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How to Create an APA Style Appendix | Format & Examples

Published on October 16, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on August 9, 2022.

An appendix is a section at the end of an academic text where you include extra information that doesn’t fit into the main text. The plural of appendix is “appendices.”

In an APA Style paper, appendices are placed at the very end, after the reference list .

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Table of contents

Do i need an appendix, appendix format example, organizing and labeling your appendices, frequently asked questions.

You don’t always need to include any appendices. An appendix should present information that supplements the reader’s understanding of your research but is not essential to the argument of your paper . Essential information is included in the main text.

For example, you might include some of the following in an appendix:

• Full transcripts of interviews you conducted (which you can quote from in the main text)
• Documents used in your research, such as questionnaires , instructions, tests, or scales
• Detailed statistical data (often presented in tables or figures )
• Detailed descriptions of equipment used

You should refer to each appendix at least once in the main text. If you don’t refer to any information from an appendix, it should not be included.

When you discuss information that can be found in an appendix, state this the first time you refer to it:

Note that, if you refer to the same interviews again, it’s not necessary to mention the appendix each time.

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The appendix label appears at the top of the page, bold and centered. On the next line, include a descriptive title, also bold and centered.

The text is presented in general APA format : left-aligned, double-spaced, and with page numbers in the top right corner. Start a new page for each new appendix.

The example image below shows how to format an APA Style appendix.

If you include just one appendix, it is simply called “Appendix” and referred to as such in-text:

When more than one appendix is included, they are labeled “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” and so on.

Present and label your appendices in the order they are referred to in the main text.

Labeling tables and figures in appendices

An appendix may include (or consist entirely of) tables and/or figures . Present these according to the same formatting rules as in the main text.

Tables and figures included in appendices are labeled differently, however. Use the appendix’s letter in addition to a number. Tables and figures are still numbered separately and according to the order they’re referred to in the appendix.

For example, in Appendix A, your tables are Table A1, Table A2, etc; your figures are Figure A1, Figure A2, etc.

The numbering restarts with each appendix: For example, the first table in Appendix B is Table B1; the first figure in Appendix C is Figure C1; and so on. If you only have one appendix, use A1, A2, etc.

If you want to refer specifically to a table or figure from an appendix in the main text, use the table or figure’s label (e.g. “see Table A3”).

If an appendix consists entirely of a single table or figure, simply use the appendix label to refer to the table or figure. For example, if Appendix C is just a table, refer to the table as “Appendix C,” and don’t add an additional label or title for the table itself.

An appendix contains information that supplements the reader’s understanding of your research but is not essential to it. For example:

• Interview transcripts
• Questionnaires
• Detailed descriptions of equipment

Something is only worth including as an appendix if you refer to information from it at some point in the text (e.g. quoting from an interview transcript). If you don’t, it should probably be removed.

Appendices in an APA Style paper appear right at the end, after the reference list and after your tables and figures if you’ve also included these at the end.

When you include more than one appendix in an APA Style paper , they should be labeled “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” and so on.

When you only include a single appendix, it is simply called “Appendix” and referred to as such in the main text.

Yes, if relevant you can and should include APA in-text citations in your appendices . Use author-date citations as you do in the main text.

Any sources cited in your appendices should appear in your reference list . Do not create a separate reference list for your appendices.

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• How To Write A Research Paper Appendix: A Step-by-Step Guide

Think of appendices like bonus levels on your favorite video game. They are not a major part of the game, but they boost your points and they make the game worthwhile. 

Appendix are important facts, calculations, or data that don’t fit into the main body of your research paper. Having an appendix gives your research paper more details, making it easier for your readers to understand your main ideas.

Let’s dive into how to create an appendix and its best practices.

Understanding the Purpose of an Appendix

If you’re looking to add some extra depth to your research, appendices are a great way to do it.  They allow you to include extremely useful information that doesn’t fit neatly into the main body of your research paper, such as huge raw data, multiple charts, or very long explanations.

Think of your appendix as a treasure chest with different compartments. You can include different information including, extra data, surveys, graphs, or even detailed explanations of your methods. You can fit anything too big or detailed for the main paper in the appendix.

Planning Your Appendix

Before you dive into making your appendix, it’s a good idea to plan things out; think of it as drawing a map before going on an adventure. 

You want your appendix to be organized and provide more context to your research. Not planning it will make the process time-consuming and make the appendix confusing to people reading your research paper.

How to Decide What to Include in Your Research Paper

You have to sort through the content that you will include in your appendix. Think of what your readers need to know to understand your key points. Anything that’s overly detailed, off-topic, or clutters up your paper is a good candidate for your appendix.

Tips for Organizing Your Appendix

Once you’ve figured out what to put in your appendix, it’s time to organize it. Your appendix is a place to add extra information, but it shouldn’t be cluttered or confusing to your readers. Instead, it should make your research paper easier to understand.

Use clear headings, labels, and even page numbers to help your readers find the information they need in the appendix. This way, it’s not a jumbled mess, but a well-organized part of your research paper

Formatting Guidelines

Yes, your appendix must be formatted. Most of the time, you’ll want to keep the font and margin sizes consistent with your main paper. 

However, some universities and journals may have specific guidelines for appendix formatting. Verify if your institution has special guidelines, if they do, follow them, if they don’t use the same format as your main text.

Here’s a typical breakdown of how to format your appendix:

(1) Labeling and Titling 

If you have different types of information in your appendix, use letters to label them, such as “Appendix A” and “Appendix B”. Then, give each appendix a title that explains the information inside it. 

For example, if the first section of your appendix contains raw survey data, you could call it “Appendix A (Survey Data of People Living with Diabetes Under 18 in Texas)”. If the second section of your appendix contains charts, you could call it “Appendix B (The Effect of Sugar Tax in Curbing Diabetes in Children and Young Adults)”.

(2) Numbering Tables, Figures, and More 

If you have tables, figures, or other things in your appendix, number them like a list. For example, “Table A1,” “Figure A1,” and more. This numbering helps your readers know what they’re looking at, sort of like chapters in a book.

Creating Tables and Figures

Using tables and figures helps you organize your data neatly in your appendix. Here’s a step-by-step guide to creating tables and figures in your appendix:

Choose the Right Format for Your Appendix Data

Before creating tables or figures, you need to pick the right format to display the information. Think about what makes your data most clear and understandable. 

For example, a table is better for detailed numbers, while a graph is great for showing trends. The right format makes your information easy to grasp and makes your paper look organized.

How to Create Tables in Your Appendix

You can use a spreadsheet program (like Excel or Google Sheets) to create tables to arrange information neatly. Make sure to give your table a clear title so readers know what it’s about.

Here’s a step-by-step guide to creating tables with a spreadsheet program:

• Open Google Sheets/Excel : Access Google Sheets or Excel through the web or download the app
• Open a New Spreadsheet or Existing File : Create a new spreadsheet or open an existing one where you want to insert a table.
• Select Data : Click and drag to select the data you want to include in the table.
• Insert Table : Once your data is selected, go to the “Insert” menu, then select “Table.
• Create Table : A dialog box will appear, confirming the selected data range. Make sure the “Use the first row as headers” option is checked if your data has headers. Click “Insert .”
• Customize Your Table : After inserting the table, you can customize it by adjusting the style, format, and other table properties using the “Table” menu in Google Sheets or Excel.

You can use software like PowerPoint, Google Slides, or graphic design tools to create them. If you have a chart or graph, make sure it’s easy to understand and add a title or labels to explain it. 

You can use the editing tools for images to change the size and other aspects of the image.

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Including Raw Data

The major reasons for including raw data in your appendix are transparency and credibility. Raw data is like your research recipe; it shows exactly what you worked with to arrive at your conclusions.

Raw data also provides enough information to guide researchers in replicating your study or getting a deeper understanding of your research.

Formatting and Presenting Raw Data 

Formatting your raw data makes it easy for anyone to understand. You can use tables, charts, or even lists to display your data. For example, if you did a survey, you could put the survey responses in a table with clear headings.

When presenting your raw data, clear organization is your best friend. Use headings, labels, and consistent formatting to help your readers find and understand the data. This keeps your appendix from becoming a confusing puzzle.

Citing Your Appendix

Referencing your appendix in the main text gives readers a full picture of your research while they’re reading- They don’t have to wait until the end to figure out important details of your research.

Unlike actual references and citations, citing your appendix is a very straightforward process. You can simply say, “See Appendix A for more details.”

In-Text Citations for Appendix Content

If you would like to cite information in your appendix, you usually mention the author, year, and what exactly you’re citing. This allows you to give credit to the original creator of the content, so your readers know where it came from.

For instance, if you included a chart from a book in your appendix, you’d say something like (Author, Year, p. X). Keep in mind that there are different citation styles (APA, MLA, Chicago, and others), so your appendix may look a little different.

Proofreading and Editing

Proofreading and editing your appendix is just as important as proofreading and editing the main body of your paper. A poorly written or formatted appendix can leave a negative impression on your reader and detract from the overall quality of your work. 

Make sure that your appendix is consistent with the main text of your paper in terms of style and tone unless otherwise stated by your institution. Use the same font, font size, and line spacing in the appendix as you do in the main body of your paper. 

Your appendix should also be free of errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and formatting.

Tips for Checking for Errors in Formatting, Labeling, and Content

Here are some tips for checking for errors in formatting, labeling, and content in your appendix:

• Formatting : Make sure that all of the elements in your appendix are formatted correctly, including tables, figures, and equations. Check the margins, line spacing, and font size to make sure that they are consistent with the rest of your paper.
• Labeling : All of the tables, figures, and equations in your appendix should be labeled clearly and consistently. Use a consistent numbering system and make sure that the labels match the references in the main body of your paper.
• Content : Proofread your appendix carefully to catch any errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and content. You can use grammar editing tools such as Grammarly to help you automatically detect errors in your context.

Appendix Checklist

Having an appendix checklist guarantees a well-organized appendix and helps you spot and correct any overlooked mistakes.

Here’s a checklist of key points to review before finalizing your appendix:

• Is all of the information in the appendix relevant and necessary?
• Is the appendix well-organized and easy to understand?
• Are all the tables, numbers, and equations clearly labeled?
• Is the appendix formatted correctly and consistently with the main body of the paper?
• Is the appendix free of errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and content?

Sample Appendix

We have discussed what you should include in your appendix and how to organize it. Let’s take a look at what a well-formatted appendix looks like:

Appendix A. (Raw Data of Class Scores)

The following table shows the raw data collected for the study.

How the Sample Appendix Adheres to Best Practices

• The appendix is labeled clearly and concisely as “Appendix A. (Raw Data of Class Score).”
• The appendix begins on a new page.
• The appendix is formatted consistently with the rest of the paper, using the same font, font size, and line spacing.
• The table in the appendix is labeled clearly and concisely as “Table A1.”
• The table is formatted correctly, with consistent column widths and alignment.
• The table includes all of the necessary information, including the participant number, age, gender, and score.
• The appendix is free of grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.

Having an appendix easily makes your research paper impressive to reviewers, and increases your likelihood of achieving high grades or journal publication.  It also makes it easier for other researchers to replicate your research, allowing you to make a significant contribution to your research field.

Ensure to use the best practices in this guide to create a well-structured and relevant appendix. Also, use the checklist provided in this article to help you carefully review your appendix before submitting it.

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APA Citation Style 7th Edition

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What goes into an Appendix?

Where is an appendix placed, labeling the appendix, formatting the appendix.

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"Material that supplements the content of the paper, but would be distracting or inappropriate to include in the body of the paper is to be placed in an appendix." This includes "materials that are relatively brief and that are easily presented in print format" ( Publication Manual of the APA: 6th edition , section 2.13; Publication Manual of the APA: 7th edition , section 2.14). Examples include "mathematical proofs, lists of words, a questionnaire used in the research, a detailed description of an apparatus used in the research, etc" ( Purdue OWL .)

An appendix (or appendices) follow the reference list. Use the following order for your paper:

• Abstract ( if required, start on a new page, numbered page 2)
• Text (start on a new page, numbered 3)
• References (start on a new page)
• Tables (start each on a new page)
• Figures (start each on a new page; include caption on page with figure)
• Appendices (start each on a new page)
• If only one appendix, label it Appendix
• If more than one appendix: label each one with a capital letter (Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.) in the order in which it is mentioned in the text
• Each appendix must have a title
• In the text, refer to appendices by their labels:

"produced the same results for both studies (see Appendices A and B for complete proofs)."

• Begin each appendix on a separate page
• At the top of the page, center the word Appendix and the identifying capital letters (A, B, etc.) in the order in which they are mentioned in the text.
• Center the title of the appendix using uppercase and lowercase letter on the next line
• Begin the text of the appendix flush left, followed by indented paragraphs.

A sample appendix is below:

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An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text itself but which may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem. An appendix may also contain information that is too cumbersome to be included in the body of the paper. A separate appendix should be used for each distinct topic or set of data and always have a title descriptive of its contents [e.g., Appendix 1: Interview Protocol].

Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Importance of...

Appendices are always supplementary to the research paper. As such, your study must be able to stand alone without the appendices, and the paper must contain all information including tables, diagrams, and results necessary to understand the research problem. The key point to remember when including an appendix or appendices is that the information is non-essential to understanding the research problem being investigated. In other words, if it were removed, the reader would still be able to  comprehend the significance, validity , and implications of your research even if that additional data was missing.

It is appropriate to include appendices for the following reasons:

• Including this material in the body of the paper that would render it poorly structured or interrupt the narrative flow;
• Information is too lengthy and detailed to be easily summarized in the body of the paper;
• Inclusion of helpful, supporting, or useful material would otherwise distract the reader from the main content of the paper;
• Provides relevant information or data that is more easily understood or analyzed in a self-contained section of the paper;
• Can be used when there are constraints placed on the length of your paper; and,
• Provides a place to further demonstrate your understanding of the research problem by giving additional details about a new or innovative method, technical details, or design protocols.

