claim that assumes that any observed relationship is due to chance. Represented as H0, the null represents the conjecture of the research. Alternative hypothesis
The steps to write a research hypothesis are: 1. Stating the problem: Ensure that the hypothesis defines the research problem. 2. Writing a hypothesis as an 'if-then' statement: Include the action and the expected outcome of your study by following a 'if-then' structure.
The research hypothesis should be stated at the beginning of the study to guide the objectives for research. ... Study objectives define the specific aims of the study and should be clearly stated in the introduction of the research protocol. 7 From our previous example and using the investigative hypothesis that there is a difference in ...
Dr. Michelle Harris, Dr. Janet Batzli,Biocore. This section provides guidelines on how to construct a solid introduction to a scientific paper including background information, study question, biological rationale, hypothesis, and general approach. If the Introduction is done well, there should be no question in the reader's mind why and on ...
Statistical Hypothesis - A hypothesis of this type is one that can be proven using statistical analysis. For more information about how to create a hypothesis, have a look at the Fundamentals of Research Methodology by Engwa Godwill. Based on the hypothesis created, the researcher will need to determine the best research design for the experiment.
Hypothesis or Thesis The first few paragraphs of a journal article serve to introduce the topic, to provide the author's hypothesis or thesis, and to indicate why the research was done. A thesis or hypothesis is not always clearly labled; you may need to read through the introductory paragraphs to determine what the authors are proposing.
Step 5: Present your findings. The results of hypothesis testing will be presented in the results and discussion sections of your research paper, dissertation or thesis.. In the results section you should give a brief summary of the data and a summary of the results of your statistical test (for example, the estimated difference between group means and associated p-value).
A hypothesis is an informed and educated prediction or explanation about something. Part of the research process involves testing the hypothesis, and then examining the results of these tests as they relate to both the hypothesis and the world around you. When a researcher forms a hypothesis, this acts like a map through the research study.
Define your specific research problem and problem statement. Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study. Give an overview of the paper's structure. The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper.
Introduction. The global tourism industry has undergone rapid growth and transformation in recent decades, driven by factors such as increasing disposable incomes, technological advancements, and a growing demand for experiential travel. ... Hypothesis testing outcomes (Response 34) As shown in Table 6 and Figure 3, ... This research expands on ...
Research indicates that the levels of antibiotics in whey and fresh cheese closely mirror those found in the original milk, with as much as 85.9% of these substances being transferred from the ...
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question:
We examine the impact of family firms' historical ownership on corporate fraud. Our results show that restructured family firms from state-owned enterprises are more likely to violate and commit more fraud than entrepreneurial family firms. This finding is robust to the difference-in-difference-in-differences estimation, an instrument variables regression, fixed effects research design, and ...
Climate finance is a vital element of the negotiations under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). In 2009, through the Copenhagen Accord, developed countries pledged to mobilize US$100 billion annually in climate finance for developing nations by 2020, a goal that was later extended through 2025. In 2023, at COP28 in Dubai, countries established a loss and damage fund to ...