common problems in writing research papers

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4 Common Research Writing Mistakes (and How to Fix Them)

It is disappointing to see authors who, after putting in so much of time and effort into conducting their research, make peace with their work being judged based on styling or linguistic errors, rather than its scientific merit.

Successful researchers understand that communicating your research effectively is as important as conducting solid scientific research. You can also check out this article on top ten ways to improve technical writing , which helps you to eliminate the  most common problems in technical writing and provide tips on how to recognize and solve them.

If you are about to start writing an academic paper soon, here are a few common research writing mistakes you must keep in mind to avoid unnecessary rejections:

1. Not emphasising on “why” the problem you are trying to solve is important

The introduction sets the tone of the entire paper. Authors often utilize this section to talk about the objectives of the study and explain the problem they are addressing. But a lot of authors leave it up to the reviewer to understand ‘why’ the problem is so important and challenging, which is a big mistake.

Authors must take the responsibility of convincing the reviewer about the gravity of the problem to give a compelling start to their paper. Use data to state why the problem is so important, how the current solutions are falling short to solve it, and why it is a difficult problem to solve. Similarly, just stating the solution to the problem is not enough. Give detailed arguments to explain what makes your solution so compelling. Explaining the limitations of the current solution and the challenges faced in solving the problem are also good ways to intrigue the reviewer. For example, if you are optimizing a current solution, showing the impact of those optimizations on the outcome can certainly help make a good case for your solution.

2. Weak structuring of the paper

The longer the research paper, the more challenging it becomes to keep readers engaged until the end. It is easy to drift from one thought to another.

A strong research question is at the center of a good research paper. You might want to present some good ideas, but if it doesn’t relate directly to the answer to your research question, it’s best to keep it for another day. If a project allows you to explore several research questions, it is best to address each question in a different paper.

Unnecessary information like why you used a particular software to create pie charts, or explaining fundamentals of a topic when the majority of your readers are already well-versed with it are easy ways to make people lose their interest in your work.

In some domains, projects are undertaken for operational purposes and not necessarily to add anything to scientific knowledge. Papers that are written based on such projects should thus define their primary research question as the basis of the paper.

A good research question is specific, original, and expresses a strong perspective on one focused topic. It should either extend the conversation about the topic in the scientific community or refute existing knowledge. For example, ‘we examined if giving a checklist of vaccinations for a newborn makes couples come back to the same hospital for vaccinations,’ might make a good hypothesis. Authors must note that their question should be intriguing enough for those in the same field of study.

All supporting statements should in effect answer this primary research question and pose a sustained inquiry and an inspiring discussion around your research question. This helps maintain unity throughout the paper and lends a logic flow to your ideas. Although most journals recommend following IMRAD (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) to define the structure of a scientific paper, you must check specific requirements of the journal under the author’s guidelines section.

In the image below, you can see a great demarcation provided by OUP of the points to address under each section of IMRAD for a typical research paper:

Often when submitting manuscripts, authors do not mention the research question or the defined aim of the question is too vague. Mixing points between sections is another common issue that can make the paper lose its impact. The above image should work as a handy reference, in case you get confused. Besides structure, it is also important for authors to rightfully acknowledge the limitations of their study and make sure that their discussion is providing a convincing answer to the research question. Non-native speakers are highly recommended to get their papers proofread by a native speaker at least once before submission. The only time when it is probably okay to receive a paper rejection is when there is some grave loophole in your research you couldn’t have realized earlier and it warrants further deep dive into the subject. Getting your paper rejected due to linguistic errors, paper style errors, LaTeX errors or because you didn’t acknowledge the latest research, is a waste of your time as well as the reviewers and the journal where you submitted the paper.

3. Citing the sources incorrectly

There are several ways you can interpret this. Many scholars do not add relevant references that support their key arguments in the introduction and the discussion.

At other times, reviewers reject papers that cite references from a long time ago as it is unlikely that no scientific progress has been made in a particular field in a couple of years. Citing newer research thus is a great way to make sure that your manuscript is relevant and adds to the current conversation about the topic you are addressing. Add a few newer references from top journals to show how well aware you are about the recent developments to earn yourself some brownie points.

No one wants additional rounds of the stressful peer review process. It is common to spot authors conveniently skipping important research references (sometimes intentionally) or mentioning incorrect facts when citing previous references. For example, if you propose a revolutionary new algorithm to solve a problem but fail to recognize that it can be solved by an already existing solution, it might lead to rejection of your paper.

Each journal has specific guidelines on how to cite sources as well. Make sure you do not take these guidelines lightly and follow them correctly. Of course, if you are a SciSpace (Formerly Typeset) user, you do not have to worry about any of this as you can select the pre-set template of your journal on our platform and follow all citation and author guidelines 100% in a single click.

To understand all about citations, refer to The Fundamentals of Journal Citation

4. Not enriching your paper with appropriate figures and tables

Using text to describe everything can be boring and might not help you put your results/data across as effectively as a table or a figure. Adding figures and tables also help you flesh out your results section and give it the emphasis it deserves. Otherwise, it will probably be the shortest section of your manuscript. Authors often make a lot of mistakes in regards to basic formatting conventions in figures and tables. For example, figures and tables should be numbered in the same order in which they appear in your text and should be cited as (Figure 1) or (Fig. 1), and not (See Figure 1 attached). Same goes for tables as well. Also, your figures and tables should be self-explanatory.

If you are unable to decide what would be the best way to represent your data — tables or figures — the general rule is that tables present the experimental results, while figures offer a better visualization when comparing experimental results with theoretical/calculated values or previous works. Regardless of the choice you make, do not duplicate the information you’ve covered elsewhere in the manuscript.

Here are a few quick tips to present your figures and tables more clearly:

• Don’t use crowded plots. Limit to 3–4 sets of data per figure and choose your scales carefully
• Use the right size for axis labels
• Make sure your symbols are clear and it is easy to distinguish data sets
• Avoid including long boring tables and add them as supplementary material, if needed

Although the list of research writing mistakes can be pretty long-winding if you delve into the granularities of LaTeX errors or specific grammatical errors, those are probably appropriate subjects to take up in other posts. Are you a journal editor or perhaps a researcher yourself? What are the common errors you’ve observed in research papers? Share it with us.

Our recommendation, since you are looking for platforms that simplify research workflows, is SciSpace . All your research needs can be met through it, from literature searches to writing papers to publishing.

SciSpace is a platform that researchers, universities, and publishers worldwide trust for everything they need. An exhaustive repository with more than 200 million research papers from across disciplines with SEO-optimized summaries, public profiles to showcase your experience and expertise, a specifically-built collaborative text editor, 20,000+ journal templates that can be inserted in a click, and so much more.

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The Top Twenty: A Quick Guide to Troubleshooting Your Writing

Readers judge your writing by your control of certain conventions, which may change depending on your audience, purpose, and writing situation.  For example, your instructor may or may not mark errors in your paper if he’s more concerned with its argument or structure than he is with sentence-level correctness; he could also decide an error is not serious.  Some instructors may even see the errors listed below as stylistic options. However, a large-scale study by Andrea Lunsford and Karen Lunsford (2008) found that these errors are the most likely to attract readers’ negative attention.  Before handing in your papers, proofread them carefully for these errors, which are illustrated below in the sentences in italics.  

THE TOP TWENTY

1. wrong word.

Wrong word errors take a number of forms. They may convey a slightly different meaning than you intend ( compose instead of comprise ) or a completely wrong meaning ( prevaricate  instead of procrastinate ). They may also be as simple as a wrong preposition or other type of wrong word in an idiom.

Use your thesaurus and spell checker with care. If you select a word from a thesaurus without knowing its precise meaning or allow a spell checker to correct spelling automatically, you may make wrong-word errors. If prepositions and idioms are tricky for you, look up the standard usage.

Here are a couple of wrong word examples:

Did you catch my illusion to the Bible?

Illusion means “an erroneous perception of reality.” In the context of this sentence,  allusion was needed because it means "reference.”

Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene is a magnificent sixteenth-century allergy.

A spell checker replaced allegory with allergy.

2. Missing Comma after an Introductory Element

Use a comma after every introductory element—whether word, phrase or clause—to clarify where it ends and the rest of the sentence begins. When the introductory element is very short, you can skip the comma, but including it is never wrong.

Without a comma after the introductory element, it’s hard to see the location of the subject (“they”) in this sentence:

Determined to make their flight on time they rose at dawn.

3. Incomplete or Missing Documentation

Documentation practices vary from discipline to discipline.  But in academic and research writing, it’s a good idea to always cite your sources: omitting documentation can result in charges of plagiarism.

The examples below follow MLA style.  In this example, the page number of the print source for this quotation must be included.

The Social Media Bible defines social media as the “activities, practices, and behaviors among communities of people who gather online to share information, knowledge, and opinions using conversational media.”

And here, the source mentioned should be identified because it makes a specific, arguable claim:

According to one source, it costs almost twice an employee’s salary to recruit and train a replacement. 

Cite each source you refer to in the text, following the guidelines of the documentation style you are using. 

4. Vague Pronoun Reference

A pronoun (e.g., he, this, it) should refer clearly to the noun it replaces (called the antecedent).  If more than one word could be the antecedent, or if no specific antecedent is present, edit to make the meaning clear.

In this sentence, it possibly refers to more than one word:

If you put this handout in your binder, it may remind you of important tutoring strategies .

In some pronoun usage, the reference is implied but not stated.  Here, for example, you might wonder what which refers to:

The authoritarian school changed its cell phone policy, which many students resisted.

To improve this sentence, the writer needs to make explicit what students resisted.

5. Spelling

Even though technology now reviews much of our spelling for us, one of the top 20 most common errors is a spelling error.  That’s because spell checkers cannot identify many misspellings, and are most likely to miss homonyms (e.g., presence/presents), compound words incorrectly spelled as separate words, and proper nouns, particularly names. After you run the spell checker, proofread carefully for errors such as these:

Vladmir Putin is the controversial leader of Russia.

Every where she walked, she was reminded of him.

6. Mechanical Error with a Quotation

When we quote other writers, we bring their voices into our arguments.  Quotation marks crucially show where their words end and our own begin. 

Quotation marks come in pairs; don’t forget to open and close your quotations.  In most documentation styles (e.g., MLA Style), block quotations do not need quotations marks.  Consult your professor’s preferred style manual to learn how to present block quotations. 

Follow conventions when using quotation marks with other punctuation. Here, the comma should be placed inside the quotation marks:

"A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction", Virginia Woolf argues.

7. Unnecessary Comma

We often have a choice about whether or not to use a comma.  But if we add them to our sentences when and where they are not needed, then we may obscure rather than clarify our meaning.

Do not use commas to set off restrictive elements that are necessary to the meaning of the words they modify.  Here, for example, no comma is needed to set off the restrictive phrase  of working parents , which is necessary to indicate which parents the sentence is talking about.

Many children, of working parents, walk home from school by themselves.

Do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet) when the conjunction does not join parts of a compound sentence.  In this example, no comma is needed before the word  and  because it joins two phrases that modify the same verb, applies.