Appendices. Academic Skills Office, University of New England; Chapter 12, "Use of Appendices." In Guide to Effective Grant Writing: How to Write a Successful NIH Grant . Otto O. Yang. (New York: Kluwer Academic, 2005), pp. 55-57; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Points to Consider

When considering whether to include content in an appendix, keep in mind the following:

• It is usually good practice to include your raw data in an appendix, laying it out in a clear format so the reader can re-check your results. Another option if you have a large amount of raw data is to consider placing it online [e.g., on a Google drive] and note that this is the appendix to your research paper.
• Any tables and figures included in the appendix should be numbered as a separate sequence from the main paper . Remember that appendices contain non-essential information that, if removed, would not diminish a reader's ability to understand the research problem being investigated. This is why non-textual elements should not carry over the sequential numbering of non-textual elements in the body of your paper.
• If you have more than three appendices, consider listing them on a separate page in the table of contents . This will help the reader know what information is included in the appendices. Note that some works list appendices in the table of contents before the first chapter while other styles list the appendices after the conclusion but before your references. Consult with your professor to confirm if there is a preferred approach.
• The appendix can be a good place to put maps, photographs, diagrams, and other images , if you feel that it will help the reader to understand the content of your paper, while keeping in mind the study should be understood without them.
• An appendix should be streamlined and not loaded with a lot information . If you have a very long and complex appendix, it is a good idea to break it down into separate appendices, allowing the reader to find relevant information quickly as the information is covered in the body of the paper.

II.  Content

Never include an appendix that isn’t referred to in the text . All appendices should be summarized in your paper where it is relevant to the content. Appendices should also be arranged sequentially by the order they were first referenced in the text [i.e., Appendix 1 should not refer to text on page eight of your paper and Appendix 2 relate to text on page six].

There are few rules regarding what type of material can be included in an appendix, but here are some common examples:

• Correspondence -- if your research included collaborations with others or outreach to others, then correspondence in the form of letters, memorandums, or copies of emails from those you interacted with could be included.
• Interview Transcripts -- in qualitative research, interviewing respondents is often used to gather information. The full transcript from an interview is important so the reader can read the entire dialog between researcher and respondent. The interview protocol [list of questions] should also be included.
• Non-textual elements -- as noted above, if there are a lot of non-textual items, such as, figures, tables, maps, charts, photographs, drawings, or graphs, think about highlighting examples in the text of the paper but include the remainder in an appendix.
• Questionnaires or surveys -- this is a common form of data gathering. Always include the survey instrument or questionnaires in an appendix so the reader understands not only the questions asked but the sequence in which they were asked. Include all variations of the instruments as well if different items were sent to different groups [e.g., those given to teachers and those given to administrators] .
• Raw statistical data – this can include any numerical data that is too lengthy to include in charts or tables in its entirety within the text. This is important because the entire source of data should be included even if you are referring to only certain parts of a chart or table in the text of your paper.
• Research instruments -- if you used a camera, or a recorder, or some other device to gather information and it is important for the reader to understand how, when, and/or where that device was used.
• Sample calculations – this can include quantitative research formulas or detailed descriptions of how calculations were used to determine relationships and significance.

NOTE:   Appendices should not be a dumping ground for information. Do not include vague or irrelevant information in an appendix; this additional information will not help the reader’s overall understanding and interpretation of your research and may only distract the reader from understanding the significance of your overall study.

ANOTHER NOTE:   Appendices are intended to provide supplementary information that you have gathered or created; it is not intended to replicate or provide a copy of the work of others. For example, if you need to contrast the techniques of analysis used by other authors with your own method of analysis, summarize that information, and cite to the original work. In this case, a citation to the original work is sufficient enough to lead the reader to where you got the information. You do not need to provide a copy of this in an appendix.

III.  Format

Here are some general guideline on how to format appendices . If needed, consult the writing style guide [e.g., APA, MLS, Chicago] your professor wants you to use for more detail or choose the style you are most familiar with:

• Appendices may precede or follow your list of references.
• Each appendix begins on a new page.
• The order they are presented is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of your research paper.
• The heading should be "Appendix," followed by a letter or number [e.g., "Appendix A" or "Appendix 1"], centered and written in bold type.
• If there is a table of contents, the appendices must be listed.
• Depending on the type of information, the content can be presented in landscape format rather than regular portrait format.
• The page number(s) of the appendix/appendices will continue on with the numbering from the last page of the text.

Appendices. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College;  Appendices. Academic Skills Office, University of New England; Appendices. Writing Center, Walden University; Chapter 12, "Use of Appendices." In Guide to Effective Grant Writing: How to Write a Successful NIH Grant . Otto O. Yang. (New York: Kluwer Academic, 2005), pp. 55-57 ; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; What To Know About The Purpose And Format Of A Research Paper Appendix. LoyolaCollegeCulion.com.

Writing Tip

Consider Putting Your Appendices Online

Appendices are useful because they provide the reader with information that supports your study without breaking up the narrative or distracting from the main purpose of your paper. If you have a lot of raw data or information that is difficult to present in textual form, consider uploading it to an online site. This prevents your paper from having a large and unwieldy set of appendices and it supports a growing movement within academe to make data more freely available for re-analysis. If you do create an online portal to your data, note it prominently in your paper with the correct URL and access procedures if it is a secured site, or if needed, with clear directions on how to contact the author to obtain access.

Piwowar, Heather A., Roger S. Day, and Douglas B. Fridsma. “Sharing Detailed Research Data Is Associated with Increased Citation Rate.” PloS ONE (March 21, 2007); Wicherts, Jelte M., Marjan Bakker, and Dylan Molenaar. “Willingness to Share Research Data Is Related to the Strength of the Evidence and the Quality of Reporting of Statistical Results.” PLoS ONE (November 2, 2011).

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APA 7th edition - Paper Format: Appendices

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How to Format an Appendix - Tutorial

• APA Appendices - JIBC Tip Sheet All you need to know about appendices in APA Style.

Information in this section is as outlined in the APA Publication Manual (2020), sections 2.14, 2.17, 2.24, and 7.6.

Appendices are used to include information that supplement the paper’s content but are considered distracting or inappropriate for the overall topic. It is recommended to only include an appendix if it helps the reader comprehend the study or theoretical argument being made. It is best if the material included is brief and easily presented. The material can be text, tables, figures, or a combination of these three.

Placement :

Appendices should be placed on a separate page at the end of your paper after the references, footnotes, tables, and figure. The label and title should be centre aligned. The contents of the appendix and the note should be left-aligned.

• If you are choosing to include tables and figures in your appendix, then you can list each one on a separate page or you may include multiple tables/figures in one appendix, if there is no text and each table and/or figure has its own clear number and title within the appendix.
• Tables and figures in an appendix receive a number preceded by the letter of the appendix in which it appears, e.g. Table A1 is the first table in Appendix A or of a sole appendix that is not labeled with a letter.

The follow elements are required for appendices in APA Style:

Appendix Labels:

Each appendix that you place in your paper is labelled “Appendix.” If a paper has more than one appendix, then label each with a capital letter in the order the appendices are referred to in your paper (“Appendix A” is referred to first, “Appendix B” is referred to second, etc).

• The label of the appendix should be in bold font, centre-aligned, follow Title Casing, and is located at the top of the page.
• If your appendix only contains one table or figure (and no text), then the appendix label takes the place of the table/figure number, e.g. the table may be referred to as “Appendix B” rather than “Table B1.”

Appendix Titles:

Each appendix should have a title, that describes its contents. Titles should be brief, clear, and explanatory.

• The title of the appendix should be in bold font, centre-aligned, follow Title Casing, and is one double-spaced line down from the appendix label.
• If your appendix only contains one table or figure (and no text), then the appendix title takes the place of the table/figure title. 

Appendix Contents:

• Left aligned and indented; written the same as paragraphs within the body of the paper
• Double-spaced and with the same font as the rest of the paper
• If the appendix contains a table and/or figure, then the table/figure number must contain a letter to correlate the table and/or figure to the appendix and not the body of the paper, e.g. “Table A1” rather than “Table 1” to clarify that the table appears in the appendix and not in the body of the paper.
• All tables and figures in an appendix must be mentioned in the appendix and numbered in order of mention. 
• All tables and figures must be aligned to the left margin, (not center aligned), and positioned after a paragraph break, preferably the paragraph in which they are referred to, with a double-spaced blank line between the table and the text. 
• Each table and figure should include a note afterwards to further explain the supplement or clarify information in the table or figure to your paper/appendix and can be general, specific, and probability. See “Table Notes” in the section “Table and Figures” above for more details.

Referring to Appendices in the Text:

In your paper, refer to every appendix that you have inserted. Do not include an appendix in your work that you do not clearly explain in relation to the ideas in your paper.

• In general, only refer to the appendix by the label (“Appendix” or “Appendix A” etc.) and not the appendix title.

Reprinting or Adapting:

If you did not create the content in the appendix yourself, for instance if you found a figure on the internet, you must include a copyright attribution in a note below the figure. 

• A copyright attribution is used instead of an in-text citation. 
• Each work should also be listed in the reference list. 

Please see pages 390-391 in the Manual for example copyright attributions.

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How to Write an APA Appendix

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• When to Use an Appendix
• What to Include
• Basic Rules

If you are writing a psychology paper for a class or for publication, you may be required to include an appendix in APA format. An APA appendix is found at the end of a paper and contains information that supplements the text but that is too unwieldy or distracting to include in the main body of the paper. 

APA format is the official writing style used by the American Psychological Association . This format dictates how academic and professional papers should be structured and formatted. 

Does Your Paper Need an APA Appendix?

Some questions to ask about whether you should put information in the body of the paper or in an appendix:

• Is the material necessary for the reader to understand the research? If the answer is yes, it should be in your paper and not in an appendix.
• Would including the information interrupt the flow of the paper? If the answer is yes, then it should likely appear in the appendix.
• Would the information supplement what already appears in your paper? If yes, then it is a good candidate for including in an appendix.

Your appendix is not meant to become an information dump. While the information in your appendices is supplementary to your paper and research, it should still be useful and relevant. Only include what will help readers gain insight and understanding, not clutter or unnecessary confusion.

What to Include in an APA Appendix

The APA official stylebook suggests that the appendix should include information that would be distracting or inappropriate in the text of the paper.

Some examples of information you might include in an appendix include:

• Correspondence (if it pertains directly to your research)
• Demographic details about participants or groups
• Examples of participant responses
• Extended or detailed descriptions
• Lists that are too lengthy to include in the main text
• Large amounts of raw data
• Lists of supporting research and articles that are not directly referenced in-text
• Materials and instruments (if your research relied on special materials or instruments, you might want to include images and further information about how these items work or were used)
• Questionnaires that were used as part of your research
• Raw data (presented in an organized, readable format)
• Research surveys

While the content found in the appendix is too cumbersome to include in the main text of your paper, it should still be easily presented in print format.

The appendices should always act as a supplement to your paper. The body of your paper should be able to stand alone and fully describe your research or your arguments.

The body of your paper should not be dependent upon what is in the appendices. Instead, each appendix should act to supplement what is in the primary text, adding additional (but not essential) information that provides extra insight or information for the reader. 

Basic Rules for an APA Appendix

Here are some basic APA appendix rules to keep in mind when working on your paper:

• Your paper may have more than one appendix.
• Each item usually gets its own appendix section.
• Begin each appendix on a separate page.
• Each appendix must have a title.
• Use title case for your title and labels (the first letter of each word should be capitalized, while remaining letters should be lowercase).
• If your paper only has one appendix, simply title it Appendix. 
• If you have more than one appendix, each one should be labeled Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C, and so on.
• Put the appendix label centered at the top of the page.
• On the next line under the appendix label, place the centered title of the appendix. 
• If you refer to a source in your appendix, include an in-text citation just as you would in the main body of your paper and then include the source in your main reference section.
• Each appendix may contain headings, subheadings, figures, and tables. 
• Each figure or table in your appendix should include a brief but explanatory title, which should be italicized. 
• If you want to reference your appendix within the text of your paper, include a parenthetical note in the text. For example, you would write (See Appendix A).

Formatting an APA Appendix

How do you format an appendix in APA? An APA appendix should follow the overall rules on how to format text. Such rules specify what font and font size you should use, the size of your margins, and the spacing of the text.

Some of the APA format guidelines you need to observe:

• Use a consistent font, such as 12-point Times New Roman or 11-point Calibri
• Double-space your text
• All paragraphs should be indented on the first line
• Page numbering should be continuous with the rest of your paper

The appendix label should appear centered and bolded at the top of the page. A descriptive title should follow and should also be bolded and centered. As with other pages in your paper, your APA format appendix should be left-aligned and double-spaced. Each page should include a page number in the top right corner. You can also have more than one appendix, but each one should begin on a new page.

Data Displays in an APA Appendix

When presenting information in an appendix, use a logical layout for any data displays such as tables or figures. All tables and figures should be labeled with the words “Table” or “Figure” (sans quotation marks) and the letter of the appendix and then numbered.

For example, Table A1 would be the first table in an Appendix A. Data displays should be presented in the appendix following the same order that they first appear in the text of your paper.

In addition to following basic APA formatting rules, you should also check to see if there are additional guidelines you need to follow. Individual instructors or publications may have their own specific requirements.

Where to Include an APA Appendix

If your paper does require an appendix, it should be the very last pages of your finished paper. An APA format paper is usually structured in the following way:

Your paper may not necessarily include all of these sections. At a minimum, however, your paper may consist of a title page, abstract, main text, and reference section. Also, if your paper does not contain tables, figures, or footnotes, then the appendix would follow the references.

Never include an appendix containing information that is not referred to in your text. 

A Word From Verywell

Writing a paper for class or publication requires a great deal of research, but you should pay special attention to your APA formatting. Each section of your paper, including the appendix section, needs to follow the rules and guidelines provided in the American Psychological Association’s stylebook.

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). Washington DC: The American Psychological Association; 2020.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

How to Write a Research Paper Appendix

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Writing a research paper isn’t just a work of mere writing. Writing the perfect research paper takes a lot of research, analysis, framing, formatting, and much more. Correctly writing one of the most essential and academically popular segments of a research paper, the appendix, is one such effort that goes into a dissertation.  In this blog , we will discuss with you the functions of an appendix in-depth and give you some tried and tested tips to craft the perfect appendix section of a research paper! Let’s dive in! 

What is an Appendix?

The appendix on a research paper is a supplementary segment at the end of a dissertation or the research paper. This section isn’t considered a part of the main body text of the dissertation, but it is an important part of doing research. Appendices often feature raw data in the form of tables, figures, maps, diagrams and statistics and thus contribute to the credibility of the research and make it a perfect research paper . 

Using academic resources, books, and research tools can help frame an appendix better. Appendices are essential since they provide extra support to your research and make the dissertation seem more transparent regarding data. 

However, the appendix section of a research paper should only be supplementary; thus, you cannot depend on it to help the reader understand the main text. Your dissertation text should be detailed enough to be understandable without appendices, and they should only be placed to support your arguments presented in the research report. 

How to Write an Appendix for a Research Paper

Writing the perfect research paper appendix can be overwhelming if it’s your first time doing so. However, drafting the appendix section of a research paper can be quite fun if you know the basics and understand how exactly you should go about it. Here are our 5 tips on how to write the perfect appendix for your dissertation: 

Step 1: Organize the Appendix

With all the raw data, stats, and information, an appendix on a research paper can be difficult to go through and understand if they’re drafted disorganizedly. So, while writing your research paper appendix, make sure you are not just ramming all information into it but organising it well so the reader can utilise it. Structure it well, for it can very well come across as a reflection of your daily choices.

Step 2: Consider Accessibility

A research paper appendix can include non-textual information like tables, diagrams, graphs, images, illustrations, etc. If you’re adding such visual data elements to your appendices, ensure the material is clear and readable so the reader can comprehend the data. You should also ensure you are labelling these elements well and adding brief descriptions to each figure. 

Step 3: Review for Relevance

It is easy to lose track of the relevance of your data while preparing appendices since you have to work with many different types of data simultaneously. However, you have to remember that the goal is not to stuff your appendices with data. Rather, craft a precise, careful research paper appendix that can give your reader relevant and additional data that supports your research.

Step 4: Proofread and Revise

When it comes to dissertation writing, typos, grammatical errors, and spelling mistakes can cost you way more than just miscommunication. These seemingly harmless errors can make your work look casual and unprofessional, bringing in questions about the credibility of your work. It is a similar case when it comes to writing an appendix for a research paper. 

Step 5: Seek Guidance

It is important to remember that seeking guidance when you feel stuck is pretty normal, and there is nothing to be embarrassed about it. You may feel lost while writing an appendix for a research paper, and it is the perfect time to seek guidance from your peers, advisor or even dissertation committee members. 

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How to Format an Appendix

Ensuring proper formatting is crucial for the seamless integration of the research paper appendix into the main body. Follow the guidelines below for a sharp-looking appendix:

Consistency with the Main Body

Formatting elements, fonts, font sizes and margins should have uniformity. Consistent and professional appearance gives your research paper a neat look.

Organisation and Structure

Use headings and subheadings to categorise your data logically. You can also use a well-structured numbering system to facilitate easy navigation.

Descriptive Elements

Introduce each content with short descriptions and paragraphs. Giving additional context makes the information more accessible and interpretable.

Consistent Formatting Style

Use a formatting style that goes well with the rest of your dissertation, along with font styles, sizes, and other formatting guidelines instructed by your academic institution.

Visual Accessibility

Any non-textual elements, such as tables, graphs, or images, should be clear and readable. Label these visual elements and add alternative texts for inclusivity in the digital appendix.

Where does the appendix go in your dissertation? 

Although the appendix section of a research paper is an essential part of your dissertation, it is not to be included in the main body of the dissertation. As a compilation of supplementary material and raw data, your research paper appendix should go at the end of the dissertation, typically inserted after the reference lists. Some even present appendices as separate supplementary documents, mostly done in specially requested cases. 

The format of the research paper appendix should be similar to the rest of your report for consistency. It should thus be drafted and formatted in the same style as the dissertation in terms of fonts, margins, and font sizes.

What to include in your appendix 

While drafting your research paper appendix, remember that it needs to be as precise as possible. Thus, there cannot be unnecessary information in it. Typically, appendices include raw data that supports your research and is referenced in the dissertation you have prepared. Here are some of the elements that you should include in your appendix: 

• Research results 
• Transcribed interviews 
• Survey/questionnaire details 
• Table and figures 
• Co-respondence 
• List of abbreviations used 
• Calculations and formulas 

Referring appendix in-text 

Only adding your appendix to the research paper at the end of the dissertation would not make sense if there are no references to them in the main text. To justify its existence and inclusion in the research report, you should reference the appendix at least once in the whole report. A neatly labelled and properly referred research paper appendix can make your dissertation look more professional and supported. 

How to refer to an appendix

Referring to the research paper appendix within the main text is important in highlighting its relevance. Use these five methods for referencing:

In-text references

Specific references embedded in your sentences contextually shape your information. For example, "In Table 2 of Appendix B, the commonality between subjects A and B is illustrated.

Parenthetical references

You can use parentheses for concise references without disrupting the main text's flow. For instance, "The result [refer to Appendix C, Fig. 2] is not consistent with the previous findings."

Referring to the entire appendix

Refer to the entire research paper appendix in your text when appropriate. For example, "The data supporting this conclusion can be found in Appendix B."

Clarity and labelling

References should be clear and well-labelled. Proper labelling ensures easy identification of referenced material within the appendix, polishing your research paper professionally.

Cross-referencing

Cross-referencing helps you establish connections between the main text and the appendix. Phrases like "As discussed in Appendix A" guide readers to supporting material.

Crafting the perfect appendix section of a research paper involves meticulous attention to detail and adherence to formatting and referencing guidelines. As an integral part of your dissertation, the appendix contributes significantly to the transparency, credibility, and overall professionalism of your research. By following the comprehensive guidelines provided in this guide, you can ensure that your appendix not only complements your main text but also serves as a valuable resource for readers seeking additional insights. 

Frequently Asked Questions

What do i write in a research paper appendix, why is an appendix important for a dissertation, where is the appendix placed in the research paper, is writing a research paper appendix difficult, what are the basic guidelines for writing an appendix.

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Research Paper Appendix: Format and Examples

An appendix in a research paper contains additional or supplementary information that may aid the reader’s understanding of the subject but is not essential for everyone. It is typically placed at the end of the document. A research paper appendix may contain different types of material, such as text, tables, figures, diagrams and illustrations, maps, raw data, questionnaires used in the study, etc. An appendix in a research paper may also contain information that is too data heavy to include in the main text.   

Separate appendices are typically used for each topic being described, with each appendix having a descriptive title. The main manuscript should be able to stand alone without the research paper appendix and should not depend on it for basic understanding. If the appendix were removed from the paper, it shouldn’t hinder the readers’ understanding of the study. Appendices should always be referred to or cited in the text so that the readers could refer to it if they need additional information.  

The following sections will describe in detail the basic structure and importance of an appendix in a research paper and list the types of content that could be included to help you create comprehensive appendices to supplement your research paper.

Table of Contents

What is an appendix in a research paper ?  

A research paper¹  has detailed information about a study, such as the methods and results, and any information that is additional, but nonessential is usually included in the appendix section at the end of the paper. Including appendices is optional because it has supplementary information that readers may or may not refer to.  

A research paper appendix should be included for the following reasons:  

• Including this information in the main text may interrupt the narrative flow of the paper.  
• The information is too lengthy or detailed to be included in the main paper.  
• Adding the information would significantly increase the word limit.  
• Provides data that can be understood better if presented in a self-contained or independent format  
• Offers the opportunity to present additional information about your study, including design methods, cohort details, etc.  

Importance of an appendix in a research paper    

The main aim of including an appendix in a research paper is to provide additional material to support the paper although it may not be directly relevant to the understanding of the study. This additional material provides more clarity to readers and is an optional read, so readers can choose whether or not they would want to refer to it. Appendices can also help you in demonstrating your thoroughness and credibility as a researcher by sharing your evidence, data, and methods that support your findings. An appendix in a research paper also gives you an opportunity to be creative and flexible in presenting additional information through different formats, such as videos, audio clips, etc., to illustrate your text.²  

Thus, the functions of an appendix in a research paper can be summarized as follows:  

• Provide additional information  
• Organize and present complex data  
• Maintain readability of the main paper  
• Provide an expanded context for readers to verify and extend research  

General points to consider while adding a research paper appendix  

Here are a few points to consider while adding an appendix in a research paper .¹,³  

• Finalize the content type : Identify the type of content you want to add, separate the appendices based on data, don’t combine them. Do not include vague or irrelevant information.  
• Organize and label : Appendices should have a logical structure and numbering. Use letters or numbers to label multiple appendices. List appendices in the order in which they are cited in the main text.  
• Format : Ensure consistent formatting across all appendices—same font size, typeface, clear titles, and captions.  
• Place in a sequence : Ensure that the appendix is placed at the end of the document. Always cite every appendix in the research paper .   

What to include in the appendix    

Here are the types of content that could be included in an appendix in a research paper .¹  

• Detailed textual descriptions  
• Raw data—This information is usually very detailed, and the main paper may need only the analysis of the main data. In such cases, including this basic raw data in the research paper appendix would help readers to recheck and validate your findings, providing credibility to your research. The data could be in the form of spreadsheets.  
• Tables and figures—These supplemental tables and figures should follow a numbering independent of the numbering in the main paper because they are stand alone.  
• Maps, photographs, diagrams—Include these if you feel that they would aid readers’ understanding.  
• Audio or video clips  
• Correspondence—collaboration in the form of memos, letters, email copies  
• Interview transcripts—Full transcripts for clear understanding, interview questions  
• Questionnaires or surveys—survey instruments, questions  
• Research instruments—devices used to gather information, like cameras and recorders  
• Sample calculations—research formulae, descriptions of how calculations were used to determine relationships and significance  
• Additional documents—permission forms, consent forms, ethical approval documentation  

How to format an appendix    

Here are a few general rules on how to format an appendix in a research paper . 1 In addition, specific style guides may be referred to if required.  

• Each appendix in a research paper should begin on a new page.  
• Label the first page Appendix at the top of the page.  
• In case of two or more appendices, give each appendix a number or letter and a descriptive title. For example, Appendix A. XXX.  
• The appendices should be ordered in the same order in which they are cited in the text.  
• Appendices should be paginated separately from the main text, preferably with lower case Roman numerals.  

Appendices are usually formatted using three guides—APA, Chicago, and MLA, as described below.³  

  How to refer to an appendix  

To refer to an entire appendix in a research paper , simply signpost it as follows:  

The results show the association between the variables X and Y (see Appendix 1)…  

If referring to a part of the research paper appendix , the specific component can also be mentioned.  

This association between the variables (see Appendix A, Figure 2)…  

Where to place appendices   

An appendix in a research paper is usually placed at the end of your manuscript, after the reference section. Another format is to include all appendices as a separate document to be submitted along with your manuscript.  

Key Takeaways  

Here’s a quick summary of all the points described in detail in the previous sections.  

• An appendix in a research paper contains additional information to supplement and support your main research paper.  
• This information is an optional, nonessential read, and readers may choose to refer to it only if they are interested in further details on that topic.  
• Research paper appendix content could include detailed text, tables, figures, maps, illustrations, raw data, calculations, audio-video clips, etc.  
• Appendices are typically placed at the end of the manuscript after all other sections, such as references. However, the specific format may differ based on style guides.  
• An appendix in a research paper should be clearly labelled and titled and should be listed in the order in which they are cited in the text. Every appendix should mandatorily be cited in the text.  

Frequently Asked Questions  

Q1. Why is an appendix placed at the end and not within the main body of a research paper?  

A1. An appendix in a research paper contains additional information that may not be useful for all the readers. In addition, some guidelines may have restrictions about the word count. In such cases, including appendices at the end of the paper saves space and is useful for readers who are interested in it. Appendices are also included in PowerPoint presentations, but authors have the option of hiding that information and presenting it only if necessary.  

Q2. How should I format a research paper appendix in APA 7th Edition?  

A2. The following formatting guidelines should be followed to format an appendix in APA 7 th edition: 4  

• The appendix should be created on its own individual page titled “Appendix.”  
• The page title should be followed by a title that describes the subject of the appendix.  
• The headings should be center aligned at the top of the page, boldfaced, and written in title case.  
• In case of multiple appendices, each should be titled “Appendix A” or “Appendix 1” depending on the guidelines.  
• All appendices should be referenced in the text accordingly, for example, “see Appendix A” or “see the Appendix.”  
• Appendices should always be included as the last section of the research paper, after references, tables, and figures.  
• should be formatted in paragraph style  
• may include text, figures, tables, equations, or footnotes  
• should have all illustrative components labelled with the letter of the corresponding appendix, followed by a number to indicate the order within the appendix. For example, “Table C2” would be the second table in Appendix C.  

If the appendix in a research paper has only one component like a figure or table, then that component should be labelled as the appendix rather than figure or table. For example, if Appendix A includes only a table, then the table would be titled as “Appendix A” rather than “Table A1.” Here’s a sample appendix to illustrate the points mentioned above.

Q3. How should I format a research paper appendix in MLA style, 9 th edition?  

A3. The following guidelines should be followed for formatting appendices according to MLA style: 5  

• The appendix appears before the Works Cited list (or References).  
• For more than one appendix, label them as Appendix A, Appendix B, and so on.  
• The appendices should be ordered in the order the information appears in your research paper.  
• Each appendix should begin on a new page.   

Q4. Can I include images or tables in a research paper appendix ?  

A4. Yes, appendices are appropriate for including all supplementary information that could add to the understanding of your research data. This additional information can be in any format—text, figures, illustrations, maps, calculations, diagrams, tables, graphs, etc.  

Q5. Do I need to include appendices in the table of contents?  

A5. While several guidelines prefer including appendices in the table of contents, other guidelines prefer a separate list of appendices in case of more than one and mentioning only “appendices” in the table of contents.  

Q6. What if the appendix in a research paper contains copyrighted material? 6,7  

A6. If the appendix in a research paper includes reproductions of copyrighted material, you should, in some cases, obtain written authorization from the copyright holder. Using material in your paper more than that defined by the “fair use” principle, which allows for limited use of a work without first obtaining the copyright holder’s permission, may amount to copyright infringement.  

Different levels of permission can be required:  

• No permission required : When explicit licensing for use for any purpose is granted by the holder; only a limited portion is used; includes information developed by governments and is in the public domain.  
• Non-commercial or educational use : The copyright holder has licensed the instrument for only educational or non-commercial use. Any other use requires permission.  
• Permission required : This may be needed if the copyright holder has some restrictions for the use, for example, they have specific directions for use, correct version may be needed, etc. In such cases, you will need to contact the copyright holder directly.  