  This social scourge can be seen in urban centers, and in rural outposts.

Do not use a comma before the first or after the last item in a series.

The students asked their TAs to review, the assignment rubric, a sample paper and their comments, before the end of the quarter.

Do not use a comma between a subject and verb.

Happily, the waiters, sat down during a break.

Do not use a comma between a verb and its object or complement.

On her way home from work, she bought, a book at the bookstore.

Do not use a comma between a preposition and its object.

On her way home from work, she bought a book at, the bookstore.

8. Unnecessary or Missing Capitalization

Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives, the first words of sentences, and important words in titles, along with certain words indicating directions and family relationships. Do not capitalize most other words. When in doubt, check a dictionary.

Financial Aid is a pressing concern for many University Students.

9. Missing Word

If you read your work outloud before submittingit, you are more likely to notice omitted words.  Be particularly careful not to omit words from quotations.

Soccer fans the globe rejoiced when the striker scored the second goal.

10. Faulty Sentence Structure

If a sentence starts out with one kind of structure and then changes to another kind, it will confuse readers.

The information that families have access to is what financial aid is available and thinking about the classes available, and how to register.

Maintain the grammatical pattern within a sentence.  Each sentence must have a subject and a verb, and the subjects and predicates must make sense together.  In the example above, thinking about the classes available does not help the reader understand the information families have access to.  Parallel structures can help your reader see the relationships among your ideas.  Here’s the sentence revised:

Families have access to information about financial aid, class availability, and registration.

11. Missing Comma with a Nonrestrictive Element

A nonrestrictive phrase or clause provides additional information that is not essential to the basic meaning of the sentence.  Use commas to set off a nonrestrictive element.

David who loved to read history was the first to head to the British Library.

The clause  who loved to read history does not affect the basic meaning of the sentence.  The clause could be taken out and the reader would still understand that David was the first to head to the British Library.  

12. Unnecessary Shift in Verb Tense

Verbs that shift from one tense to another with no clear reason can confuse readers.

Martin searched for a great horned owl.  He takes photographs of all the birds he sights.

13. Missing Comma in a Compound Sentence

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses.  When the clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), use a comma before the conjunction to indicate a pause between the two thoughts.

Miranda drove her brother and her mother waited at home.

Without the comma, a reader may think at first that Miranda drove both her brother and her mother.

14. Unnecessary or Missing Apostrophe (including its/it's)

To make a noun possessive, add either an apostrophe and an s (Ed's phone) or an apostrophe alone (the girls’ bathroom). Do not use an apostrophe in the possessive pronouns ours, yours, and hers. Use its to mean belong to it; use it's only when you mean it is or it has.

Repeated viral infections compromise doctors immune systems.

The chef lifted the skillet off it’s hook.  Its a fourteen-inch, copper skillet.

15. Fused (run-on) Sentence

A fused sentence (also called a run-on) joins clauses that could each stand alone as a sentence with no punctuation or words to link them. Fused sentences must be either divided into separate sentences or joined by adding words or punctuation.

The house was flooded with light, the moon rose above the horizon.

He wondered what the decision meant he thought about it all night.

16. Comma Splice

A comma splice occurs when only a comma separates clauses that could each stand alone as a sentence. To correct a comma splice, you can insert a semicolon or period, connect the clauses with a word such as and/or/because, or restructure the sentence.

The students rushed the field, they tore down the goalposts. 

17. Lack of pronoun/antecedent agreement

Pronouns typically must agree with their antecedents in gender (male or female, if appropriate) and in number (singular or plural). Many indefinite pronouns, such as everyone and each, are always singular.  However,  they can be used to agree with a singular antecedent in order to use inclusive or gender-neutral language.  When antecedents are joined by or or nor, the pronoun must agree with the closer antecedent. A collection noun such as team can be either singular or plural, depending on whether the members are seen as a group or individuals.

Every guest left their shoes at the door.

18. Poorly Integrated Quotation

Quotations should be logically and smoothly integrated with the writing around them, the grammar of the quotation complementing the grammar of the neighboring prose.  They usually need to be introduced (with a signal phrase) rather than dropped abruptly into the writing.

An award-winning 2009 study of friendship "understanding social networks allows us to understand how indeed, in the case of humans, the whole comes to be greater than the sum of its parts" (Christakis and Fowler 26).

"Social networks are intricate things of beauty" (Christakis and Fowler xiii). Maintaining close friendships is good for your health.

19. Missing or Unnecessary Hyphen

A compound adjective requires a hyphen when it modifies a noun that follows it.

This article describes eighteenth century theater.

A two-word verb should not be hyphenated. 

The dealers want to buy-back the computers and refurbish them.

20. Sentence Fragment

A sentence fragment is part of a sentence that is presented as if it were a complete sentence.  The following illustrate the ways sentence fragments can be created:

Without a subject

The American colonists resisted British taxation.  And started the American Revolution.

No complete verb

The pink geranium blooming in its pot.

Beginning with a subordinating word

We visited the park. Where we threw the Frisbee.

These 20 most common errors can be avoided in your writing if you reserve time to proofread your final draft before submission.

Works Cited

Lunsford, Andrea A. and Karen J. Lunsford.  “Mistakes are a Fact of Life: A National Comparative Study.”   CCC 59 (2008) 781-806.

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Five common mistakes in apa style—and how you can fix them.

You’ve got the content down. Now you just need to edit your paper. You’ll need to look at grammar and punctuation. You’ll need to make sure your spelling is accurate and your paragraphs are structured well. And, you’ll also need to check the APA format.

Ensuring your paper follows APA Style may seem like a small requirement. But really, it’s vital. Just like a boss or client may request a certain format for a proposal or report, circles in higher education require the use of APA Style.

There’s a lot to know about APA Style—the right paper sections, correct formatting of in-text citations and using proper punctuation.

You may not always get it perfect. But we can learn from our mistakes.

Here are five common mistakes students make with APA Style and easy ways you can fix them.

1. Incorrect Header

The first words in a paper with a title page is the running header. It’s a simple first step but it also often gets ignored. According to a study conducted by the Journal of European Psychology Students (JEPS) in 2013, 86% of all papers reviewed either did not contain a running head or the running head was improperly formatted.

That’s a lot of missing first lines.

You may wonder what the big deal is if the full title is listed on the title page anyway. But like a resume gives the employer a first impression of you, so your title page gives a first impression of your paper as well.

The running head should include a shortened version of your full title justified left, page numbers justified to the right and in 12 point font Times New Roman. Also, on the title page ONLY, include the label, “Running head.”

You may even want to set up the headers of your paper before you begin writing the actual content. That way, you won’t forget or neglect to include that important running head.

2. Errors in In-Text Citations

You’ve spent hours researching and reading information to include in your paper. Now, it’s time to give credit where credit is due. In-text citations are a common trouble area for many students. In fact, JEPS found that 84% of all papers reviewed during their study contained problems with in-text citations.

APA Style requires the use of the author’s last name and the year of publication in an in-text citation. If you’re including a quote, page numbers from the original work are included as well.

If you include the author’s name in the sentence, put the year right after, as in:

Smith (2017) reported higher reading scores with the first group of students.

If you don’t, put both the author’s name and year at the end of the sentence, as in:

The first group of students had higher reading scores (Smith, 2017).

Here are some other important guidelines to remember about in-text citations:

• All sources used in in-text citations must also be included in the reference page at the end of the paper.
• When citing multiple sources in a single sentence, place last names in alphabetical order.
• If there’s no author found, use a shortened version of the title instead.
• If there’s no date found, use “n.d.”

3. In-Text Citations Don’t Match the Reference List

You may have mastered the in-text citation but you’ll also need to include those sources in a reference list. Sometimes, students forget to mention an in-text citation source in the reference list; or the source in the reference list can’t be found in the paper.

Unlike some other style guides, APA Style does not require the reference list to include consulting sources. If a source is cited in the paper, it’s in the reference list; and if it’s in the reference list, it’s cited in the paper.

An easy way to fix this error is to compare all the in-text sources with those found on the reference list. Ensure they all have a match and that the author name and year are consistent.

4. Incorrect Quotations

When directly quoting or paraphrasing from an original source, you’ll need to include the page number.

But so many online resources, what if there is no page number listed for the source? Here are some options to use instead:

• Paragraph number.
• Overarching heading plus paragraph number.
• Abbreviated heading in quotes and paragraph number.

Adding direct quotations or paraphrases from quality sources add value and credibility to your paper. Keep the credibility by citing sources well.

5. Citing with Multiple Sources

You know you need the author’s last name and publication year for an in-text citation. But what do you do if there’s more than one author?

Not properly citing a single source with multiple sources is another common error students make in APA Style. Sometimes, students don’t include both names, or they forget the comma or they put the year in the wrong place. Here’s your easy fix :

Two Authors

• In the sentence, name both authors in the signal phrase, using “ and ” between the name; end with the year: Reports by Smith and Doe (2017) states….
• In the parentheses at the end of the sentence, use last names separated by “ & “; end with a comma and the year: …the report stated (Smith & Doe, 2017).

Three to Five Authors

• In the first reference, list all the authors, either in the signal phrase or parentheses. If in parentheses, use commas up until the last two names, where you’ll add “&” and end with a comma and the year: (Smith, Doe, Berry & Lee, 2017).
• In subsequent references, use only the first author’s last name, followed by “et al.” (Smith et al., 2017).

Six or More Authors

Sometimes, works have a lot of authors. In these cases, use the first author’s last name, followed by “et al.” (Smith et al., 2017).

Be supported as you pursue your goals

Maintaining APA Style in your paper may seem like just an extra step to complete. But cohesion in style enhances the presentation and cohesion of your paper. It ensures all sources are given credit for their work. The consistent guidelines help you be able to check off what elements you have and what you may still be missing or will need to fix.

And when your supervisor asks for a sales report with a particular format, you’ll know just how to follow it.

Cornerstone University offers numerous academic support resources to equip you to succeed in your degree program, whether that’s in writing a paper or other assignments.

Discover Academic Support

Ellie Walburg

Ellie Walburg (B.S. ’17, M.B.A. ’20)  serves as the admissions communications coordinator for Cornerstone University’s Professional & Graduate Studies division.

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6 Common mistakes in research paper writing: And how to avoid them

• June 2, 2021
• PRODUCTIVITY

My supervisor frequently mentions the following phrase: “Scientific articles are not written in English. It is a different language that you must learn separately”. I only grasped the significance of that remark when I attempted to write my first scientific article.

Despite the fact that conducting scientific research is always thrilling, one thing is certain: scientific writing is difficult to master. Scientific papers are essentially well-presented pieces of information. You’ve been given the challenge of conveying your ideas in a simple, easy-to-understand manner while maintaining high standards. But, how do you go about doing it?

To begin, you must recognize that the sole purpose of conducting research is to educate one another . When you have that mindset, you’ll discover new methods to “communicate” with others more effectively. This endeavour will immediately elevate you to the status of “expert” in your field — a perfect win-win!