Q7. What is the difference between an appendix and a footnote or endnote?  

A7. The following table lists some differences between appendices and footnotes or endnotes. 3  

To summarize, an appendix in a research paper is an important component if you need to provide readers with supplementary information that may help them in understanding certain aspects of your study in more detail. Being an optional part of a research paper, it gives you the benefit of providing more details while adhering to constraints of space and words counts. We hope this article has helped you understand the importance of a research paper appendix and has given you an insight into the types of content that can be included in it.  

References  

• Organizing your social science research paper. USC libraries research guides. Accessed August 14, 2024. https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/appendices  
• How to write an appendix: Explained with ease. EssayHub website. Accessed August 15, 2024. https://essayhub.com/blog/how-to-write-an-appendix-explained-with-ease  
• Caleb S. Extensive guide on appendix writing for graduating students. CollegeEssay website. Accessed August 16, 2024. https://collegeessay.org/blog/general/appendix-writing  
• Footnotes and appendices. Purdue University online writing lab. Accessed August 15, 2024. https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/footnotes_appendices.html  

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Research Paper Appendix

When writing a comprehensive research paper, you may find that certain information, data, or supplementary materials don’t quite fit into the main body of your text. That’s where an appendix comes in handy. An appendix may contain tables and figures, detailed data, or other supporting information that’s too lengthy or complex for the main text.

When referring to this additional material, use an in-text citation like “ (see Appendix)” to direct readers. In APA style, if you have only one appendix, simply label it “Appendix” without a letter or number. Include the appendix in your table of contents for easy navigation.

Remember, each item in the appendix should be cited properly, following APA citation guidelines. Whether you have one appendix or multiple, ensure that all supplementary materials enhance your research paper without cluttering the main text.

What is an appendix in a research paper?

An appendix is a section at the end of a research paper that includes supplementary information relevant to your study but optional to the main narrative. Appendices allow you to provide additional context, data, or materials without cluttering up the primary sections of your paper.

What to include in an appendix

Typical items that may appear in an appendix for a research paper include:

• Raw data, survey instruments, or other primary source materials
• Detailed explanations of specialized terminology or equations
• Large tables, charts, figures, or images that support your findings
• Interview transcripts or other qualitative data
• Supplementary analyses or statistical tests
• Copies of informed consent forms, ethics approval, or other administrative documents

How to format an appendix

When formatting your appendices, organizing them into separate sections rather than a single, lengthy appendix is often helpful. This makes the information more accessible and easier for your reader to navigate.

Follow these guidelines to format the appendix(ces) for your research paper :

• Clearly label each appendix with a letter or number and a descriptive title that captures the content, such as “Appendix A: Survey Questions.”
• Maintain consistent formatting throughout the appendix, using the same font style and size as the rest of your paper. 
• If your appendix contains tables or figures, label them distinctly from those in the main body of your paper. For instance, “Table A1” for a table in Appendix A.
• If you have multiple appendices, include a separate cover page for each, using the appropriate letter or number to distinguish them.

Applying these formatting best practices will ensure your appendices are well-organized and easily navigable for your reader.

How to refer to an appendix

When you must direct the reader to information in an appendix, use clear, consistent language. For example:

• The detailed survey questions can be found in Appendix B.
• Additional descriptive statistics are provided in Appendix C, Table C.1.
• As shown in the scatter plot in Appendix D, there is a positive correlation between the two variables.

Where to put your appendices

Appendices should always be placed at the end of your research paper, following your reference list. This ensures they don’t interrupt the flow of your main argument.

Other components to consider

In addition to the appendix content, there are a few other supplementary components you may want to consider including in your research paper. These additional components relevant to your specific research can enhance your appendices’ overall clarity and comprehensiveness.

• List of abbreviations : If you’ve used many abbreviated terms or field-specific symbols throughout your paper, providing a consolidated list can aid reader understanding.
• Glossary : Similarly, a glossary can be helpful if your work involves a lot of specialized or technical language. Defining these key terms in a dedicated section makes it easy for the reader to refer back to them.
• Tables, figures, or graphics: If your paper contains many tables, figures, or other graphics that don’t neatly fit into the main body, you may include a separate list or compilation of these supplementary visual elements. This further organizes your supporting materials for the reader’s convenience.

Appendix checklist

When preparing your research paper appendices, use this handy checklist to ensure you’ve covered all the bases:

• Each appendix should only include information that supplements the main text without being essential to its understanding.
• Begin each appendix on a separate page for clarity and organization.
• Assign a number and a clear, descriptive title to each appendix.
• If an appendix contains sub-components such as tables or figures, provide them with their own numbers and titles for easy reference.
• Ensure your appendices are well-organized, clearly formatted, and easy to navigate.
• Include at least one reference to each appendix in the main text to establish its relevance to the overall work.

Citations - APA: Formatting - Essay, Reference List, Appendix, & Sample Paper

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If you are adding an appendix to your paper there are a few rules to follow that comply with APA guidelines:

• The Appendix appears  after  the References list
• If you have more than one appendix you would name the first appendix Appendix A, the second Appendix B, etc.
• The appendices should appear in the order that the information is mentioned in your essay
• Each appendix begins on a new page
• APA Sample Paper - with Appendix (Purdue OWL example)

Quick Rules for an APA Reference List

Your research paper ends with a list of all the sources cited in the text of the paper. Here are nine quick rules for this Reference list.

• Start a new page for your Reference list. Centre the title, References, at the top of the page.
• Double-space the list.
• Start the first line of each reference at the left margin; indent each subsequent line five spaces (a hanging indent).
• Put your list in alphabetical order. Alphabetize the list by the first word in the reference. In most cases, the first word will be the author’s last name. Where the author is unknown, alphabetize by the first word in the title, ignoring the words a, an, the.
• For each author, give the last name followed by a comma and the first (and middle, if listed) initials followed by periods.
• Italicize the titles of works: books, audiovisual material, internet documents and newspapers, and the title and volume number of journals and magazines.
• Do not italicize titles of parts of works, such as: articles from newspapers, magazines, or journals / essays, poems, short stories or chapter titles from a book / chapters or sections of an Internet document.
• In titles of non-periodicals (books, videotapes, websites, reports, poems, essays, chapters, etc), capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, and all proper nouns (names of people, places, organizations, nationalities).
• If more than one place of publication is listed give the publisher's home office. If the home office is not given or known then choose the first location listed.
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How to Write an Appendix: Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

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While composing your work, you may stumble upon a question on how to write an appendix.

An appendix is a supplemental section of a research paper that provides additional information, data, or materials to support the main content. The appendix is usually placed at the end of the document and is numbered with letters or numbers, such as "Appendix A," "Appendix B," etc. The purpose of an appendix is to provide readers with supplementary details that are not included in the main text but are relevant to the topic.

Once you decide on writing appendices, you should collect additional information and format your text as required. Here, we will talk about how you can work with appendices. We will also show some nuances of their preparation process using a real example. Is the deadline around the corner? Consider using professional research paper help from expert scholars.

What Is an Appendix: Definition

Experienced researchers know what an appendix in a paper is. But aspiring authors often have problems with this section of the work. First of all, you should understand that appendices are an additional section of a dissertation or any other scientific paper that includes additional information. Main points are not placed in an appendix meanwhile at the end of your work it can expand on some context or clarify author’s position on a particular issue. Also, an appendix is ​​often placed after the citation page of a work. It is indicated with the help of references in a main text.

What Is the Purpose of an Appendix

Quite often, authors don’t understand the purpose of an appendix. This usually looks like a table and is not included in a main text. Remember that content of your dissertation should be concise and clear. It is also undesirable if you deviate from your theme so as not to confuse readers. Therefore, you can provide a reference, which will lead a reader to an appendix of a thesis. Typically, the purpose of an appendix is to extra information that is usually not included in the text's body. It expresses author's point of view, and provides additional information. It may not address the immediate topic of your dissertation or expand on current research. As a reminder, your work should be clear even without studying an appendix. So make sure you don't put important details there.

What Can You Include in an Appendix

An appendix in a paper is a supplement to a main text, not a replacement. You can put different elements there. It is better if you separate appendices, highlighting one element in each of them. Don’t forget about separate references in your text. Otherwise it will be difficult for a reader to understand your information better. Thus, the following information can be added:

• diagrams with illustrative figures;
• abbreviations ;
• interviews;
• statistics, and much more.

There are no restrictions on content added to your dissertation's appendices. Theoretically, you can attach absolutely any information that is relevant to your topic. Thus, possibilities for evidence base are almost unlimited. All you need to do is add tables or any other information.

How to Write an Appendix: Full Guide

If you already have experience working on dissertations and other scientific texts, you will not wonder how to make an appendix. However, it is still important that you get some advice on how to properly structure an appendices section. This will help add information that may be redundant in the main part of your paper. We offer 4 simple steps to create an informative and readable appendix block.

Step 1. Make an Appendix: Include Your Data

When creating an appendix, include extra data in their raw form. That is, you might not have used some details in your main paper. But you want a reader to know more information. For example, it can be calculations, some results of which are mentioned in your main text. Or maybe, you can add some statistics that clearly demonstrate your research paper conclusion . You can also include facts from other scientific sources that support your position. One thing is important — information should complement your text but not contradict it.

Step 2. Include Visual Supporting Documents in an Appendix 

When you are writing an appendix, you can’t avoid visual additions that clearly demonstrate an information and save an author from lengthy descriptions in the text. Should you need to support your conclusions drawn in the scientific text, these can be used:

Don’t forget: you should quote and indicate the authorship of graphics used in your work. If you took it from any third-party sources, of course. Thus, a reader will be able to find additional data that explains the content of your text. It is good if you personally put results of your research in a graphic form. To do this, you can use Office programs, graphic editors and other programs available to PC users.

Step 3. Describe the Instruments of Your Research in Your Appendices

It is good if your appendix in the research paper has a section for indicating tools that were used during the preparation of your dissertation writing . This way, your reader will understand how you collected information and do it themselves. For example, it could be a dictaphone or tape recorder on which an interview with your expert was recorded. Or you might have used a video camera for recording facts and interviews. In such case, it is advisable to indicate these instruments in your appendix. Specialized equipment for measuring, calculating and making graphics should also be added at the beginning of the appendix. This way, you will demonstrate your skills and knowledge. Research units don’t require extra tools, so make sure they are listed. You can do it even in a short format.

Step 4. Include an Interview and Transcripts in an Appendix

When conducting interviews and surveys for collecting information, make an appendix with photocopies of handwritten materials or electronic copies of digital surveys. Their order is not important. The main thing is that your research text contains references. This will allow you to quickly study the sources. You should not only show that the source contains important data but also explain it. So, even additional content, including questions and answers, needs to be listed. But if you originally had a readable format, you don’t need to do this. In addition to interviews, also add screenshots or photos of correspondences used for surveys. For example, you can refer to a significant researcher with whom you exchanged letters. Or maybe you studied subject, together with this researcher, and they gave some comments on a particular issue. Do not know how to write a discussion section of a research paper ? Do not worry, we have the whole article dedicated to this topic.

Formatting an Appendix: Main Rules

Formatting of appendices is required in any case. First of all, provide correct citations. APA, MLA, and Chicago are the most commonly used standards. Although, you should clarify what formatting requirements your institution has. Correct formatting includes:

• Appendix title. Write it at the top of the content page, indicate its title, using letters or numbers for ordering.
• Sorted by mention. Don’t add appendices randomly, it is better to do it in chronological order. That is, as information from it is given in main text.
• Location after bibliography. This is a general requirement that cannot always be met. For example, if your professor wants the appendices to be put before the bibliography, this will have to be done.
• Page numbers. All dissertation pages should be numbered, even if they are blank. This will make the appendix block the part of main text.

Also, review your appendix before approval. Make sure that its content is clear, error-free, and correctly quoted.

Appendix Example

To do the job successfully, it is recommended to have an example of an appendix at hand. Without it, there are usually problems with a choice of font and mentions that appear in main text. We will show you what the appendix itself looks like at the end of the dissertation using a short interview as an example.

We have one more blog in case you wonder what is an abstract in a paper  or need some examples and writing tips.

How to Make an Appendix: Final Thoughts

Thus, we talked about how to write an appendix. It allows you to include additional details, while avoiding writing them in the body of your text. To do this, one can use graphics, transcriptions of conversations, tables and statistics — anything that complements your research. Be sure to clarify formatting requirements of your university. Arrange appendices in an order in which they appear in your text. Try to use your own materials and not take other people's work. In case of unique findings, they can be used in your work.

Please contact us if you have any difficulties preparing an academic work! Our professional paper writers guarantee high quality and loyal prices. Just choose a writer to your liking, send your requirements and you're good to go!

Frequently Asked Questions About Appendix Writing

1. how do you add an appendix to an essay.

The inclusion of appendix to an essay is the same as to any other paper. You need to provide references in your text of an essay itself, as well as submit attachments after a bibliography. Don't forget to specify name of an appendix for easy navigation.

2. Do I add references to the appendix?

Yes, this is not only recommended but must be done. In this case the appendix will allow your reader to check the reliability of sources you used. Moreover, if you took any information from third-party sources, this protect you from plagiarism charges.

4. How do you create an appendix in Word?

It is not difficult to prepare an appendix in Word, because this Office program contains all the necessary tools. To get started, choose the same font, font size and indentation that were used in the main text, so as not to visually break away from it. We also recommend that you apply title formatting with built-in Word tools. Place the appendix titles at the top in the center of a page. In this case it will be much easier to navigate the paper.

3. What is an appendix in a report example?

You can include a wide range of information into an appendix in a report. It is better to opt for descriptive formats, though. For example, it can be graphical or mathematical research results, statistics of a certain phenomenon, and questionnaires filled in by other people.

Joe Eckel is an expert on Dissertations writing. He makes sure that each student gets precious insights on composing A-grade academic writing.

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What is an appendix in a paper

What is an appendix?

What type of information includes an appendix, the format of an appendix, frequently asked questions about appendices in papers, related articles.

An appendix is a section of a paper that features supporting information not included in the main text.

The appendix of a paper consists of supporting information for the research that is not necessary to include in the text. This section provides further insight into the topic of research but happens to be too complex or too broad to add to the body of the paper. A paper can have more than one appendix, as it is recommended to divide them according to topic.

➡️ Read more about  what is a research paper?

An appendix can take many types of forms. Here are some examples:

• Surveys. Since many researchers base their methodology on surveys, these are commonly found attached as appendices. Surveys must be included exactly as they were presented to the respondents, and exactly how they were answered so the reader can get a real picture of the findings.
• Interviews . Whether it’s a transcript or a recording, interviews are usually included as an appendix. The list of questions and the real answers must be presented for complete transparency.
• Correspondence . All types of communication with collaborators regarding the research should be included as an appendix. These can be emails, text messages, letters, transcripts of audio messages, etc.
• Research tools . Any instrument used to perform the research should be acknowledged in an appendix to give the reader insight into the process. For instance, audio recorders, cameras, special software, etc.
• Non-textual items . If the research includes too many graphs, tables, figures, illustrations, photos or charts, these should be added as an appendix.
• Statistical data . When raw data is too long, it should be attached to the research as an appendix. Even if only one part of the data was used, the complete data must be given.

➡️ Learn more about surveys, interviews, and other research methodologies .

The format of an appendix will vary based on the type of citation style you’re using, as well as the guidelines of the journal or class for which the paper is being written. Here are some general appendix formatting rules:

• Appendices should be divided by topic or by set of data.
• Appendices are included in the table of contents.

The most common heading for an appendix is Appendix A or 1, centered, in bold, followed by a title describing its content.

• An appendix should be located before or after the list of references.
• Each appendix should start on a new page.
• Each page includes a page number.
• Appendices follow a sequential order, meaning they appear in the order in which they are referred to throughout the paper.

An appendix is usually added before or after the list of references.

There is no specific space limit to an appendix, but make sure to consult the guidelines of the citation format you are using.

Yes, all appendices must be included in the table of contents.

Appendices feature different types of material, for instance interviews, research tools, surveys, raw statistical data, etc.

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General Research Paper Guidelines: Appendices

If you have some information you would like to include in your research but it could potentially be distracting to readers or inappropriate within the body of your research paper, you can always include supplemental information as an appendix to your work. An appendix or appendices should always be inserted after your Reference List; however, the appropriateness of appendix content really depends on the nature and scope of your research paper.

For a more in-depth review of what supplemental materials might be included in a social science appendix, be sure to review Section 2.14 “Appendices” (pp. 41-42) of your 7 th edition APA manual.

Appendices Formatting

APA 7 addresses appendices and supplemental materials in Section 2.14 and on page 41:

• The appendices follow the reference list.
• They are lettered "Appendix A," "Appendix B," "Appendix C," and so forth. If you have only one appendix, however, simply label it Appendix.
• Put figures and tables in separate appendices. The appendix title serves as the title for a table if it is the only table in the appendix.
• If you decide that certain figures and tables should appear in the same appendix, number them A1, A2, A3, and so forth, according to the appendix in which they appear.
• The materials in the appendix must not extend beyond the margins of the rest of the paper: Reduce the appendix materials as needed.

As a general guide, appendices are appropriate for any material that, if presented in the main body of the document, would unnecessarily interrupt the flow of the writing. Note that it is unlikely that you will use appendices in Walden course papers. For doctoral capstone studies, you might include some appendices with supplementary information.

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Appendices: When appendices might be necessary

Appendices allow you to include detailed information in your paper that would be distracting in the main body of the paper. Examples of items you might have in an appendix include mathematical proofs, lists of words, the questionnaire used in the research, a detailed description of an apparatus used in the research, etc.

Format of appendices

Your paper may have more than one appendix. Usually, each distinct item has its own appendix. If your paper only has one appendix, label it "Appendix" (without quotes.) If there is more than one appendix, label them "Appendix A," "Appendix B," etc. (without quotes) in the order that each item appears in the paper. In the main text, you should refer to the Appendices by their labels.

The actual format of the appendix will vary depending on the content; therefore, there is no single format. In general, the content of an appendix should conform to the appropriate APA style rules for formatting text.

Footnotes and Endnotes: When footnotes/endnotes might be necessary

Because APA style uses parenthetical citations, you do not need to use footnotes or endnotes to cite your sources. The only reasons you need to use footnotes are for explanatory (content) notes or copyright permission. Content footnotes contain information that supplements the text, but would be distracting or inappropriate to include in the body of the paper. In other words, content footnotes provide important information that is a tangent to what you are discussing in your paper.

The footnote should only express one idea. If it is longer than a few sentences, then you should consider putting this information in an appendix. Most authors do not use footnotes because they tend to be distracting to the readers. If the information is important, authors find a way to incorporate it into the text itself or put it in an appendix.

If you are including a quote that is longer than 500 words or a table or figure in your paper that was originally published elsewhere, then you need to include a footnote that acknowledges that you have permission from the owner of the copyright to use the material.

See our APA guidelines on Footnotes and Endnotes for more information.

When to use tables

Tables enable you to show your data in an easy to read format. However, you do not need to present all of your data in tabular form. Tables are only necessary for large amounts of data that would be too complicated in the text. If you only need to present a few numbers, you should do so directly in the text, not in a table.

How to use tables

Each table should be identified by a number, in the order that they appear in the text (e.g., Table 1, Table 2, etc.). When using a table, you need to refer to the table in the text (e.g., "As shown in Table 1,…") and point out to the reader what they should be looking for in the table. Do not discuss every piece of data that is in the table or else there is no point in having the table. Only mention the most important pieces of information from the table.

The table should also make sense on its own. Be sure to explain all abbreviations except standard abbreviations such as M, SD, and df. Don’t forget to identify the unit of measurement.

APA style has a specific format for tables. Tables should appear at the end of your paper, after the reference list and before any appendixes. Every table needs a unique title after its label. The title should be brief but clearly explain what is in the table.

Sample Papers

This page contains sample papers formatted in seventh edition APA Style. The sample papers show the format that authors should use to submit a manuscript for publication in a professional journal and that students should use to submit a paper to an instructor for a course assignment. You can download the Word files to use as templates and edit them as needed for the purposes of your own papers.

Most guidelines in the Publication Manual apply to both professional manuscripts and student papers. However, there are specific guidelines for professional papers versus student papers, including professional and student title page formats. All authors should check with the person or entity to whom they are submitting their paper (e.g., publisher or instructor) for guidelines that are different from or in addition to those specified by APA Style.

Sample papers from the Publication Manual

The following two sample papers were published in annotated form in the Publication Manual and are reproduced here as PDFs for your ease of use. The annotations draw attention to content and formatting and provide the relevant sections of the Publication Manual (7th ed.) to consult for more information.

• Student sample paper with annotations (PDF, 5MB)
• Professional sample paper with annotations (PDF, 2.7MB)

We also offer these sample papers in Microsoft Word (.docx) format with the annotations as comments to the text.

• Student sample paper with annotations as comments (DOCX, 42KB)
• Professional sample paper with annotations as comments (DOCX, 103KB)

Finally, we offer these sample papers in Microsoft Word (.docx) format without the annotations.

• Student sample paper without annotations (DOCX, 36KB)
• Professional sample paper without annotations (DOCX, 96KB)

Sample professional paper templates by paper type

These sample papers demonstrate APA Style formatting standards for different professional paper types. Professional papers can contain many different elements depending on the nature of the work. Authors seeking publication should refer to the journal’s instructions for authors or manuscript submission guidelines for specific requirements and/or sections to include.

• Literature review professional paper template (DOCX, 47KB)
• Mixed methods professional paper template (DOCX, 68KB)
• Qualitative professional paper template (DOCX, 72KB)
• Quantitative professional paper template (DOCX, 77KB)
• Review professional paper template (DOCX, 112KB)

Sample papers are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Chapter 2 and the Concise Guide Chapter 1

Related handouts

• Heading Levels Template: Student Paper (PDF, 257KB)
• Heading Levels Template: Professional Paper (PDF, 213KB)

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Sample student paper templates by paper type

These sample papers demonstrate APA Style formatting standards for different student paper types. Students may write the same types of papers as professional authors (e.g., quantitative studies, literature reviews) or other types of papers for course assignments (e.g., reaction or response papers, discussion posts), dissertations, and theses.

APA does not set formal requirements for the nature or contents of an APA Style student paper. Students should follow the guidelines and requirements of their instructor, department, and/or institution when writing papers. For instance, an abstract and keywords are not required for APA Style student papers, although an instructor may request them in student papers that are longer or more complex. Specific questions about a paper being written for a course assignment should be directed to the instructor or institution assigning the paper.

• Discussion post student paper template (DOCX, 31KB)
• Literature review student paper template (DOCX, 37KB)
• Quantitative study student paper template (DOCX, 53KB)

Sample papers in real life

Although published articles differ in format from manuscripts submitted for publication or student papers (e.g., different line spacing, font, margins, and column format), articles published in APA journals provide excellent demonstrations of APA Style in action.

APA journals began publishing papers in seventh edition APA Style in 2020. Professional authors should check the author submission guidelines for the journal to which they want to submit their paper for any journal-specific style requirements.

Credits for sample professional paper templates

Quantitative professional paper template: Adapted from “Fake News, Fast and Slow: Deliberation Reduces Belief in False (but Not True) News Headlines,” by B. Bago, D. G. Rand, and G. Pennycook, 2020, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 149 (8), pp. 1608–1613 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000729 ). Copyright 2020 by the American Psychological Association.

Qualitative professional paper template: Adapted from “‘My Smartphone Is an Extension of Myself’: A Holistic Qualitative Exploration of the Impact of Using a Smartphone,” by L. J. Harkin and D. Kuss, 2020, Psychology of Popular Media , 10 (1), pp. 28–38 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000278 ). Copyright 2020 by the American Psychological Association.

Mixed methods professional paper template: Adapted from “‘I Am a Change Agent’: A Mixed Methods Analysis of Students’ Social Justice Value Orientation in an Undergraduate Community Psychology Course,” by D. X. Henderson, A. T. Majors, and M. Wright, 2019,  Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology , 7 (1), 68–80. ( https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000171 ). Copyright 2019 by the American Psychological Association.

Literature review professional paper template: Adapted from “Rethinking Emotions in the Context of Infants’ Prosocial Behavior: The Role of Interest and Positive Emotions,” by S. I. Hammond and J. K. Drummond, 2019, Developmental Psychology , 55 (9), pp. 1882–1888 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000685 ). Copyright 2019 by the American Psychological Association.

Review professional paper template: Adapted from “Joining the Conversation: Teaching Students to Think and Communicate Like Scholars,” by E. L. Parks, 2022, Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology , 8 (1), pp. 70–78 ( https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000193 ). Copyright 2020 by the American Psychological Association.

Credits for sample student paper templates

These papers came from real students who gave their permission to have them edited and posted by APA.

Organizing Academic Research Papers: Appendices

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• How to Manage Group Projects
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Acknowledgements

An appendix contains supplementary material that is not an essential part of the text itself but which may be helpful in providing a more comprehensive understanding of the research problem and/or is information which is too cumbersome to be included in the body of the paper. A separate appendix should be used for each distinct topic or set of data and always have a title descriptive of its contents .

Importance of...

Your research paper must be complete without the appendices, and it must contain all information including tables, diagrams, and results necessary to address the research problem. The key point to remember when you are writing an appendix is that the information is non-essential; if it were removed, the paper would still be understandable.

It is appropriate to include appendices...

• When the incorporation of material in the body of the work would make it poorly structured or it would be too long and detailed and
• To ensure inclusion of helpful, supporting, or essential material that would otherwise clutter or break up the narrative flow of the paper, or it would be distracting to the reader.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  General Points to Consider

When considering whether to include content in an appendix, keep in mind the following points:

• It is usually good practice to include your raw data in an appendix, laying it out in a clear format so the reader can re-check your results. Another option if you have a large amount of raw data is to consider placing it online and note this as the appendix to your research paper.
• Any tables and figures included in the appendix should be numbered as a separate sequence from the main paper . Remember that appendices contain non-essential information that, if removed, would not diminish a reader's understanding of the overall research problem being investigated. This is why non-textual elements should not carry over the sequential numbering of elements in the paper.
• If you have more than three appendices, consider listing them on a separate page at the beginning of your paper . This will help the reader know before reading the paper what information is included in the appendices [always list the appendix or appendices in a table of contents].
• The appendix can be a good place to put maps, photographs, diagrams, and other non-textual elements , if you feel that it will help the reader to understand the content of your paper, but remembering that the paper should be understandable without them.
• An appendix should be streamlined and not loaded with a lot information . If you have a very long and complex appendix, it is a good idea to break it down into separate appendices, allowing the reader to find relevant information quickly.

II.  Contents

Appendices may include some of the following, all of which should be referred to or summarized in the text of your paper:

• Supporting evidence [e.g. raw data]
• Contributory facts or specialized data [raw data appear in the appendix, but with summarized data appearing in the body of the text].
• Sample calculations
• Technical figures, graphs, tables, statistics
• Detailed description of research instruments
• Maps, charts, photographs, drawings
• Letters, emails, and other copies of correspondance
• Questionnaire/survey instruments, with the results appearing in the text
• Complete transcripts of interviews
• Complete field notes from observations
• Specification or data sheets

NOTE:   Do not include vague or irrelevant information in an appendix; this additional information will not help the reader’s overall understanding and interpretation of your research and may only succeed in distracting the reader from understanding your research study.

III.  Format

Here are some general guideline on how to format appendices, but consult the writing style guide [e.g., APA] your professor wants you to use for the class, if needed:

• Appendices may precede or follow your list of references.
• Each appendix begins on a new page.
• The order they are presented is dictated by the order they are mentioned in the text of your research paper.
• The heading should be "Appendix," followed by a letter or number [e.g., "Appendix A" or "Appendix 1"], centered and written in bold.
• Appendices must be listed in the table of contents [if used].
• The page number(s) of the appendix/appendices will continue on with the numbering from the last page of the text.

Appendices . The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes . The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989.

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Measuring and Valuing Australia's Ecosystems

First look at how Australia's ecosystems can be measured and valued.

Executive summary

In 2025, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) will release the first comprehensive set of National Ecosystem Accounts for Australia. The release is part of an ongoing ecosystem accounts program between the ABS and the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW). The accounts will cover the entire Australian territory, encompassing terrestrial, freshwater, and marine realms. The inaugural release, developed from existing datasets, will showcase the potential of extensive ecosystem accounts to deliver environmental information for decision-makers, and will provide a platform for feedback on utility and future enhancements.   