On top of that mindset, consider the following recommendations to help you write your perfect scientific essay by avoiding common mistakes in research paper writing. Simply avoiding these mistakes can put you light years ahead of the pack. Let’s get started!

1.Poor organization : one of the most common mistakes in research paper writing

Poor organization is one of the most common mistakes in research paper writing, according to various studies on the subject.

“Even if a scientific report is uninteresting or contains long phrases and big words, if the reader feels the topic is important to him, he can plough through it. But if it’s disorganized, there’s no way someone is willing to go through the text. It’s impossible to make sense of what’s written.”

It’s important to stick to standard formats in general. An abstract; table of contents; summary; introduction; main body (theory, apparatus and methods, findings, and discussions); conclusions and suggestions; nomenclature; references; and appendices, for example, are all included in a general scientific article.

Because you will have a clear sense of the “flow” of the entire text, you can always make suitable adjustments to the structure in the end. However, if you begin without an unconventional framework or no framework at all, your project will fail miserably. So, when you’re working on the first drafts, make sure you have a properly defined framework in mind.

You can use a note taking app to jot down notes and come up with a structure — eliminating these common mistakes in research paper writing.

2.Not clearly understanding your audience.

One of the most common mistakes in research paper writing, that researchers make when they first start is not knowing who would benefit from their work, which is an issue right from the bat. You may write an outstanding essay on your study. Still, if you don’t identify your target audience beforehand, you’ll be in trouble. Never lose sight of your audience. As a result, it’s critical to begin your research endeavour with a deeper grasp of your target audience. Knowing who you want to read your article can help you pick the right journal, come up with a proper title, and be clear about your argument.

Your paper aims to chronicle your results and share them with the rest of your community. It is the exchange of ideas, not the documentation of them, that advances science. Consider your paper to be the initiation or continuation of a dialogue. It’s simpler to remember that you’re speaking to someone else rather than merely preserving your work for posterity by just documenting them.

Also, in your writing, avoid seeming overly intellectual. Despite the fact that your audience is likely to represent the same scientific community, be courteous and clarify acronyms the first time you use them. Don’t get carried away with technical language that’s hard to understand. Consider how well-informed your targeted audience is on the subject. Rather than assuming, it’s always better to clarify.

3.Not having a clear hypothesis or argument.

This is a typical blunder committed by many graduate and undergraduate researchers at the start of their careers. When writing their first scientific article, most of them find they don’t have a well-defined hypothesis. This is a significant component of the list of the most common mistakes in research paper writing.

Authors frequently use this section to discuss the study’s objectives and the problem they are addressing. However, many authors make the error of leaving it up to the reviewer to figure out “why” the problem is significant and challenging.

This is why it is critical to begin writing your first paper as soon as possible. Even if you comprehend it afterwards, having a clear grasp of your study hypothesis as you start your literature review is probably a good idea.

Suppose you discover that you need adequate hypotheses for your study when writing your first paper. In that case, it is usually a better idea to alter your priorities for a bit and focus solely on defining your research hypotheses rather than attempting to write the paper. Yes, indeed! It’s that critical.

4.Writing in a complex language.

This is simply one of the most common mistakes in research paper writing. Anyone who has read detailed reports understands the dangers of “technicalese,” a pretentious, exaggerated language that makes your work look like it was created by a computer or corporation rather than a human. By my definition, “technicalese” is a more sophisticated language than the topics it is used to explain. Technicians and bureaucrats hide behind a mess of incomprehensible memos and reports using jargon, clichés, outdated words, passive sentences, and an excess of adjectives in their works.

It’s tempting to employ technical terms to demonstrate our understanding of a subject. Jargon, clichés, archaic words, and passive sentences, on the other hand, make your work more complicated than it has to be. To counteract this problem, use the active voice to make your writing more direct and dynamic.

For example:

Passive: The metal beams were entirely corroded by the usage of saltwater.

Active: The usage of saltwater entirely corroded the metal beams.

How can you avoid using “technicalese” in your writing? To begin, stay away from jargon. Use a technical phrase only if it clearly explains your purpose. When you minimize jargon, your writing will be understandable to both novices and experienced experts. Make use of contractions. Avoid using cliches and out-of-date language. Write straightforwardly. As much as possible, use the active voice. Always keep in mind that the goal is to spread information to as many people as possible, not to please a limited intellectual elite.

 5.Not writing for skim-readers

The title will be read by the majority of individuals who look at your paper. The majority of folks who are interested in the title will read merely the abstract. Many people who go past the abstract will only glance at the figures and figure captions (to get a quick overview of your findings), as well as the final line of the Intro (to understand why you undertook the study) and the last line of the Conclusions or Discussion (to find your take-home message). Your article should make sense to all of these readers. It should not be easily misunderstood by those who aren’t paying attention.

So, in your title, tell as much of the story as concisely as possible, as clearly as possible in your abstract (covering what you did, why, and why the results matter), think carefully about the last line of each section, and try to make the figures tell the story on their own.This way , you will have the opportunity to not only make the content look much nicer but to avoid these types of common mistakes in research paper writing which is a huge advantage.

Yes, I admit it! I also used to write several pages at the start of several chapters BEFORE stating the objectives and what will be accomplished. I eventually got the message when my professors criticized me for not putting the important ideas front and centre on the first or second page of multiple papers. If at all possible, include all of your research objectives in the first two pages of your paper rather than later. This entails writing succinctly. Background information can be more verbose once the objectives are provided, but it should emphasize coherence.

“Show your audience what you’re about to tell them, then tell them, and lastly summarize what you just told them,” one of my lecturers said. It’s indeed easier stated than done. When I was pondering “what to write” between chapter segments, I didn’t understand how effective this statement was until I found myself writing “new” concepts in the paper that hadn’t been presented earlier. This involved going back through earlier portions of the document to see whether any “new” points were added accidentally (“I told the audience more than I initially promised”) or if any information was missing (“I didn’t tell the audience everything as promised”). What are the key takeaways you’re “communicating” to the audience?

Suppose a skim reader can comprehend the general picture by skimming. In that case, there is a far better probability that they will read the entire text.

6.Not understanding what your advisor expects.

While some advisors may just approve your paper, many will insist on reading it and providing feedback before you submit it. If you’re in a large group, your adviser is likely to be preoccupied with a variety of tasks, such as reading the dissertation of a graduate student who is defending next week or planning a week-long trip (Happened to me once!). Many students would not take this as one of the common mistakes in research paper writing, but this would easily be someone’s worst nightmare if they did all the hard work but could not submit the paper on time .

As a response, be respectful and allow enough time. While one professor may be permitted to work on a paper until the very last minute, another may stipulate that a complete draft be submitted a specified amount of time before the due date.

If your advisor prefers to talk about the research before you finish your draft, you should do so. A competent adviser, for example, may assist you in determining what to emphasize, what is innovative and why, what the flow and structure of the paper should be, what to emphasize in the assessment, which earlier work and study you must analyze, and so on. This can result in a far better first draft that just takes little editing than a paper that is not well focused and may require extensive reworking.

These suggestions should help you overcome some of your fears and anxieties about writing and make the process smoother and more productive – eventually, come up with a proper text by eliminating most of the common mistakes in research paper writing.

Finally, bear in mind that success in writing — or any kind of communication — is primarily a question of attitude: if you don’t believe writing is important enough to devote the time and effort necessary to do it well, you won’t. If, on the other hand, you feel writing is essential and want to improve, you will!

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Aruna Kumarasiri

Founder at Proactive Grad, Materials Engineer, Researcher, and turned author. In 2019, he started his professional carrier as a materials engineer with the continuation of his research studies. His exposure to both academic and industrial worlds has provided many opportunities for him to give back to young professionals.

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Research Writing: Tips and Common Errors

• First Online: 24 March 2020

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• Leonie Munro 2 &
• Aarthi Ramlaul 3  

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Academic writing should be precise and objective. It should not include jargon, circumlocution, tautology, or clichés. Effective academic writing requires the use of good grammar, a logical structure, precise verb and word choice, and information. Each paragraph has a single theme that is developed in several connecting sentences. Punctuation is important in academic writing. Examples are provided to highlight what is required in academic writing.

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The Value of Writing

Writing the Literature Review: Common Mistakes and Best Practices

The Process of Scientific Writing: Developing a Research Question, Conducting a Literature Review, and Creating an Outline

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Munro, L., Ramlaul, A. (2020). Research Writing: Tips and Common Errors. In: Ramlaul, A. (eds) Medical Imaging and Radiotherapy Research: Skills and Strategies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37944-5_20

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How to Write a Research Paper

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Research Paper Fundamentals

How to choose a topic or question, how to create a working hypothesis or thesis, common research paper methodologies, how to gather and organize evidence , how to write an outline for your research paper, how to write a rough draft, how to revise your draft, how to produce a final draft, resources for teachers .

It is not fair to say that no one writes anymore. Just about everyone writes text messages, brief emails, or social media posts every single day. Yet, most people don't have a lot of practice with the formal, organized writing required for a good academic research paper. This guide contains links to a variety of resources that can help demystify the process. Some of these resources are intended for teachers; they contain exercises, activities, and teaching strategies. Other resources are intended for direct use by students who are struggling to write papers, or are looking for tips to make the process go more smoothly.

The resources in this section are designed to help students understand the different types of research papers, the general research process, and how to manage their time. Below, you'll find links from university writing centers, the trusted Purdue Online Writing Lab, and more.

What is an Academic Research Paper?

"Genre and the Research Paper" (Purdue OWL)

There are different types of research papers. Different types of scholarly questions will lend themselves to one format or another. This is a brief introduction to the two main genres of research paper: analytic and argumentative. 

"7 Most Popular Types of Research Papers" (Personal-writer.com)

This resource discusses formats that high school students commonly encounter, such as the compare and contrast essay and the definitional essay. Please note that the inclusion of this link is not an endorsement of this company's paid service.

How to Prepare and Plan Out Writing a Research Paper

Teachers can give their students a step-by-step guide like these to help them understand the different steps of the research paper process. These guides can be combined with the time management tools in the next subsection to help students come up with customized calendars for completing their papers.

"Ten Steps for Writing Research Papers" (American University)  

This resource from American University is a comprehensive guide to the research paper writing process, and includes examples of proper research questions and thesis topics.

"Steps in Writing a Research Paper" (SUNY Empire State College)

This guide breaks the research paper process into 11 steps. Each "step" links to a separate page, which describes the work entailed in completing it.

How to Manage Time Effectively

The links below will help students determine how much time is necessary to complete a paper. If your sources are not available online or at your local library, you'll need to leave extra time for the Interlibrary Loan process. Remember that, even if you do not need to consult secondary sources, you'll still need to leave yourself ample time to organize your thoughts.

"Research Paper Planner: Timeline" (Baylor University)

This interactive resource from Baylor University creates a suggested writing schedule based on how much time a student has to work on the assignment.

"Research Paper Planner" (UCLA)

UCLA's library offers this step-by-step guide to the research paper writing process, which also includes a suggested planning calendar.