Central to the ongoing program of ecosystem accounts are user needs and a comprehensive statistical framework. The comprehensive framework enables the organisation of data about habitats and landscapes, measuring ecosystem services, and linking this information to economic and other human activities. Over time, the program will provide a time series of information on environmental change and how this impacts our economy. Extensions to ecosystem accounts will also be developed exploring thematic areas such as biodiversity and climate change, providing targeted insights for specific policy areas. The first release will be followed by a consultation process to ensure the accounts are fit-for-purpose.  

This paper discusses the benefits and uses of ecosystem accounts, and the ongoing ecosystem accounting program development process. It includes an example of a National Ecosystem Account for a single ecosystem, rivers, focused on the ecosystem service of freshwater provisioning (see Appendix 4). These example accounts demonstrate the format of, and information contained within, ecosystem accounts.    

Development of the National Ecosystem Accounts is a significant step in understanding the health and wealth of our nation's natural capital. Valuing the economic contribution of ecosystems allows for a deeper understanding of how nature supports economies and societies, which can lead to more informed and sustainable decision-making.

The Australian territory covers a huge geographical area, with extensive natural assets. Australia is one of the largest islands in the world with a total land area of 7.7 million km \(^2\) , 60,000 km of coastline, 4.3 million km of rivers, and oceans that cover 10 million km \(^2\) . In 2023, an estimated $2.4 trillion came from our agricultural, mineral and other service industries. Added to that, in 2023 our population was nearly 27 million people. Measuring the extent and value of our natural environment and ecosystems is critical to understanding the relationship between these assets, the economy, and society. Enduring National Ecosystem Accounts will provide an ecologically meaningful measure of Australia’s land, freshwater and marine environment.

The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), in partnership with the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW), is developing an ongoing program of National Ecosystem Accounts to produce a series of annual releases of these accounts. The ABS and DCCEEW have partnered with the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) to develop the first National Ecosystem Accounts, which are due to be published in early 2025. The accounts are being developed in accordance with the United Nations’ System of Environmental-Economic Accounting Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) international framework. Over time they will provide a continuing measure of Australia’s changing ecosystems. The accounts will be improved and expanded to better meet a range of needs as the ecosystem accounting program develops.  

This information paper outlines the background and purpose of the accounts, and the intended approach to developing the ongoing accounting program. While this report does not intend to cover all methodological aspects of account compilation, it includes appendices that provide insight into key aspects of account compilation for monetary, biodiversity and carbon accounts, and on integrating ecosystem accounts into the System of National Accounts (SNA). Feedback on the full set of accounts and compilation methodology will be sought after their publication in 2025.

What are ecosystem accounts?

Ecosystems are areas containing a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities, and their non-living environment, interacting as a functional unit. The primary units for ecosystem accounting are labelled ecosystem assets. Ecosystem accounts are structured to summarise information about these assets, their changing capacity to operate as a functional unit, and their benefits to humanity.  

Ecosystem accounts will help us to understand Australia’s environment and how it changes over time by describing ecosystems and how they contribute to the economy and society in a standardised way. Ecosystem accounts consist of five main components:  

• stocks of ecosystem assets  
• the condition or ‘health’ of the assets  
• the flows of goods and services from the assets  
• the value of the benefits from the goods and services  
• the value of ecosystem assets.   

A key aspect of ecosystem accounting is that it allows the contributions of ecosystems to the economy and society to be expressed in monetary terms. Some of the benefits from this are:  

• An ability to compare ecosystem services to other goods and services and their contribution to society’s wellbeing.   
• The integration of habitats and landscapes data with ecosystem services.   
• The linking of ecosystem services with information on economic and other human activity.   

Figure 1 shows the general ecosystem accounting framework that describes the extent and condition of ecosystem assets and the flow of ecosystem services from these assets to the economy and society (United Nations et al. 2021).

Figure 1. General ecosystem accounting framework

A diagram with circles arranged in an overlapping format, illustrating the relationship between the environment, ecosystem assets, society and the economy within the context of ecosystem services. The largest circle is Environment which encompasses the two major circles, Ecosystem assets and Society. The Ecosystem assets circle contains three elements; Extent and Condition tables, and maps of Characteristics. The Society circle encompasses the Economy circle. Extent, Condition, and Characteristics are pointing towards a circle titled Final ecosystem services, which overlaps Ecosystem assets, Economy and Society. An arrow flows from Final ecosystem services to a circle titled Benefits which sits inside Society, and overlaps the Economy circle. The diagram emphasises that Final ecosystem services connect ecosystem assets  with societal and economic benefits.

The National Ecosystem Accounts  are being designed in accordance with the SEEA EA framework.

The SEEA EA framework

The United Nations' System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) is the conceptual framework adopted by the ABS and the international statistical community for environmental-economic accounts. The SEEA was first recognised by the United Nations Statistical Commission as an international standard in 2012 and endorsed for the purposes of ecosystem accounting in 2021. The structures, concepts and classifications used in the SEEA follow those used in the System of National Accounts (SNA), meaning that accounts produced under the SEEA combine comparative analysis of the contribution of the environment to the economy, the impact of the economy on the environment, and the efficiency of the use of environmental resources within the economy. There are two frameworks associated with the SEEA: the Central Framework (SEEA CF) and Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA). While the SEEA CF covers environmental assets, physical flows and environmental related transactions and activities, the SEEA EA adds a spatial and ecosystem perspective to the environmental-economic accounts.

There are five key elements to ecosystem accounts, which are interlinked (Figure 2, from United Nations et al. 2021):

Ecosystem extent accounts

Ecosystem extent accounts organise data on the extent or area of different ecosystem types. Extent accounts data can support the derivation of indicators relating to composition and change in ecosystem types across a region. They provide a common basis for discussion among stakeholders on different ecosystem types within a country, and the thresholds for measuring conversion from one ecosystem type to another. Compilation of these accounts is also relevant in determining the appropriate set of ecosystem types that will underpin the structure of other accounts.  

Ecosystem condition accounts

A central feature of ecosystem accounting is its organisation of biophysical information on the condition of different ecosystem types. The ecosystem condition account organises the relevant data on selected ecosystem characteristics and the distance from a reference condition to provide insight into the ecological integrity of ecosystems. It may also organise data relevant to measuring the capacity of an ecosystem to supply different ecosystem services.  

Ecosystem services flow accounts – physical terms

The supply of final ecosystem services by ecosystems and the use of those services by economic units (including households, enterprises, and government) constitute one of the central features of ecosystem accounting. The supply and use tables record the flows of final ecosystem services supplied by ecosystems and used by economic units during an accounting period, enabling the recording of intermediate service flows between ecosystems.  

Ecosystem services flow accounts – monetary terms

Commonly, estimates of ecosystem services in monetary terms are based on estimating prices or values for individual ecosystem services and multiplying by the physical quantities recorded in the ecosystem services flow account in physical terms. Monetary valuation of ecosystem services is measured in a context that is coherent with standard measures of products and assets as recorded in the national accounts, which is described in Appendix 2. It is important to note that not all ecosystem services will have a monetary value.   

Ecosystem asset account – monetary terms

The series of ecosystem accounts is completed with the monetary ecosystem asset account. This account records a monetary value of ecosystem assets in terms of the net present value of the ecosystem services supplied by the asset. The estimates provide a measure of the exchange value related to the scope of ecosystem services recorded in the ecosystem services flow account and cannot be interpreted as reflecting a complete or universal measure of the value of nature.   

Figure 2. Diagram of the relationships between ecosystem accounts in the SEEA framework

A diagram illustrating an ecosystem accounting system which are divided into Stock accounts (and change in stocks) as a section on the left and Flow accounts as a section on the right. Accounts are shown within these sections as blue circles for physical accounts and yellow circles for monetary accounts. Ecosystem extent and Ecosystem condition are blue circles in the left section representing physical stock accounts and are connected by a double-sided arrow. Together these feed into  a blue circle in the right section labelled Ecosystem services flow, representing a physical flow account. This is connected with a double-sided arrow to a yellow circle on the right section directly below, also called Ecosystem services flow, representing the associated monetary flow account. An arrow connects the Ecosystem services monetary flow account to a yellow circle in the left section representing the Monetary ecosystem asset stock account. The diagram highlights the relationship between ecosystem stocks (extent and condition) and flows (services), emphasising both physical and monetary aspects.

Ecosystem account uses

Ecosystem accounts can help us understand the extent and condition of our ecosystems, and their contribution to our economic and social wellbeing. They aim to address the following questions:  

• What ecosystem assets do we have and where are they located?  
• What condition are our ecosystem assets in?  
• What ecosystem services do our ecosystem assets provide?  
• What benefits do our ecosystem assets provide, including the value of these benefits?  

The potential uses of ecosystem accounting are diverse, and may include:  

• informing the community about the extent and quality of their environment  
• environmental policy-making – helping to understand which policies create the greatest public benefit  
• natural resource management – helping to understand the optimal balance between productivity and environmental outcomes  
• planning, development and conservation activities – helping to understand the best location for an activity or development  
• providing measurement frameworks for private sector investment – helping to understand (and report) both private and public benefits of an investment.  

How an account can be used is intrinsically linked to how it is developed. Development decisions include, for example: what spatial scale to cover; what ecosystems and ecosystem services to include; and what metrics to use to measure ecosystem condition. However, the underlying purpose is to facilitate the communication and analysis of change in complex systems, including where there is a relationship between the environment and the economy.   

Ecosystem accounts can provide information to help farmers, land-use planners, policymakers, and agricultural investors make decisions on how to balance environmental outcomes with the need for food production. For example, they may assess the extent and quality of remaining habitat for threatened species, or the ecosystem services related to climate regulation (e.g. carbon retention) and water supply. They provide context for private landholders, natural resource managers, Landcare groups, communities and investors to better understand how retaining or restoring biodiversity can help support their goals and, when necessary, make trade-offs between competing goals.  

Business activities often rely on supply chains embedded in ecosystems and can have wide-ranging impacts on natural capital, such as environmental degradation, but they can also have positive impacts. Accounting for natural and social capital provides a better understanding of what the business impacts on nature and society are, what the business risks and opportunities are (e.g. lower cost and improved supply chain resilience) and for creating more economic value through demonstrating corporate social responsibility and good Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) reporting .

Relevance to current Australian policies and environmental indicators

In 2018, the federal and state and territory environment ministers agreed on a A Common National Approach: Strategy and Action Plan for environmental-economic accounting within Australia (Commonwealth of Australia 2018). This strategy was developed as a collaboration between the Australian Department of the Environment and Energy, its state and territory counterparts, and the ABS. The common national approach to the implementation of the SEEA was devised to “provide coherent, comprehensive and integrated accounts to support decision-making by governments, business and the community.” (Commonwealth of Australia 2018).  

In December 2022, the Australian Government released the Nature Positive Plan (NPP) for environmental law reform in response to the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act Independent Review. Reforms include developing a set of National Environmental Standards , establishing an independent national Environment Protection Australia (EPA) agency and a new division, Environment Information Australia (EIA), within DCCEEW, to improve the availability and accessibility of high-quality information about the environment.    

The Australian Government’s draft legislation, Nature Positive (Environment Information Australia) Bill 2024, includes the establishment of the EIA and the head of the EIA having responsibility for maintaining environmental-economic accounts. Environmental-economic accounts, integrated with socio-economic data, allow decision-makers to determine the best use of environmental assets to optimise social, economic and environmental outcomes.   

The Australian government has engaged in a range of international agreements that commit to protecting and restoring the natural environment for future generations. Addressing environmental decline requires international cooperation and these National Ecosystem Accounts will inform reporting on a range of priority areas, such as:  

• The Threatened Species Action Plan   
• Commitment by Australia’s environment ministers to protect 30% of Australia’s landmass and marine areas by 2030  
• Nature Repair Market  
• Sustainable Ocean Plan  
• Australia’s participation in the High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy  
• Measuring what matters   
• Sustainable Finance Roadmap | Treasury.gov.au    
• Updating Australia’s Strategy for Nature 2019–2030 - Climate (dcceew.gov.au)  
• State of the Environment Reporting  
• Global Biodiversity Framework.  

The first release of the National Ecosystem Accounts

The first set of the National Ecosystem Accounts will be published in early 2025. The first release will incorporate various input datasets, including a number prepared by CSIRO. These datasets will provide information on ecosystem extent, some condition measures, agricultural water supply, the provision of wild marine fish and some biodiversity estimates. Additional data from within the ABS and other external providers will also be incorporated into the accounts. Full details of the data sources and compilation methods will be available with the first release publication.  

The accounts will include extent accounts of all ecosystem functional groups relevant to ecosystems in Australia, in terrestrial, freshwater and marine realms. They will also include a range of condition metrics and selected ecosystem service accounts, including agricultural biomass provisioning services, wild fish provisioning services, coastal protection services, water supply services, and carbon sequestration and retention services. In addition, there will be a biodiversity thematic account included; for more information on this account see Appendix 3.2.   

Following the release of these accounts there will be a consultation process to assist with developing the ongoing program of National Ecosystem Accounts.  

Continuous improvement post first release

Continuous improvement is a fundamental component of developing an enduring set of National Ecosystem Accounts. The first release of National Ecosystem Accounts is just the starting point for accounts that will improve over time. Known areas for improvement in subsequent releases include (see Appendix 1 for more detail):  

• Targeted and ongoing engagement with end users to better understand how decisions are made, the information they need, and the role accounts could play in supporting these decisions.
• Improvements in the measures of ecosystem extent and condition to see what is driving change. This includes identifying which changes are the result of natural processes and which are caused by human activity.  
• Incorporating perspectives and sources of knowledge from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples is a critical area for future improvement.  
• A framework to enable the inclusion of sub-national and regional data into the national accounts.
• New methods and data sources to fill data gaps and quantify the ecosystem services provided by the environment, so that impacts on the economy can be fully considered in decision-making.

Conclusion and further information

The development of National Ecosystem Accounts is a significant step in understanding the health and wealth of our nation's natural capital. Valuing the economic contribution of ecosystems allows for a deeper understanding of how nature supports economies and societies, which can lead to more informed and sustainable decision-making.    

The process of developing an enduring set of ecosystem accounts to inform national decision-making is a huge undertaking. The appendices that follow provide some of the technical and methodological detail that form part of the process. An example of an ecosystem account for rivers has also been included to illustrate the format and information in the National Ecosystem Accounts.

You can provide feedback on this information paper to the ABS by emailing [email protected].

Appendix 1. Developing an ongoing ecosystem accounting program

The National Ecosystem Accounts will build on other ecosystem accounting work completed both within Australia and internationally in recent years including:    

• National Ocean Account, Experimental Estimates, November 2022 | Australian Bureau of Statistics   
• Mitchell Catchment accounts  
• Experimental Environmental-Economic Accounts for the Great Barrier Reef, 2017 | Australian Bureau of Statistics     
• Regional Ecosystem Accounting Pilot for Murray-Darling Basin  
• Gunbower-Koondrook-Perricoota accounts  
• Ecosystem Asset Accounts for Rivers in South Africa .  

The first release of the accounts will showcase the potential use of extensive ecosystem accounts and provide a platform for future enhancement feedback to address policy needs, inform environmental and economic planning, and extend usability.   

The ABS and DCCEEW are partnering to develop a long-term Continuous Improvement Plan for the National Ecosystem Accounts. This appendix outlines areas that will be a focus beyond the first publication. Additional improvements will be considered based on feedback from the first release.

1.1 Identification of purpose

It is important that the accounts can be used to inform decisions. Therefore, a priority for developing the ongoing program of work is a thorough investigation of user needs to determine priority accounts and metrics that will be fit-for-purpose. Prioritisation is critical given the large number of ecosystem services across all realms. Environmental-economic accounts can serve many purposes and a broad set of potential uses for these accounts may emerge over time.  

To uncover this potential, user consultation will need to be a fundamental and ongoing part of future development. Clearly ascertaining user needs will then need to be balanced with practical implementation (e.g. data sources and methods).

1.2 Selection of condition metrics

The selection of appropriate metrics, in particular to measure the condition of Australia’s ecosystems, is complex and depends on the aims and uses of the accounts. No single indicator can fully represent ecosystem quality across the range of ecosystems.   

The ecosystem condition accounts are useful for providing insights into the characteristics and quality of ecosystems and how they change over time. Ecosystem condition is the quality of an ecosystem measured in terms of its abiotic and biotic characteristics (United Nations et al. 2021) .

 “Ecosystem condition accounts record data on the state and functioning of (ecosystem assets) ... using a combination of relevant variables and indicators. The selected variables and indicators reflect changes over time in the key characteristics of each (ecosystem asset).”

A three-stage approach is used in the SEEA EA for the compilation of ecosystem condition accounts. Outputs at each stage are relevant for policy and decision-making.   

• Stage 1, key characteristics are selected and data on relevant variables are collated;
• Stage 2, a general reference condition is determined and for each variable a corresponding reference level is established that allows a condition indicator to be derived;
• Stage 3, condition indicators are normalised to support aggregation and the derivation of ecosystem condition indexes ( Accounting for Ecosystem Condition ).  

The SEEA EA also includes the Ecosystem Condition Typology (ECT), which is a hierarchical typology for organising data on ecosystem condition characteristics. It is designed to incorporate ecosystem condition measures that cover ecosystem structure, function and composition. Table 1 shows the SEEA EA ECT (United Nations et al. 2021, p. 90).

While a number of condition metrics will be included in the first release, future releases aim to extend the range of variables included to meet a wider range of uses. It is important, for example, that the metrics used align with jurisdictional approaches to measuring ecosystem condition across various Nature Positive initiatives. Similarly, Australia also needs to respond to international information requests related to the Global Biodiversity Framework and the Sustainability Development Goals. Thus, further work will be undertaken to refine and expand on the condition metrics used on an ongoing basis. Criteria to select condition variables will consider the relevance of the metric to the ecosystem it is measuring, the relevance of the metric for decision-making and the availability of data for ongoing reporting.

1.3 Selection of ecosystem services

Ecosystem services are the contributions of ecosystems to the benefits used in economic and other human activity (United Nations et al. 2021, para. 6.9). Examples of ecosystem services include:  

• provisioning services, such as water provisioning  
• regulation and maintenance services, such as global climate regulation services through the retention and sequestration of carbon in ecosystems  
• cultural services, such as recreation-related services.  

Once identified these ecosystem services can be valued, which also provides a value to the underlying ecosystem asset. Further information on the approaches to valuation of ecosystem services is provided in Appendix 2 - Valuing the economic contributions of ecosystems.  

While there is an extensive list of ecosystem services that are provided by the environment, it is unrealistic to produce accounts that cover all these services. Instead, the accounts will focus on services that have particular relevance to policy and decision-makers. The selection of ecosystem services for inclusion in the first release will include agricultural biomass provisioning, water provisioning, coastal protection, wild fish provisioning and carbon sequestration and retention . The intention is to expand this list of ecosystem services in response to future needs.

1.4 Selection of datasets

Ecosystem accounting presents challenges in collating and harmonising environmental and economic data from a range of sources. Input data could be quantitative, qualitative, modelled, surveyed, time series, or spatial, and may vary in format, processing and scale. A framework to guide selection and harmonisation for the production of accounts is essential. It also provides guidance on when to acknowledge that the available data is not adequate, and therefore data gaps are identified. A framework allows us to:  

• identify the data or other forms of information needed for accounting purposes  
• encourage the development of common metadata standards  
• provide greater transparency in verifying data treatments and assumptions used in compiling accounts.  

The data selection framework will incorporate and expand on the ABS’s data quality framework ( The ABS Data Quality Framework ) and align with DCCEEW’s draft National Data Standards ( National Environmental Standards - DCCEEW ). These standards include the following criteria:  

• Fit-for-purpose: data and information meet the specific needs of the decision being made.  
• Ethical: data and information are demonstrably compliant with relevant legislation protecting sensitive data and information, were obtained and are managed under appropriate ethics approvals, and were obtained and are managed in a transparent and inclusive manner for stakeholders.  
• Reliable: data and information have a demonstrably robust scientific foundation and/or were collected under a recognised and enduring survey protocol or traditional knowledge system.  
• Reusable: data and information have adequate metadata (on the data’s structure, lineage, sources, objectives and intended use) to ensure it is meaningful for decision-making.  
• Accessible: data and information are made available under the least restrictive conditions possible (preferably Creative-Commons-No-Rights-Reserved).  
• Discoverable: data and information are made available on an enduring, searchable and interoperable platform so they can be readily found when needed for a decision.  

Assessing the quality and appropriateness of data for inclusion in the accounts depends on a number of factors. Having a framework to guide input data selection will enhance the ability of the ABS to compile high quality accounts.  

The data selected for the initial release of the accounts is focused on data in a ready-to-use form, with the most important consideration being spatial coverage of the entire extent of the territory. As the accounts develop, there will be a need to look further than immediately usable data sources, so that inputs can be considered best-available and compatible with higher resolution datasets that exist for the various states and territories and other land management bodies around Australia. The development of the ongoing accounts program will include a systematic review of data sources around Australia and the construction of an objective framework, to assess datasets for suitability for the accounts, in order to provide a transparent approach to data selection.   

1.5 Integrating diverse datasets

Acknowledging that a systematic review of data sources around Australia will produce many datasets that may meet many of the data quality criteria, but do not have the full spatial coverage needed - methods to modify and improve the usability of these datasets will greatly increase the ability to incorporate high quality data in the accounts. To incorporate best- possible data into the accounts, and ensure coherence with state environmental reporting, it will be important to integrate sub-national data into the national scale accounts. C onsiderations in developing these methods include:   

• the importance of good quality partial-coverage data that can be extended  
• the importance of acknowledging knowledge gaps where appropriate  
• the importance of on-ground measurements, observations and monitoring  
• the importance of remote-sensing datasets  
• the possibility of establishing national datasets by pursuing equivalence or compatibility between sub-national data  
• the possibility of a multiscale approach in accounts (e.g. using best-quality data where available, even without national coverage, and using coarser data where the high-resolution product is not available).  

Continuous improvement is an inherent element of an ongoing program of ecosystem accounts. The above information provides some detail around where improvements are needed - the assessment of user needs and the refinement of data selection and development will be a continuous process that is part of the account development.  

1.6 Consideration of account development concepts

The development of any statistical product relies on the use of a range of statistical concepts, standards and frameworks. A discussion of these frameworks and classifications as they relate to ecosystem accounts is provided below. The integration of standards (which define the concepts we are working on), classifications (which categorise the observations we are collecting) and methods (how we manipulate data to fit into the classifications and thus into the standard) defines the process of account compilation.  

1.6.1 Standards and classifications overview

Standard classifications and definitions of statistical units and items underlie the compilation and presentation of statistics produced by national statistical offices, such as the ABS. The use of such standards ensure that statistics are harmonised across national and international boundaries, which ensures comparability and aggregation from various collections, for example, for national accounts purposes.  

Where possible established Australian and international standards should be used. Comprehensibility is also a key consideration - this is the ability to be understood, by users and by respondents. It involves clarity of definitions, realism in the sense of modelling the real world, and providing a logical and coherent structure for collecting and organising information.  

The widespread use of standards also provides an integrated statistical picture of Australian society and environment. They facilitate the process of drawing together all the data about a particular topic, variable or population, from the full range of statistical sources, in a meaningful and useful way.  

Classifications are an important part of any standard. They are used to collect and organise information into categories with other similar pieces of information. Classifications should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. The application of classifications can be at any level of data and at any point in the account compilation process. For example, classifications that define the inputs into the accounts, for instance the association of ecosystem types to basic statistical unit, can be different to what is reported at the account level. While it is preferable that all classifications align from collection to indicators, this is rare as most accounts are built from a wide range of data collected for different purposes.

1.6.2 Ecosystem account classifications

Ecosystem classifications must describe the components of ecosystems that are currently available to society and how these components have changed over time.   

Recognised standards for SEEA ecosystem types and ecosystem services are:  

• International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Global Ecosystem Typology (GET) for ecosystem types  
• Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) for ecosystem services (a shorter list is in the SEEA EA).  

Ecosystem extent (IUCN GET)

The IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology ( IUCN GET ) is the international statistical standard for classifying ecosystems and is recommended for use in SEEA ecosystem accounting. It is a comprehensive framework for Earth’s ecosystems that integrates their functional and compositional features.    

The National Ecosystem Accounts first release will use the IUCN GET levels 1 to 3 as its output ecosystem classification – 1. Realms, 2. Biomes and 3. Functional Groups. These are defined as ( Typology - Global Ecosystem Typology (global-ecosystems.org) :

One of five major components of the biosphere that differ fundamentally in ecosystem organisation and function: terrestrial, freshwater, marine, subterranean, atmospheric, and combinations of these (transitional realms). Because variation in nature is continuous, we also include transitional realms, where the realms meet and have their own unique organisation and function.

A component of a realm united by broad features of ecosystem structure and one or a few common major ecological drivers that regulate major ecological functions, derived from the top-down by subdivision of realms (level 1).

Ecosystem Functional Group

A group of related ecosystems within a biome that share common ecological drivers, which in turn promote similar biotic traits that characterise the group. Derived from the top-down by subdivision of biomes.

Ecosystem assets will be reported by level 3 functional group, where possible. The use of the IUCN GET does not preclude the use of different classifications systems if they are hierarchically compatible, or already in use and associated with useful data.  

The accounts will adopt a more detailed ecosystem classification typology for Australia for subsequent releases when a national classification has been developed.

Ecosystem services (CICES)

Standardisation in the way ecosystem services are described is necessary for comparisons over time and between countries. It is especially important where the link to economic accounting is to be made. The CICES framework has been developed in consultation with the United Nations Statistical Division and the European Environment Agency in support of the SEEA Principles. The aim of CICES is to provide clarity on how ecosystem services are measured and analysed. CICES recognises three main categories of ecosystem outputs: provisioning, regulating and cultural services. Supporting, or indirect, ecosystem services are not explicitly expressed and are instead treated as part of the underlying structures, process and functions that characterise ecosystems. Final ecosystem services are described using a five-level hierarchical structure, with each level being progressively more detailed and specific.  

Appendix 2. Valuing the economic contribution of ecosystems

Ecosystems provide a range of benefits that may not be readily captured in market transactions, nor will their contribution always be recognised in economic activities or decision-making processes. Governments, businesses and communities will not be able to make informed decisions on resource use and allocation, including those arising from the natural world, if the benefits of ecosystems are not clearly defined.

In ecosystem accounting, monetary valuation enables comparisons of ecosystem services and assets that are consistent with standard measures of services and assets as recorded in the national accounts. The SEEA EA framework has a tiered approach to valuation that prefers the use of exchange values where possible – consistent with the international approach on national accounts (United Nations et al. 2021).

Valuation of ecosystem and cultural services remains a work in progress as the SEEA EA guidance on monetisation and valuation continues to evolve. The first iteration of the National Ecosystem Accounts will focus on valuing ecosystem services. Future iterations of the accounts will consider valuation of the underlying ecosystem assets.

2.1 A SEEA EA perspective on valuation

The SNA does not attempt to determine the utility of the flows and stocks that are within its scope. Rather, it measures the current exchange values of the entries in the accounts in monetary terms; that is, the values at which goods, services, labour or assets are exchanged or could be exchanged for cash. The exchange values, which focus on transactions between owners of economic units, are captured within the SNA production boundary.

The SEEA EA extends the production boundary of the SNA by recognising that natural capital and ecosystem services contribute to economic activity and community wellbeing. The monetary accounts that accompany the Physical Supply and Use Tables (PSUT) of ecosystem assets and their services require consistency with SNA valuation principles to enable the integration and comparison of these accounts with the SNA. 

Ecosystem accounting is not about putting a value on everything in nature. Consistent with the SNA principles, it excludes the welfare values arising from ecosystem contributions and the intrinsic values of ecosystem assets (Figure 3, from Schenau et al. 2022).

Figure 3. Overview of values provided by ecosystem

A diagram with four rectangles arranged in an embedded sequence. The smallest inner rectangle is Exchange values captured in the SNA production boundary. The second rectangle which is larger, encompasses the first rectangle is Exchange values captured in the SEEA EA extended production boundary. The third rectangle which is larger again, encompasses the previous two rectangles is Welfare values capturing consumer surplus. The fourth and largest rectangle encompasses all previous rectangles is Intrinsic values (not captured in monetary values). The diagram outlines different economic valuation methods that can be used in valuing ecosystem contributions, distinguishing between those captured within System of National Accounts (SNA) and System of Environmental-Economic Accounting Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) boundaries, welfare values, and intrinsic.