There's a reason teachers spend a long time talking about choosing a good topic. Without a good topic and a well-formulated research question, it is almost impossible to write a clear and organized paper. The resources below will help you generate ideas and formulate precise questions.

"How to Select a Research Topic" (Univ. of Michigan-Flint)

This resource is designed for college students who are struggling to come up with an appropriate topic. A student who uses this resource and still feels unsure about his or her topic should consult the course instructor for further personalized assistance.

"25 Interesting Research Paper Topics to Get You Started" (Kibin)

This resource, which is probably most appropriate for high school students, provides a list of specific topics to help get students started. It is broken into subsections, such as "paper topics on local issues."

"Writing a Good Research Question" (Grand Canyon University)

This introduction to research questions includes some embedded videos, as well as links to scholarly articles on research questions. This resource would be most appropriate for teachers who are planning lessons on research paper fundamentals.

"How to Write a Research Question the Right Way" (Kibin)

This student-focused resource provides more detail on writing research questions. The language is accessible, and there are embedded videos and examples of good and bad questions.

It is important to have a rough hypothesis or thesis in mind at the beginning of the research process. People who have a sense of what they want to say will have an easier time sorting through scholarly sources and other information. The key, of course, is not to become too wedded to the draft hypothesis or thesis. Just about every working thesis gets changed during the research process.

CrashCourse Video: "Sociology Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is tailored to sociology students, it is applicable to students in a variety of social science disciplines. This video does a good job demonstrating the connection between the brainstorming that goes into selecting a research question and the formulation of a working hypothesis.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement for an Analytical Essay" (YouTube)

Students writing analytical essays will not develop the same type of working hypothesis as students who are writing research papers in other disciplines. For these students, developing the working thesis may happen as a part of the rough draft (see the relevant section below). 

"Research Hypothesis" (Oakland Univ.)

This resource provides some examples of hypotheses in social science disciplines like Political Science and Criminal Justice. These sample hypotheses may also be useful for students in other soft social sciences and humanities disciplines like History.

When grading a research paper, instructors look for a consistent methodology. This section will help you understand different methodological approaches used in research papers. Students will get the most out of these resources if they use them to help prepare for conversations with teachers or discussions in class.

"Types of Research Designs" (USC)

A "research design," used for complex papers, is related to the paper's method. This resource contains introductions to a variety of popular research designs in the social sciences. Although it is not the most intuitive site to read, the information here is very valuable. 

"Major Research Methods" (YouTube)

Although this video is a bit on the dry side, it provides a comprehensive overview of the major research methodologies in a format that might be more accessible to students who have struggled with textbooks or other written resources.

"Humanities Research Strategies" (USC)

This is a portal where students can learn about four methodological approaches for humanities papers: Historical Methodologies, Textual Criticism, Conceptual Analysis, and the Synoptic method.

"Selected Major Social Science Research Methods: Overview" (National Academies Press)

This appendix from the book  Using Science as Evidence in Public Policy , printed by National Academies Press, introduces some methods used in social science papers.

"Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 6. The Methodology" (USC)

This resource from the University of Southern California's library contains tips for writing a methodology section in a research paper.

How to Determine the Best Methodology for You

Anyone who is new to writing research papers should be sure to select a method in consultation with their instructor. These resources can be used to help prepare for that discussion. They may also be used on their own by more advanced students.

"Choosing Appropriate Research Methodologies" (Palgrave Study Skills)

This friendly and approachable resource from Palgrave Macmillan can be used by students who are just starting to think about appropriate methodologies.

"How to Choose Your Research Methods" (NFER (UK))

This is another approachable resource students can use to help narrow down the most appropriate methods for their research projects.

The resources in this section introduce the process of gathering scholarly sources and collecting evidence. You'll find a range of material here, from introductory guides to advanced explications best suited to college students. Please consult the LitCharts  How to Do Academic Research guide for a more comprehensive list of resources devoted to finding scholarly literature.

Google Scholar

Students who have access to library websites with detailed research guides should start there, but people who do not have access to those resources can begin their search for secondary literature here.

"Gathering Appropriate Information" (Texas Gateway)

This resource from the Texas Gateway for online resources introduces students to the research process, and contains interactive exercises. The level of complexity is suitable for middle school, high school, and introductory college classrooms.

"An Overview of Quantitative and Qualitative Data Collection Methods" (NSF)

This PDF from the National Science Foundation goes into detail about best practices and pitfalls in data collection across multiple types of methodologies.

"Social Science Methods for Data Collection and Analysis" (Swiss FIT)

This resource is appropriate for advanced undergraduates or teachers looking to create lessons on research design and data collection. It covers techniques for gathering data via interviews, observations, and other methods.

"Collecting Data by In-depth Interviewing" (Leeds Univ.)

This resource contains enough information about conducting interviews to make it useful for teachers who want to create a lesson plan, but is also accessible enough for college juniors or seniors to make use of it on their own.

There is no "one size fits all" outlining technique. Some students might devote all their energy and attention to the outline in order to avoid the paper. Other students may benefit from being made to sit down and organize their thoughts into a lengthy sentence outline. The resources in this section include strategies and templates for multiple types of outlines. 

"Topic vs. Sentence Outlines" (UC Berkeley)

This resource introduces two basic approaches to outlining: the shorter topic-based approach, and the longer, more detailed sentence-based approach. This resource also contains videos on how to develop paper paragraphs from the sentence-based outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL)

The Purdue Online Writing Lab's guide is a slightly less detailed discussion of different types of outlines. It contains several sample outlines.

"Writing An Outline" (Austin C.C.)

This resource from a community college contains sample outlines from an American history class that students can use as models.

"How to Structure an Outline for a College Paper" (YouTube)

This brief (sub-2 minute) video from the ExpertVillage YouTube channel provides a model of outline writing for students who are struggling with the idea.

"Outlining" (Harvard)

This is a good resource to consult after completing a draft outline. It offers suggestions for making sure your outline avoids things like unnecessary repetition.

As with outlines, rough drafts can take on many different forms. These resources introduce teachers and students to the various approaches to writing a rough draft. This section also includes resources that will help you cite your sources appropriately according to the MLA, Chicago, and APA style manuals.

"Creating a Rough Draft for a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

This resource is useful for teachers in particular, as it provides some suggested exercises to help students with writing a basic rough draft. 

Rough Draft Assignment (Duke of Definition)

This sample assignment, with a brief list of tips, was developed by a high school teacher who runs a very successful and well-reviewed page of educational resources.

"Creating the First Draft of Your Research Paper" (Concordia Univ.)

This resource will be helpful for perfectionists or procrastinators, as it opens by discussing the problem of avoiding writing. It also provides a short list of suggestions meant to get students writing.

Using Proper Citations

There is no such thing as a rough draft of a scholarly citation. These links to the three major citation guides will ensure that your citations follow the correct format. Please consult the LitCharts How to Cite Your Sources guide for more resources.

Chicago Manual of Style Citation Guide

Some call  The Chicago Manual of Style , which was first published in 1906, "the editors' Bible." The manual is now in its 17th edition, and is popular in the social sciences, historical journals, and some other fields in the humanities.

APA Citation Guide

According to the American Psychological Association, this guide was developed to aid reading comprehension, clarity of communication, and to reduce bias in language in the social and behavioral sciences. Its first full edition was published in 1952, and it is now in its sixth edition.

MLA Citation Guide

The Modern Language Association style is used most commonly within the liberal arts and humanities. The  MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing  was first published in 1985 and (as of 2008) is in its third edition.

Any professional scholar will tell you that the best research papers are made in the revision stage. No matter how strong your research question or working thesis, it is not possible to write a truly outstanding paper without devoting energy to revision. These resources provide examples of revision exercises for the classroom, as well as tips for students working independently.

"The Art of Revision" (Univ. of Arizona)

This resource provides a wealth of information and suggestions for both students and teachers. There is a list of suggested exercises that teachers might use in class, along with a revision checklist that is useful for teachers and students alike.

"Script for Workshop on Revision" (Vanderbilt University)

Vanderbilt's guide for leading a 50-minute revision workshop can serve as a model for teachers who wish to guide students through the revision process during classtime. 

"Revising Your Paper" (Univ. of Washington)

This detailed handout was designed for students who are beginning the revision process. It discusses different approaches and methods for revision, and also includes a detailed list of things students should look for while they revise.

"Revising Drafts" (UNC Writing Center)

This resource is designed for students and suggests things to look for during the revision process. It provides steps for the process and has a FAQ for students who have questions about why it is important to revise.

Conferencing with Writing Tutors and Instructors

No writer is so good that he or she can't benefit from meeting with instructors or peer tutors. These resources from university writing, learning, and communication centers provide suggestions for how to get the most out of these one-on-one meetings.

"Getting Feedback" (UNC Writing Center)

This very helpful resource talks about how to ask for feedback during the entire writing process. It contains possible questions that students might ask when developing an outline, during the revision process, and after the final draft has been graded.

"Prepare for Your Tutoring Session" (Otis College of Art and Design)

This guide from a university's student learning center contains a lot of helpful tips for getting the most out of working with a writing tutor.

"The Importance of Asking Your Professor" (Univ. of Waterloo)

This article from the university's Writing and Communication Centre's blog contains some suggestions for how and when to get help from professors and Teaching Assistants.

Once you've revised your first draft, you're well on your way to handing in a polished paper. These resources—each of them produced by writing professionals at colleges and universities—outline the steps required in order to produce a final draft. You'll find proofreading tips and checklists in text and video form.

"Developing a Final Draft of a Research Paper" (Univ. of Minnesota)

While this resource contains suggestions for revision, it also features a couple of helpful checklists for the last stages of completing a final draft.

Basic Final Draft Tips and Checklist (Univ. of Maryland-University College)

This short and accessible resource, part of UMUC's very thorough online guide to writing and research, contains a very basic checklist for students who are getting ready to turn in their final drafts.

Final Draft Checklist (Everett C.C.)

This is another accessible final draft checklist, appropriate for both high school and college students. It suggests reading your essay aloud at least once.

"How to Proofread Your Final Draft" (YouTube)

This video (approximately 5 minutes), produced by Eastern Washington University, gives students tips on proofreading final drafts.

"Proofreading Tips" (Georgia Southern-Armstrong)

This guide will help students learn how to spot common errors in their papers. It suggests focusing on content and editing for grammar and mechanics.

This final set of resources is intended specifically for high school and college instructors. It provides links to unit plans and classroom exercises that can help improve students' research and writing skills. You'll find resources that give an overview of the process, along with activities that focus on how to begin and how to carry out research. 

"Research Paper Complete Resources Pack" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, rubrics, and other resources is designed for high school students. The resources in this packet are aligned to Common Core standards.

"Research Paper—Complete Unit" (Teachers Pay Teachers)

This packet of assignments, notes, PowerPoints, and other resources has a 4/4 rating with over 700 ratings. It is designed for high school teachers, but might also be useful to college instructors who work with freshmen.

"Teaching Students to Write Good Papers" (Yale)

This resource from Yale's Center for Teaching and Learning is designed for college instructors, and it includes links to appropriate activities and exercises.

"Research Paper Writing: An Overview" (CUNY Brooklyn)

CUNY Brooklyn offers this complete lesson plan for introducing students to research papers. It includes an accompanying set of PowerPoint slides.

"Lesson Plan: How to Begin Writing a Research Paper" (San Jose State Univ.)

This lesson plan is designed for students in the health sciences, so teachers will have to modify it for their own needs. It includes a breakdown of the brainstorming, topic selection, and research question process. 

"Quantitative Techniques for Social Science Research" (Univ. of Pittsburgh)

This is a set of PowerPoint slides that can be used to introduce students to a variety of quantitative methods used in the social sciences.

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7 Common Writing Mistakes to Avoid in Your Research Paper 

Common writing mistakes can negatively impact your manuscript’s chance of acceptance. With rejection rates in some top international publications as high as 97%, 1 this is something that researchers should worry about. Unlike general day-to-day writing, academic writing requires a special skill set that needs to be nurtured and developed. This requires authors to be objective, concise, and formal in their writing, which should ideally be devoid of common English grammar mistakes. However, an interesting statistic from the 2018 Global Survey Report by Editage reveals that 76% of research authors find it difficult to prepare a well-written, error-free manuscript for journal submission. 2 This is not surprising given that the manuscript writing process can be as challenging and time-consuming as conducting research. 

However, you can ensure that you deliver high-quality manuscripts that meet the stringent standards set by leading journals. Just make sure to check your work and avoid the most common writing mistakes that budding academics and researchers with English as a second language tend to make.

Here’s a quick list of the seven most common writing and grammar mistakes to look out for before submitting your manuscript. 

1. Language errors (word choice, phrasing)

Academic writing is meant to be professional and straightforward, on point but easy to understand, and precise, with no room for misinterpretation. One of the most common mistakes in writing is not using the appropriate tone and style to communicate your research. Keep in mind that language that is generally acceptable in informal writing, such as slang and irregular abbreviations, is considered inappropriate for academic writing.

Another common writing mistake is mixing up words that look or sound similar or not the right words and phrases to convey your meaning clearly and accurately. When using synonyms or rephrasing text, make sure you choose words and phrases that fit the context. Avoid using excessive technical terminology, jargon and cliches, such as “ think outside of the box”  and “ at the end of the day.”   

2. Poor grammar (voice, tenses, punctuation)

In academic writing it’s essential to check your work to eliminate common grammar mistakes. Using grammar and punctuation properly helps to emphasize pauses, thoughts, ideas, and even the accuracy of the text. Experts suggest the use of active voice instead of passive voice when writing, for example, “we carried out research”, rather than “research was carried out”. Although some sections of your paper will benefit from the use of passive voice. Similarly, consistency in verb tense usage within a paragraph or between adjacent paragraphs helps to ensure better flow of ideas.

The incorrect use of punctuation marks, such as commas, apostrophes, quotations, colons, and semi-colons, is among the most common grammar mistakes in English that can change the way a message is interpreted, so it is important to understand how to use punctuations properly. Other grammar mistake examples include the misuse of articles, sentence fragmentation, parallelism, and subject-verb agreement.  

3. Repetition of ideas (winding sentences)

While writing your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, you will need to keep within the recommended word count. However, academics often resort to describing established concepts or repeating ideas and arguments in different sections of their paper to meet this word count requirement. This common writing mistake shows a lack of proper research and a dearth of original perspectives and can make your research manuscript seem bloated and incoherent.

Academic writing is expected to be clear and concise, so it’s important to maintain a balance between restating key points to highlight critical messages for the reader and becoming overly repetitive to the extent of being irritating or boring. If you find yourself repeating phrases often, avoid this common mistake in writing by using contextual synonyms or rephrasing text differently to convey your research in the most effective way possible. 

4. Weak introductions

One of the most common writing mistakes made by early career researchers is that they do not pay sufficient attention to the introduction of the research manuscript. The introduction serves as the reader’s first impression of the article, influencing their decision to either continue reading or skip it. Ensuring that the introduction is captivating and concise is vital. A good introduction helps highlight your topic, main concepts, and background information, which sets the context for your research.

When writing the introduction, researchers must try and find answers to why they chose a specific topic for research – why it is important, why you adopted a particular method or approach, and why it is relevant today. Avoid this type of common writing mistake by striking a balance between being concise and engaging while providing a comprehensive overview of the major concepts in the introduction. 

5. Neglecting editing

Having spent long hours on research studies and academic writing, it is tempting to submit your research manuscript to your target journal as soon as it is completed. This is especially true if you are racing against tight deadlines. However, submitting your work without proper editing and final proofreading checks is one of the most common mistakes in writing. Identifying breaks in logic and flow, ensuring consistency in terms of fonts and formatting, eliminating spelling and grammatical mistakes, checking your references and citations, and ensuring that your submission is complete are all essential and critical checks for your manuscript to be accepted for publication.  

6. Ignoring recommended guidelines

Most universities and international journals have their own specific set of stringent author guidelines that include instructions about appropriate structure, word count, formatting, fonts, etc. However, a common writing mistake that some budding academics make is ignoring, missing out on, or misinterpreting these important guidelines; this may be seen as a lack of effort or an inability to follow instructions.

In such cases, even if your research may potentially offer a breakthrough in your field, you are likely to be rejected or asked to submit with major revisions. One way to avoid this common writing mistake is to carefully examine the specific guidelines and make notes or checklists on key aspects to include/keep in mind before you start writing to ensure your work is not desk rejection.  

7. Plagiarism

One of the most common writing mistakes is plagiarism, which is also the most frequently observed ethical offence. Plagiarism is when text, ideas, concepts, and images are used as is from previously published work without properly crediting the source. Writing that is presented as original, without proper citations is deemed unethical and is considered a copyright infringement by the journal.

Even if this was done inadvertently – failing to cite your sources, paraphrasing, or quoting someone without credit – plagiarism is considered a serious offence and could result in manuscript rejection, penalties, and sometimes even legal action. In fact, even quoting your own previous studies without proper attribution is deemed as plagiarism . To eliminate this common writing mistake and avoid any ethical misconduct, researchers must check their work and ensure that it has all the required citations and is an original piece of work. 

References:

• Ghost, M. 11 Reasons Why Research Papers Are Rejected. Scispace, October 2021. Available online at https://typeset.io/resources/11-reasons-why-research-papers-are-rejected/  
• Fernandes, A. Our secret recipe (with 5 key ingredients) for a winning manuscript. Editage Insights, December 2020. Available online at https://www.editage.com/insights/our-secret-recipe-with-5-key-ingredients-for-a-winning-manuscript  

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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The female Scientist

Common mistakes when writing a scientific paper

Writing a scientific manuscript takes a lot of practice, and often we tend to make the same mistakes over and over again. By summarizing the most common ones, including ways to avoid them, this text will (hopefully) help you on your way to a great publication!

29. April 2017

After having reviewed a range of colleagues’ papers, and having written several manuscripts myself, I realized that  most of us tend to make similar mistakes. Those are generally the same mistakes that our students struggle with most.

Here I would like to highlight the most common mistakes – at least in my experience – that you should keep in mind whilst writing your manuscript.

The background literature was not checked thoroughly

Before you even start designing your study, make sure that you have read all papers focusing on your research topic, and that you are up to date. You need to present the full research background in the introduction to be able to argument why your study is important, which knowledge gap it is closing, or to back up your findings. Keep in mind that the papers’ reviewers will most likely be fellow researchers that are very familiar with your research topic, and will immediately notice if important parts of earlier research are missing.

The research aim, hypotheses, and predictions are unclear

Make sure that you have clearly stated your research aim, hypotheses, and predictions for your research – all based on the literature review you present in the introduction where you highlight what remains unknown. If the reader is unable to follow why you actually conducted the study, she/he will not be able to follow the paper.

The structure of the manuscript is confusing

It happens quickly that a reader is not able to follow the sequence of your hypotheses, methods, results and discussion. So, always make sure to keep the same order throughout the whole manuscript.

Example: You have hypothesis 1, 2 and 3, which are mentioned in the hypothesis. Now, in the methods, as well as results and discussion, you keep that order. First, how did you test for hypothesis 1 (methods), what did you find as a result for hypothesis 1 (results), how do your results support your hypothesis 1, and how does it relate to other studies (discussion). Then you do the same for your other hypothesis. It is easier for the reader if you shortly refer to your hypothesis again in every part of the manuscript before explaining the methods/results/discuss it. This will also help you to keep a good structure and flow!

The methods are not explained in enough detail

The methods need to provide every step you have conducted during your study in such detail that everybody would be able to reproduce your study 1:1. Be sure that you have mentioned everything you did, and everything you used for your research – details regarding equipment you used, the involved participants/animals or similar, time scales, data collection and data analysis – really everything. This part cannot be detailed enough.

The wrong statistics are used

Usually (at least in my experience), researchers are no trained statisticians, and often did not receive a good statistical training during their career, but rather learned the procedures learning-by-doing. Thus, depending on the research area, similar statistical tests are used as kind of a standard, and often papers replicate the tests used in earlier studies – but this does not always make sense. Be sure that you choose the correct test for your analysis; otherwise, your analysis is more or less useless. For example, make sure that you know if it is appropriate to use non-parametrical or parametrical tests for your dataset, and check for normal distribution before conducting further tests. Many universities have departments that can help you with the statistics, so make sure you make use of this option if you are not completely sure what to do. There are also many very helpful online platforms and videos that might prove useful.

The sections are mixed up

Do not mix up results and discussion – do not interpret or discuss the results when you present them in the result section, and only summarize the results shortly before discussing them. This does not apply for journals that combine results and discussion, so be sure to check the authors’ guidelines before you write your paper!

Example for a mix up:  Only 3 of 10 bees flew at a higher speed than flies, suggesting that flies are commonly faster than bees. Only the first part of the sentence should be part of the result section, the second half is interpretation and belongs in the discussion.

The conclusions do not match the presented results

Statistically, results are either significant (p<0.05) or they are not. If there are no significant results, do not write that there is a “tendency” that e.g. the speed of bees is significantly different to the speed of flies. That is just not what your data supports. If you have results that are close to being significant (e.g. p=0.059) you can mention and discuss this in the discussion, and suggest that for example with a higher N the results probably would have been significant, and that future studies should consider using higher Ns. Also, be sure that in the discussion, the conclusions drawn from the data really are supported by those. Do not over-interpret your data to let them match your hypothesis.

I know, sometimes you really want your data to match your hypotheses. Especially when the values are not too far off the magical p<0.05, it is really hard to accept that you cannot prove your hypotheses at this point. But statistics are straightforward, so believe in it (as long as you chose the right test).

The writing is inaccurate

Scientific writing must be accurate. Although commonly in appealing writing, it is not advised to use the same word twice in a sentence, this does not apply to scientific writing, which must be on point. Check your text for fill words and make sure you only have words in the text that are needed to understand your sentence. Do not try to impress your reader by using exotic terms or complicated structured sentences. Make sure to avoid unspecific expressions (e.g. low frequency, high temperature, highly significant), but use quantitative descriptions instead (twice/h, 35ºC, p<0.001, respectively). Get used to always use the active voice, as it is more concise and clearer than the passive voice.

The citations and/or references are incomplete

Be sure that you credit all the studies whose results you mention in your manuscript. Always keep good track of your references. If you give a citation in the text (only author and year), always make sure that you give the full reference (author, year, title, journal, pages, DOI) in your reference list. It takes a lot of time to have to collect them all at once and maybe even have to look for the complete reference after you have finished your paper. The style you have to present the citations and references depend on the journal you aim to publish your manuscript in – so make sure that you aware of the style format beforehand to avoid extra work.

You have not picked a journal beforehand

Pick a journal you want to publish your manuscript in before you start writing your paper – make sure that this journal covered similar topics to your study in the past. To avoid having to change style and format of your manuscript, check the Instructions for authors as well as papers that have been published in the chosen journal. Writing your manuscript in the correct style of the chosen journal saves you a lot of formatting time – however, often you choose the journal after your manuscript was already written, or your paper was rejected by your chosen journal and you need to reformat it to hand it in for another journal. In these cases, you need to reformat your paper after it is already written in another style – this is time and nerve consuming. So, if you can, try to avoid it.

I hope this wrap-up provides some tips to support you in the process of writing your research article! Go for it!

Here you can find some basic tips for writing your research paper!

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Writing scientific manuscripts: most common mistakes

Jorge faber.

1 Universidade de Brasília, Programa de Pós-graduação em Odontologia (Brasília/DF, Brazil).

I have had the privilege of serving as editor-in-chief for 11 years of two scientific journals: The Dental Press Journal of Orthodontics and the Journal of the World Federation of Orthodontists. I had the opportunity to read and correct thousands of manuscripts. This experience was greatly enriching, because reading a text professionally completely differs from the perspective of readers in general. The routine practice of correcting manuscripts has made me realize that some errors recur frequently. To help authors to improve their manuscripts before submission, these problems are discussed here in the order that they appear in conventional manuscript sections.

Ao longo dos 11 anos em que atuei como editor-chefe de revistas científicas ( Dental Press Journal of Orthodontics e Journal of the World Federation of Orthodontists ), tive a oportunidade de ler e corrigir milhares de manuscritos - manuscrito, no jargão editorial, é o trabalho submetido para publicação ainda não editado e publicado. Essa experiência foi muito enriquecedora, pois a leitura profissional de um texto difere totalmente daquela realizada pelos leitores em geral. O lidar corriqueiro com as correções de manuscritos me fez perceber que alguns erros são muito recorrentes. Eles serão discutidos na ordem das seções apresentadas nos trabalhos, com o objetivo de ajudar os autores a melhorar seus manuscritos antes da submissão.

INTRODUCTION

Authors often underestimate the Introduction, the first section of a manuscript, in both its relevance and its complexity. The relative rigidity and concision required in scientific texts should not eclipse the elegance of a beautifully written text. However, these attributes pose very specific challenges to authors. I see these difficulties materialized into the same errors repeatedly in submitted manuscripts.

The most common mistake is to write a too long Introduction. 1 This may be justified by several reasons, but is often the result of the fact that many manuscripts originate from dissertations or theses in which reviews of the literature might be relatively long. After great efforts to write beautiful reviews of the literature, some authors tend to cling to the quality of their production and want to share it with other readers. The major problem here is that most of us are not interested in long, non-objective texts. There is no specific size limit of the Introduction, but a rule of thumb is to limit the word count to about 10% of the total number of words in the manuscript.

The second most common error is lack of coherence. 1 Sometimes studies focus on many different question, and their rationale is unclear. The Introduction often begins with a paragraph that contextualizes the theme of the study and presents the state of the art of what is under analysis. Authors should gradually guide the reader’s thoughts to the objectives of the study, which are always described in the last paragraph of the Introduction. However, ideas should be organized so that, immediately before reading the objective, the reader understands the relevance of the topic and anticipates which gap in knowledge has to be filled.

The number of references should be limited to what is actually necessary. The most innovative studies tend to list few references, and an excessively large number of quotes has a negative effect on the most qualified readers, as it suggests that the study does not bring anything new to the literature, or that references were included without following any criterion. When using references to other studies, we should avoid using the name of authors in the text or, especially, as the subject of sentences. 1

For example, instead of:

Kim, 10 when analyzing the prevalence of anterior crossbite in 1897 children with complete primary dentition, detected that, during the period of primary dentition, the factors for the incidence of this type of malocclusion were 43.6% genetic and 56.4% postnatal.

The factors of incidence of anterior crossbite in children with complete primary dentition are genetic in 56.4% of the cases and postnatal in 43.6%.

Different writing styles highlight different aspects. While in the first example, the main element of the sentence is the author, in the second, the information provided gains prominence. Older manuscripts used to mention numerous names of authors, and this remains a current practice in philosophical fields, such as in Law. This stylistic change along time may be partly assigned to the loss of relevance of the argument of the authority and the growing importance level of evidence. Today, it does not matter who the author of a sentence or idea is. The important element is the level of evidence provided by the source. That does not mean that no author names should be mentioned, but this should be the exception, not the rule, and in general only to acknowledge the great importance of a publication for that specific study.

These are the most common shortcomings when writing the Introduction section. When there is any question about how to approach what and when, remember the KISS acronym: Keep It Simple, Scientist.

• Be concise: no one wants to read excessively long studies.
• As a rule, the Introduction should not be longer than 10% of the total length of the manuscript.
• Pay special attention to text coherence and cohesion.
• Do not present long reviews of the literature; use the literature to set the context for the problem under study.
• Avoid sentences in which the authors of articles are the subject.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The Material and Methods (MM) section often has errors that originate in the nature of its own construction. It is written at several phases of the study and at different points of its generation. Therefore, writing atavisms are frequent. To make myself clearer: the MM section is first written as part of a project. At that point, the final study design has not been fully established and, consequently, the verb tense should be the simple future. At the time when the study becomes a manuscript for publication, the verb tense should be changed to the simple past. All the MM section should be written in the past tense, because methods refer to what has been done, not to something that will be or is currently being carried out.

A recurrent problem in several manuscripts that never get to the pages of a scientific journal is the lack of approval by an institutional review board (IRB) or ethics in research committee. Ideally, the MM section should include in the first paragraph the information that this approval was been obtained. Although several aspiring authors may see this approval as a merely bureaucratic requirement, the analysis by an IRB provides important protection to the individuals and animals that are, somehow, part of the study. These committees do not often grant approval after the study has been conducted, that is, if the author has not submitted for approval before the study started, it is very likely that approval will be refused, and the study results might never be published.

Incomplete data are also frequent. Lack of information often results from the fact that authors have such a profound knowledge of their investigations that no information left out will affect their manuscript comprehension. However, such gap will definitely affect its understanding by other readers. Such inconsistencies are also frequent because the original project undergoes reviews, and some materials and steps are changed.

Additionally, authors often submit incomplete descriptions of their studies, which has a negative impact on its reproducibility. A scientific study must always be reproducible. It should include information about the materials used, such as the active agents, manufacturers and place of manufacture.

Sometimes materials are described in a way that makes the manuscript read as an advertisement. Authors should use writing styles that distance themselves from endorsing techniques or materials used.

Finally, a very common error is not to include a detailed description of statistical methods. Such description should be at the end of the MM section. Several factors may explain this absence. The most important may be that most authors have a limited knowledge of statistics, which complicates the preparation of this manuscript section. The statistical methods are described only many months after statisticians have conducted the analyses, and this temporal gap may negatively affect descriptions.

Some study methods are very complex, and, whenever possible, authors should ask an external reviewer to read the MM section and revise it before submitting the manuscript to a journal.

• Write all the section in the past tense.
• Never forget to include IRB approval.
• Describe all methods thoroughly.
• Include all the materials used, as well as information about their manufacturers.
• When conducting the statistical analysis of your study data, ask the statistician to describe all methods as they should be published. Do not fail to include a detailed description of those methods in your manuscript.

The Results section is often inadequately short. Some authors may summarize findings insufficiently and then only refer tables and graphs. Paradoxically, authors are also often verbose and show data in tables and graphs that repeat what has been described in the text. Tables are usually great means of showing results. However, authors have to be familiar with how to organize data in tables. A useful tip is to check how other authors have shown their results and get inspiration to prepare your own findings.

An interesting format for the presentation of results is to write about the most important points in the text and then refer to graphs and tables that show findings in details.

Tables are usually richer than graphs, but graphs may be a good tool to show results. However, some graphic presentations should be avoided whenever possible, such as, and especially, bar and line graphs 3 . Figures in scientific communications are extremely relevant because they visually and intuitively show data that otherwise would have to be read. Some images are worth more than words, and this resource should be used wisely and creatively in scientific manuscripts. However, bar graphs are seriously limited when data have to be detailed. In this type of graph, different distributions may have exactly the same graphic distribution ( Fig 1 ). An alternative is boxplots, as they clearly show the distribution of data and use visual resources to present results.

Another difficulty in being accepted for publication is the poor quality of illustrations in general. The most representative examples of this in Orthodontics are low-quality cephalometric tracings, prepared on white paper using felt tip pens. Such tracings do not capture the patient's anatomy, but, despite that, they are often submitted to orthodontic journals. They are imprecise and hastily prepared. Other examples are photos, either clinical or of study methods, that are obtained using cell phones, which do not have standardized focal distances or lighting parameters to take photos with the quality required for publication. When material is submitted like this, editors, reviewers and readers may justly wonder whether authors that were unable to carefully prepare their illustrations may have been sufficiently careful about conducting their research. Numerous manuscripts are rejected because of photos and figures.

• Do not be too concise.
• Avoid being verbose. Briefly report most important findings and then refer tables and graphs.
• Avoid bar and line graphs.
• Include professional quality illustrations.

The Discussion is the heart of all scientific studies and the section where the authors should express their interpretative creativity and capacity. Several cases of relevant scientific results have gone unnoticed by the scientific community because their authors failed to interpret results. This means that data should be interpreted. Authors do not have to follow other authors’ claims to argue in favor of an idea. This section is where the authors may be bold, make propositions and suggestions, and explain results; in other words, this is where they may introduce innovative interpretations. At the same time, this is where criticism to other studies that have noteworthy flaws should be made.

The most common error in this section is to write it as a literature review. The Discussion section should not be a review of the literature; it should compare and contrast findings with those reported by other authors and explain their differences and similarities.

Another frequent shortcoming is failing to include a presentation of the study limitations. Honesty in clearly presenting limitations shows that the authors analyzed their study comprehensively. Failing to include limitations may convey the idea - often correct - that the authors simply did not understand the exact scope of the study that they have conducted.

Finally, any published study has to deal with all the results presented in the Discussion section. As a rule, if a set of data was presented, it must be discussed. Not included in this rule are minor details, such as data distribution normality and error of the method, which are discussed only when they have such relevant impact on data that they deserve specific consideration.

• Do not make a review of the literature: use the literature to compare your results with those of other studies.
• Make clear what the study limitations are.
• All results reported should be fully discussed in the manuscript.

The Conclusion section should be simple. The most common problem in this section is not addressing all the objectives listed in the beginning of the study.

The second most common problem is the presentation of conclusions that are beyond the scope of the study design; for example, a case series that discusses the evaluation of extra-radicular mini implants. During the retraction of mandibular teeth to correct Class III malocclusion, conclusions should not include, for example, that extra-radicular implants are better than extraction treatments, as the study has not investigated that.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

The purpose of this article is to improve the quality of manuscripts that authors submit to scientific journals. Following the suggestions described above will increase the chances of acceptance for publication. However, authors should be aware that writing a scientific manuscript demands careful attention and many hours of work. Even experienced authors write and review their manuscripts several times before submitting them to a journal. In science, as in literature, an author’s reputation is not shaped by the number of publications, but by the quality of what is produced.

Acknowledgments

I thank Carolina Faber for her critical reading and suggestions for this study.

» The author reports no commercial, proprietary or financial interest in the products or companies described in this article.

Twelve Common Errors

Download this Handout PDF

This list includes only brief examples and explanations intended for you to use as reminders while you are editing your papers. If you would like to learn more, consider the following options:

• Take one of the free grammar, style, and punctuation classes offered by the Writing Center.
• Set up an appointment for an individual conference in the Writing Center.
• Confer with your course instructor.
• Consult a handbook for additional examples and complete explanations

1. Sentence fragments

Make sure each word group you have punctuated as a sentence contains a grammatically complete and independent thought that can stand alone as an acceptable sentence.

Tests of the Shroud of Turin have produced some curious findings. For example, the pollen of forty-eight plants native to Europe and the Middle East.

[2nd sentence = fragment]

Tests of the Shroud of Turin have produced some curious findings. For example, the cloth contains the pollen of forty-eight plants native to Europe and the Middle East.

Scientists report no human deaths due to excessive caffeine consumption. Although caffeine does cause convulsions and death in certain animals.

Scientists report no human deaths due to excessive caffeine consumption, although caffeine does cause convulsions and death in certain animals.

2. Sentence sprawl

Too many equally weighted phrases and clauses produce tiresome sentences.

The hearing was planned for Monday, December 2, but not all of the witnesses could be available, so it was rescheduled for the following Friday, and then all the witnesses could attend.

[There are no grammatical errors here, but the sprawling sentence does not communicate clearly and concisely.]

The hearing, which had been planned for Monday, December 2, was rescheduled for the following Friday so that all witnesses would be able to attend.

3. Misplaced and dangling modifiers

Place modifiers near the words they describe; be sure the modified words actually appear in the sentence.

Not sure what a modifier is? Check our our FAQ.

When writing a proposal, an original task is set for research.

When writing a proposal, a scholar sets an original task for research.

Many tourists visit Arlington National Cemetery, where veterans and military personnel are buried every day from 9:00 a.m. until 5:00 p.m.

Every day from 9:00 a.m. until 5:00 p.m., many tourists visit Arlington National Cemetery, where veterans and military personnel are buried.

Still unsure? For more explanation and examples, see our grammar and style FAQ.

4. Faulty parallelism

Be sure you use grammatically equal sentence elements to express two or more matching ideas or items in a series.

The candidate’s goals include winning the election, a national health program, and the educational system.

The candidate’s goals include winning the election, enacting a national health program, and improving the educational system.

Some critics are not so much opposed to capital punishment as postponing it for so long.

Some critics are not so much opposed to capital punishment as they are to postponing it for so long.

5. Unclear pronoun reference

All pronouns must clearly refer to definite referents [nouns].

Use it, they, this, that, these, those, and which carefully to prevent confusion.

Einstein was a brilliant mathematician. This is how he was able to explain the universe.

Einstein, who was a brilliant mathematician, used his ability with numbers to explain the universe.

Because Senator Martin is less interested in the environment than in economic development, he sometimes neglects it.

Because of his interest in economic development, Senator Martin sometimes neglects the environment.

6. Incorrect pronoun case

Determine whether the pronoun is being used as a subject, or an object, or a possessive in the sentence, and select the pronoun form to match.

Castro’s communist principles inevitably led to an ideological conflict between he and President Kennedy.

Castro’s communist principles inevitably led to an ideological conflict between him and President Kennedy.

Because strict constructionists recommend fidelity to the Constitution as written, no one objects more than them to judicial reinterpretation.

Because strict constructionists recommend fidelity to the Constitution as written, no one objects more than they [do] to judicial reinterpretation.

7. Omitted commas

Use commas to signal nonrestrictive or nonessential material, to prevent confusion, and to indicate relationships among ideas and sentence parts.

When it comes to eating people differ in their tastes.

When it comes to eating, people differ in their tastes.

The Huns who were Mongolian invaded Gaul in 451.

The Huns, who were Mongolian, invaded Gaul in 451.

[“Who were Mongolian” adds information but does not change the core meaning of the sentence because Huns were a Mongolian people; this material is therefore nonrestrictive or nonessential.]

For more information on commas see Commas: Punctuating Restrictive and Non-restrictive Modifiers and Punctuating Coordinating Conjunctions and Sentence Adverbs , or take one of the free grammar, style, and punctuation workshops offered by the Writing Center.

8. Superfluous commas

Unnecessary commas make sentences difficult to read.

Field trips are required, in several courses, such as, botany and geology.

Field trips are required in several courses, such as botany and geology.

The term, “scientific illiteracy,” has become almost a cliche, in educational circles.

The term “scientific illiteracy” has become almost a cliche in educational circles.

9. Comma splices

Do not link two independent clauses with a comma (unless you also use a coordinating conjunction: and, or, but, for, nor, so, yet ).

Instead use a period or semicolon, or rewrite the sentence.

Comma splice:

In 1952 Japan’s gross national product was one third that of France, by the late 1970s it was larger than the GNPs of France and Britain combined.

In 1952 Japan’s gross national product was one third that of France. By the late 1970s it was larger than the GNPs of France and Britain combined.

Diseased coronary arteries are often surgically bypassed, however half of all bypass grafts fail within ten years.

Diseased coronary arteries are often surgically bypassed; however, half of all bypass grafts fail within ten years.

10. Apostrophe Errors

Apostrophes indicate possession for nouns ( “Jim’s hat,” “several years’ work” ) but not for personal pronouns (its, your, their, and whose).

Apostrophes also indicate omissions in contractions ( “it’s” = “it is” ).

In general, they are not used to indicate plurals.

In the current conflict its uncertain who’s borders their contesting.

In the current conflict it is [it’s] uncertain whose borders they are [they’re] contesting.

The Aztecs ritual’s of renewal increased in frequency over the course of time.

The Aztecs’ rituals of renewal increased in frequency over the course of time.

11. Words easily confused

“Effect” is most often a noun (the effect), and “affect” is almost always a verb.

Other pairs commonly confused: “lead”/”led” and “accept”/”except.”

Check a glossary of usage to find the right choice.

The recession had a negative affect on sales.

The recession had a negative effect on sales. (or) The recession affected sales negatively.

The laboratory instructor chose not to offer detailed advise.

The laboratory instructor chose not to offer detailed advice.

12. Misspellings

Spelling errors are usually perceived as a reflection of the writer’s careless attitude toward the whole project.

Don’t allow your hard work to be marred in this way!

In addition to comprehensive dictionaries, you may want to use electronic spell checks, spelling dictionaries, and lists of frequently misspelled words found in handbooks.

Grammar and Punctuation

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Using Dashes

Using Commas

Using Semicolons

Using Coordinating Conjunctions

Using Conjunctive Adverbs

Subject-Verb Agreement

Using Gender–Neutral Pronouns in Academic Writing

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Twelve Common Errors: An Editing Checklist

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• Starting the research process
• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on October 26, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Table of contents

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, using sub-questions to strengthen your main research question, research questions quiz, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

• Choose your topic
• Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
• Narrow your focus to a specific niche
• Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

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Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Feasible and specific

Complex and arguable

Relevant and original

Chances are that your main research question likely can’t be answered all at once. That’s why sub-questions are important: they allow you to answer your main question in a step-by-step manner.

Good sub-questions should be:

• Less complex than the main question
• Focused only on 1 type of research
• Presented in a logical order

Here are a few examples of descriptive and framing questions:

• Descriptive: According to current government arguments, how should a European bank tax be implemented?
• Descriptive: Which countries have a bank tax/levy on financial transactions?
• Framing: How should a bank tax/levy on financial transactions look at a European level?

Keep in mind that sub-questions are by no means mandatory. They should only be asked if you need the findings to answer your main question. If your main question is simple enough to stand on its own, it’s okay to skip the sub-question part. As a rule of thumb, the more complex your subject, the more sub-questions you’ll need.

Try to limit yourself to 4 or 5 sub-questions, maximum. If you feel you need more than this, it may be indication that your main research question is not sufficiently specific. In this case, it’s is better to revisit your problem statement and try to tighten your main question up.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

• Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
• Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
• Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (“ x affects y because …”).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses . In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

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Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

Top 10 Challenges Faced by Researchers on the Path to Excellence

The pursuit of research excellence is not for the faint of heart; you have to overcome several challenges faced by researchers to map a path to excellence. From formulating research questions to gathering data, writing research papers, and getting them published, researchers grapple with complexities that demand their unwavering dedication and perseverance. By shedding light on the challenges faced by researchers , we aim to help academics navigating the path of knowledge and foster a deeper understanding of the challenges in conducting research .  

A career in scientific research can be highly rewarding and fulfilling for those who enjoy intellectual pursuits, value continuous learning, and want to make a positive impact on society. It offers exciting opportunities to unravel the mysteries of the world, push the boundaries of knowledge, and contribute to the collective understanding of humanity. However, one requires dedication, hard work, and perseverance to overcome the many research challenges you will encounter along the way.  

Table of Contents

Top 10 Challenges faced by researchers  

While each research journey is unique, the challenges faced by researchers share common threads that bind them together. By acknowledging and understanding these research challenges , academics can equip themselves with the knowledge and strategies needed to conduct research effectively.  

1. Slow and time-consuming processes

 The scientific process is often slow and iterative, and progress sometimes can only be measured in small increments over many months or years. Research takes time to execute, and oftentimes the results are uncertain. This can be frustrating for researchers who may have invested significant time, money, and effort into these projects. By being patient and persistent and inculcating a willingness to accept failure and setbacks, you can overcome this researcher challenge and make important contributions to your field.  

2. Difficulty in getting grants and funds

One of the biggest challenges faced by researchers is securing adequate funding for their work. Grants can be highly competitive, and the process of applying can be time-consuming and complex. To secure research funding for your project, you need to seek out a variety of funding sources, including government grants, private foundations, and industry partnerships, and learn what is needed to write a successful grant proposal . One of the most common research challenges is writing a clear, concise, convincing grant proposal that outlines the goals and significance of your research and why the funding agency should support your project.  

 3. Juggling activities to ensure better time management

Managing multiple projects and deadlines successfully is among the most common research challenges . Careful time management , prioritizing work, and setting realistic goals and deadlines are simple ways for researchers to manage their many responsibilities. Experts suggest using strategies like breaking larger projects into smaller tasks and scheduling regular breaks to avoid burnout, a very real challenges faced by researchers .  

4. Active networking and collaboration

Collaboration and networking is essential for research, but it can also be a big challenge faced by researchers . It can be difficult to build a network when you are just starting out, especially if you are unfamiliar with the language or uncomfortable with public speaking. It doesn’t get easier when it comes to collaborations, especially in interdisciplinary research projects. Researchers have different working styles or conflicting priorities, which can lead to tension and conflict when working with larger teams. To overcome this challenge in conducting research , scientists should set the right expectations from the start, establish clear communication channels, and be willing to work together to achieve shared goals.  

 5. Managing and evaluating huge amounts of information

Managing and analyzing large datasets can be a time-consuming and complex process. To overcome this research challenge , researchers should develop effective data management strategies, such as using cloud-based tools for storage and analysis and implementing best practices for data security and privacy. The collection, analysis and management of research data is critical to scientific study and career advancement, which makes it important to know how to develop an effective data management plan for researchers .   

 6. Successfully publishing in impactful journals

Publishing research in reputable journals is one of the biggest challenges faced by researchers globally. Researchers have to learn to navigate the peer-review process, respond to feedback, meet strict formatting and style guidelines, and develop strong academic writing and editing skills. Experts suggest seeking mentorship and guidance from senior researchers and overcoming this research challenge by using AI academic writing assistants like Paperpal, powered by Researcher Life, to ease the process.  

 7. Securing intellectual property

Intellectual property rights protect your research ideas and work from being used unfairly or incorrectly by others. However, protecting intellectual property can be a critical challenge faced by researchers , particularly those working in areas with high commercial potential. It’s important to know that different laws related to intellectual property rights can impact research collaboration across boundaries, so discuss this beforehand. One way to tackle this research challenge is to be aware of your rights and responsibilities regarding intellectual property and seek out legal advice and guidance as when required.  

 8. Understanding and following the nuances of academic and scientific ethics

Research ethics are among the top challenges faced by researchers . Plagiarism, falsification, fabrication, missing ethical declarations and non-compliance with standard ethical guidelines are considered inappropriate and can have serious consequences for researchers. Overcome this research challenge by following all ethical considerations in research ; this helps to maintain the high standards of science and research, ensure accountability, prioritize transparency, and ensure trust and integrity in your work.   

 9. Staying abreast of technological developments

Researchers must keep track of and use technology effectively, but the continually developing landscape can also be a source of frustration. Today, there are several online tools, software, and platforms to optimize your academic writing, research reading, science communication, and more. Oddly, the challenge faced by researchers here is keeping up with technology trends, finding AI tools that are tailored for academics, and effectively integrating them into their work.  

10. Balancing work and life

One of the biggest and most common challenges faced by researchers is balancing the demands of a research career with personal and family responsibilities. PhD students and researchers must learn how to achieve a healthy work-life balance , prioritize self-care, and set boundaries to avoid academic burnout. Seeking support from peers, friends, and family is a great way to manage the stress that comes with a career in scientific research. Effective time management, pursuing a hobby, and taking breaks are other ways to find ways to take care of your mental health as a researcher.   

Editage All Access is a subscription-based platform that unifies the best AI tools and services designed to speed up, simplify, and streamline every step of a researcher’s journey. The Editage All Access Pack is a one-of-a-kind subscription that unlocks full access to an AI writing assistant, literature recommender, journal finder, scientific illustration tool, and exclusive discounts on professional publication services from Editage.  

Based on 22+ years of experience in academia, Editage All Access empowers researchers to put their best research forward and move closer to success. Explore our top AI Tools pack, AI Tools + Publication Services pack, or Build Your Own Plan. Find everything a researcher needs to succeed, all in one place –  Get All Access now starting at just $14 a month !    

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8 Common Obstacles in Writing Research Papers

Writing a research paper is not always an easy task. Students undertaking the task for the first time may find it difficult to overcome some obstacles that come with it.

According to the thesisrush.com , undergraduates tend to experience either external or internal limitations when writing their research paper. In this article, we have compiled the eight most common obstacles students face while writing a research paper.

8 Most Common Obstacles Students Face While Writing A Research Paper

1. problem of choosing a topic.

Anyone writing a research paper will encounter this problem first. It is a fundamental step of research writing, as there is a need to overcome it before anything else. Choosing a befitting topic for your research can be a problem until you consider factors like; Is it a topic of interest? Do you have adequate knowledge on the topic? Do you have available resources needed for writing on such a topic?

If you consider the above factors critically, choosing a topic will not be a problem. Once you have been able to overcome this block, other challenges are going to be a flash in the pan for you.

2. Problem Of Choosing The Right Methodology

Choosing the right methodology for your research writing can be a tough challenge. The methodology is not just picked by preference but by analyzing the procedure, you will be using in your research writing. You need to come up with research questions first. Furthermore, you need to proffer a suitable answer to the questions.

The answers given to the research questions are going to be your guide for the research methodology. The need for either a qualitative or quantitative research methodology depends on your research questions.

3. Qualitative Time For Your Research Analysis

One major problem undergraduates faces when writing their research paper is the problem of time. Many find it difficult to devote their time to carrying out qualitative research before writing because most students share their time between academics, family, and work.

Writing a research paper requires a lot of time and demand for a lot of attention. Ensure you create a specific time for your research writing in your daily routine . It will aid your concentration and the quality of your research.

4. Problem Of Data Collection

Collection of data can be a big obstacle especially for research dealing with primary data. The process of accessing data from the source sometimes takes time. You might have to request permission from the organization involved. At times, there may be a delay before such organizations give permission or even deny you the request.

You must, therefore, ensure that your data for the research writing is accessible. Also, you must get in touch with the appropriate quarters seeking for permission as early as possible.

5. Problem Of Creating A Compelling Argument

Writing a good research paper requires you to prove your level of understanding on the topic. This aim can be done by the relevant argument you put up in the course of the writing. Your argument must be relevant and not baseless. You must support it with proofs and facts from reliable sources to make it solid.

Visit the library and update your knowledge on the chosen topic. Read books, journals, and previous research on similar topics. You can also get more information through the internet to broaden your knowledge.

6. Making Use Of The Right Tone Of Voice

Like any other book, a research paper is written to communicate a particular message to the reader. As such, there is the right usage of tone when writing a research paper. As an academic paper, the right tone to be used for a research paper is a third-person voice. You must avoid the use of words like I, Me, You, and Yours.

Also, colloquial words and slang should be strictly avoided. Every word used must be official and suitable for academic writing. Likewise, terminologies and jargons should be minimal.

7. Problem Of Staying Motivated

Writing a research paper, in the long run can become a boring activity, especially when dealing with a wide topic. Therefore, maintaining your focus on writing can be a challenge. A student tends to face a lot of distractions like family, friends, social activities , and other personal commitments.

However, it is possible to stay motivated while writing your research paper when certain things are done. You must ensure the topic chosen is an area of interest. The passion for such a topic can serve as your drive while writing.  Ensure you reward yourself after finishing a task. Also, don’t hesitate to ask for help when you need it.

8. Problem Of Editing and Proofreading Of The Research Paper

This common obstacle is faced by every student when writing a research paper . You must ensure your writing is top-notch and void of the error to get an A in your research work. As such, thorough editing and proofreading must be carried out. Most times, even after reading several times, you may not be able to identify what is wrong with your write up.

As a result, it is advisable you seek the help of a third party in editing and proofreading of your writing. It can be a friend, a colleague, or an associate. Also, there are professional writers, both online and offline, that can help with such services.

Writing a top-notch research paper is possible when all of the above obstacles are removed. Overcoming them will require the students’ effort and diligence.

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Choosing a Topic

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The first step of any research paper is for the student to understand the assignment. If this is not done, the student will often travel down many dead-end roads, wasting a great deal of time along the way. Do not hesitate to approach the instructor with questions if there is any confusion. A clear understanding of the assignment will allow you to focus on other aspects of the process, such as choosing a topic and identifying your audience.

A student will often encounter one of two situations when it comes to choosing a topic for a research paper. The first situation occurs when the instructor provides a list of topics from which the student may choose. These topics have been deemed worthy by the instructor; therefore, the student should be confident in the topic he chooses from the list. Many first-time researchers appreciate such an arrangement by the instructor because it eliminates the stress of having to decide upon a topic on their own.

However, the student may also find the topics that have been provided to be limiting; moreover, it is not uncommon for the student to have a topic in mind that does not fit with any of those provided. If this is the case, it is always beneficial to approach the instructor with one's ideas. Be respectful, and ask the instructor if the topic you have in mind would be a possible research option for the assignment. Remember, as a first-time researcher, your knowledge of the process is quite limited; the instructor is experienced, and may have very precise reasons for choosing the topics she has offered to the class. Trust that she has the best interests of the class in mind. If she likes the topic, great! If not, do not take it personally and choose the topic from the list that seems most interesting to you.

The second situation occurs when the instructor simply hands out an assignment sheet that covers the logistics of the research paper, but leaves the choice of topic up to the student. Typically, assignments in which students are given the opportunity to choose the topic require the topic to be relevant to some aspect of the course; so, keep this in mind as you begin a course in which you know there will be a research paper near the end. That way, you can be on the lookout for a topic that may interest you. Do not be anxious on account of a perceived lack of authority or knowledge about the topic chosen. Instead, realize that it takes practice to become an experienced researcher in any field.

For a discussion of Evaluating Sources, see Evaluating Sources of Information .

Methods for choosing a topic

Thinking early leads to starting early. If the student begins thinking about possible topics when the assignment is given, she has already begun the arduous, yet rewarding, task of planning and organization. Once she has made the assignment a priority in her mind, she may begin to have ideas throughout the day. Brainstorming is often a successful way for students to get some of these ideas down on paper. Seeing one's ideas in writing is often an impetus for the writing process. Though brainstorming is particularly effective when a topic has been chosen, it can also benefit the student who is unable to narrow a topic. It consists of a timed writing session during which the student jots down—often in list or bulleted form—any ideas that come to his mind. At the end of the timed period, the student will peruse his list for patterns of consistency. If it appears that something seems to be standing out in his mind more than others, it may be wise to pursue this as a topic possibility.

It is important for the student to keep in mind that an initial topic that you come up with may not be the exact topic about which you end up writing. Research topics are often fluid, and dictated more by the student's ongoing research than by the original chosen topic. Such fluidity is common in research, and should be embraced as one of its many characteristics.

The Purdue OWL also offers a number of other resources on choosing and developing a topic:

• Understanding Writing Assignments
• Starting the Writing Process
• Invention Slide Presentation