The SEEA EA focuses on recording the supply and use of ecosystem services rather than the wellbeing or outcomes that eventuate (United Nations et al. 2021, para. 2.72). The distinction between economic value and exchange value is that economic value refers to the worth derived from the consumption of a product or service, whereas exchange value refers to the monetary price paid in acquiring or exchanging a product or service.    

In the example of climate regulation services, valuation of the ecosystem services should reflect the service – carbon sequestration and carbon retention – not the societal flow-on benefits. The exchange value of carbon retention and carbon sequestration services may be reflected in carbon prices, the marginal cost of abatement, or expenditure in maintaining the carbon stock from re-entering the atmosphere.   

The SEEA EA guidelines suggest using the social cost of carbon to reflect avoided damages to human health and the impact on economic activity and assets such as infrastructure and industries due to climate change. Whilst this is useful in informing climate policy more broadly, it may not be conceptually equivalent to valuing the ecosystem service itself in the context of the SEEA EA.

2.2 Estimating the value of ecosystem services

For most ecosystem services there are no observed transactions, meaning that exchange values must often be estimated. The lack of observable markets in nature is both historical and institutional. Governments worldwide often regulate the use, access to and trade of endangered fauna and flora to ensure their continued existence. The lack of ownership of endangered fauna and flora, and ecosystems more broadly, also limits transactions and market activity. For example, whilst no one owns the air, governments are responsible for maintaining good air quality and use regulation or market tools to manage polluting activities.    

Interest in markets for nature is growing, as witnessed by the worldwide growth in carbon markets and promotion of biodiversity markets. The growth of these markets worldwide provides an avenue to incorporate ‘exchange values’ in line with the SEEA EA. Progress in environmental-economic accounting can play a role in the longevity and uptake of markets for nature.   

Several techniques have been developed for placing a value on ecosystem services in the absence of exchange values, including:   

• observed market prices  
• replacement cost  
• avoided damage estimates  
• abatement cost estimates  
• various stated preference methods.

Following a similar framing to the SNA, the SEEA EA recommends that valuation methods for ecosystem services are applied in the order of preference in Figure 4 ( United Nations et al. 2021, para. 9.23) :   

Figure 4. SEEA EA tiered valuation approach

A flowchart with five numbered boxes arranged vertically, each describing different methods for pricing ecosystem services,  ranging from most preferred (1) to least preferred (5). Box 1: Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is directly observable. Box 2: Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is obtained from markets for similar goods and services. Box 3: Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is embodied in a market transaction. Box 4: Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is based on revealed expenditures (costs) for related goods and services. Box 5: Methods where the price for the ecosystem service is based on expected expenditures or markets. 

2.3 Key challenges

Key challenges in valuing ecosystem services include:   

• Uncertainty related to the complexities of ecosystem functions and processes that inhibit consideration of ecosystem services that are related to human activity.  
• Ecosystem provisioning services such as water supply may be undervalued because it may be difficult to estimate the value to be attributed to the ecosystem and how much can be attributed to subsequent economic activity (such as irrigation and farming, in the case of irrigated water).    
• The potential use of values from literature and databases (such as the Environmental Valuation Reference Inventory ) requires evaluation that they adequately reflect exchange values consistent with the SEEA EA framework.   

Appendix 3. Extensions to ecosystem accounts

According to the SEEA EA (United Nations et al. 2021):

“The framing provided by ecosystem accounting is systematic and comprehensive with respect to ecosystem extent, ecosystem condition and ecosystem services and provides one perspective on monetary values of ecosystem services and ecosystem assets… However, policy and analysis about the environment and human connection to it can be framed in many ways. Often it requires considering specific environmental themes, such as biodiversity, climate change, oceans and urban areas, among many others.”

This appendix explores how environmental-economic accounts and other data can be combined with ecosystem accounts to provide more specific information for decision-makers. It also discusses additional thematic accounts such as biodiversity and carbon and how to address issues in compiling these accounts.  

3.1 Analysing and integrating ecosystem accounts

While ecosystem accounts are designed to tell a story about environmental and economic interactions, a more complete picture can be painted by integrating ecosystems accounts with other environmental and economic data.

3.1.1 Environmental account integration

Over the past thirty years, the ABS has produced a range of individual environmental accounts, including accounts for water, energy, waste, land, fish, oceans, and environmental taxes, as well as national balance sheets estimates for minerals and forests. Integrated comparisons of these accounts across space and over time tells a more comprehensive picture of Australia’s environment, economy and society. It provides greater analytical power, and therefore an increased value for data users and policymakers. Below is a summary of environmental-economic accounts that the ABS produces on a regular basis. In the future, there is the potential to integrate information from these accounts into the National Ecosystem Accounts.

3.1.2 Economic data integration

As with all types of environmental-economic accounts, a key strength of ecosystem accounts is consistency with economic statistics, including GDP. An ecosystem account combined with economic statistics from the ABS can be used to understand the relationship between environmental change and the productivity of Australians, highlighting important interactions that are often hidden from decision-makers. This information may be used to better identify policies which separate or ‘decouple’ productivity from environmental harm. The combination of ecosystem and economic data supports a richer discussion of the connection between ecosystems and people. It underpins the development of indicators concerning this relationship, such as the contribution of ecosystem services to measures of economic production, and allows the derivation of adjusted national accounting aggregates such as degradation-adjusted measures of net domestic product (NDP).

Integrating ecosystems with the SNA

The SEEA EA suggests that one of the clearest means of examining the impact on the economy of consuming the environment is to integrate monetary valuation of degradation of ecosystems into an extended sequence of accounts based on the SNA.  

International interest in combining the economy and the environment is not new. The Convention on Biological Diversity established targets at the Aichi conference in 2011 to set out the first international efforts to integrate ecosystems and national accounting ( Aichi Biodiversity Targets) :   

“Target 2: By 2020, at the latest, biodiversity values have been integrated into national and local development and poverty reduction strategies and planning processes and are being incorporated into national accounting, as appropriate, and reporting systems.”

In 2025, the SNA will be updated to incorporate environmental measures, such as natural capital, to better understand our environmental assets. It will also look to improve the ability of a country to report on the money available to invest in the environment, and change some of the ways in which environmental products and services are measured.    

While developing SNA and ecosystem accounts in parallel is practical, there are also ways of incorporating ecosystem accounting into the SNA for a better understanding of our impact on nature.  Including the cost of ecosystem degradation in economic statistics allows us to account for changes in the ecosystem’s capacity to absorb pollution and the extent of industrial use of ecosystems. This degradation makes it more difficult to rely on ecosystem services, often leading to higher costs. As a result, both the economic resources available to Australians and the benefits provided by these ecosystems are reduced. For example, if a forest that helps clean our water is degraded, communities must pay for water purification machines, or society bears the health costs of drinking contaminated water. This leads to fewer ecosystem services for the water industry to utilise, lower business profits, higher costs and thus less savings for the future.   

An extended sequence of accounts

Table 3 is derived from Table 12.4 from the SEEA EA, and demonstrates an approach where ecosystem services are incorporated into the SNA to form an extended sequence of accounts.

Notes to Table 3

• Table 3 demonstrates a number of indicators that can inform how ecosystems are being consumed or damaged.    
• Degradation adjusted net value added is the amount available based on what is produced in the economy, adjusted by the amount of ecosystem degradation after depreciation.    
• Degradation adjusted net operating surplus is the amount available to be distributed to the economy, after workers are paid, and adjusted for ecosystems degradation.    
• Degradation adjusted disposable income is the amount available to all sectors of the economy to purchase products. A negative value means reliance on savings or on the environment.    
• Degradation adjusted net saving is the amount remaining after purchases for the year, taking into account ecosystem degradation resulting from this activity. A negative value indicates drawing down on future generations’ access to the environment to sustain current activity.    
• Net lending/borrowing is the amount Australia needs to drive the economy. A negative number denotes a need for capital from other countries. A positive number indicates capital available to lend to other countries

Alternatives to integrating national ecosystem and economic accounts

An alternative to integration is that environmental-economic accounting should remain separate from, but in parallel with, the SNA. By producing these environmental-economic accounts on a similar basis to the SNA, analysis can be undertaken to understand the relationship between the two sets of accounts.   

The result would be two sets of data where analysis and tools provide the avenue to integrate the economic and environmental streams. The key is to ensure that the data are conceptually similar notwithstanding differences in scope.   

One advantage of this approach is that it does not require monetisation of all ecosystems, ecosystem services and their attributes, rather monetary and physical indicators can be analysed side-by-side. For instance, economic data from the SNA can be combined with ecological data from iconic ecosystems, such as the Great Barrier Reef, to better understand how employment and economic output are linked to that ecosystem, without monetising ecosystem services.     

Taking this alternative integration approach would build indicators and information to inform progress and raise awareness of our impacts on the environment.   

3.2 Biodiversity accounts

Biodiversity accounts are considered a thematic account as they sit outside the SEEA EA framework of extent, condition and service accounts. Included in the National Ecosystem Accounts first release will be a biodiversity ‘thematic’ account. This section provides an overview of what a biodiversity account is and why it will be included it in the release.  

3.2.1 Biodiversity

Biodiversity, or biological diversity, is defined as   

‘the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems’ ( Convention on Biological Diversity (cbd.int) ) .

Biodiversity plays an essential role in supporting human wellbeing through maintaining functioning ecosystems that, in turn, deliver essential services such as food and the regulation of our climate, as well as other benefits such as the aesthetic enjoyment of natural landscapes. Biodiversity is especially important and valuable for Australia’s agriculture and tourism industries.  

3.2.2 What is biodiversity accounting and how does it fit into the SEEA EA?

Biodiversity accounting is a way of organising biodiversity information to align with ecosystem and other accounts that is useful for a range of users. Under the SEEA EA, biodiversity is expressed as a thematic account, which means it is a standalone account that organises data around a specific policy-relevant environmental theme. However, biodiversity accounting is complex and less advanced than other thematic accounts, such as carbon accounting. As such, while the SEEA EA offers guidance on the conceptual approach and the construction of biodiversity accounts, it remains flexible about interpretation of these guidelines.

3.2.3 Who is the intended audience of biodiversity accounts and what do they use the accounts for?

Biodiversity accounts provide biodiversity information in a way that enables detection of meaningful change across time and space, and to inform conservation management goals. They can also be linked to other relevant SEEA accounts, such as land or ecosystem accounts, to help understand how changes in natural assets correlate with changes in biodiversity. Biodiversity accounts can be used to answer questions such as:  

• How is biodiversity changing over time?  
• Which areas are experiencing the greatest gains or losses?  
• Which biodiversity features are changing the most?  
• What has been the consequence of past actions?  

There are different users for biodiversity accounts depending on the scale of the accounts. Account users at the national level include policymakers, federal government agencies, academics and the SEEA EA global community. Users at this level will find the biodiversity accounts help with Australia’s international reporting obligations and agreements, so the accounts must satisfy technical and non-technical users. At the sub-national level, account users include regional Natural Resource Management (NRM) bodies and local government, who need finer-scale accounts. Users may also include organisations relevant to the species groupings, such as tourism bodies, as well as the Australian community and media.

3.2.4 What is the scope of the biodiversity accounts?

The following aspects of national biodiversity accounts are fixed:   

• spatial scope - the accounts must have national coverage  
• time series - the data requires at least two points in time
• data quality
• geographic boundaries.  

The flexible aspects of the scope of the biodiversity accounts include the representation of biodiversity in terms of number of species or other taxonomic or functional grouping, and the user needs of the accounts.  

3.2.5 What are the challenges in biodiversity accounts?

Biodiversity accounting presents many challenges. It is not as developed as other ecosystem accounts so there is no standard approach for biodiversity accounts. For a country as large and biodiverse as Australia, there are many species with relatively little data; one species may occur in multiple ecosystem types, and species persistence often requires multiple connected areas of suitable habitat.  

3.2.6 What are the approaches to biodiversity account development, and how does this apply to the first release of the National Ecosystem Accounts?

The biodiversity accounts are highly experimental accounts and the guidelines in the SEEA EA are flexible. As a result, there have been varying approaches to the construction of biodiversity accounts so far. The ABS has pioneered Australian efforts in this space, with biodiversity featuring as part of the Experimental Environmental-Economic Accounts for the Great Barrier Reef, 2017 | Australian Bureau of Statistics ) and the discussion paper From Nature to the Table: Environmental-Economic Accounting for Agriculture, 2015–16 , adopting a direct accounting approach. CSIRO has published the Experimental Ecosystem Accounts for the Gunbower-Koondrook-Perricoota Forest Icon site report and the Experimental Ecosystem Accounts for the Murray-Darling Basin, adopting a modelling approach that predicts habitat in hectares for biodiversity, rather than directly measuring and accounting for biodiversity. International efforts have adopted a range of approaches.  

It is proposed to present both direct and modelled biodiversity approaches in the first release. To ensure consistency across all outputs within the National Ecosystem Accounts, the same ecosystem classifications, geographies and reference periods will be adopted.   

Direct accounts will be based on observational data and include counts of species by taxonomic group (e.g. birds, fish, reptiles) in species groupings that are relevant to different users.  

Species groupings may include:  

• species which provide regulating ecosystem services, such as pollinators (links to ecosystem services, agriculture)  
• iconic and tourism species (links to tourism, recreational fishing)  
• species of conservation concern (links to policy, funding projects)  
• indicator species for ecosystem condition (links to ecosystem condition)  
• pest and weed species (links to ecosystem condition, agriculture)  
• migratory species covered by international agreements, such as the Japan Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA).  

Data sources will be selected based on spatial coverage, resolution, time series, quality, availability and relevance.  

Modelled accounts are based on known historical locations of species combined with habitat condition modelling. This approach uses a habitat-based biodiversity assessment, utilising ecosystem condition (derived from remote-sensing), biodiversity patterns (derived from ecological data) and ecosystem accounting areas to derive a set of biodiversity accounts. Species habitat requirements are combined with land cover data to produce habitat condition, while the species potential extent of occurrence is combined with ecological data to produce biodiversity patterns.  

Modelled accounts are likely to include:  

• expected persistence of species by taxonomic group (birds, fish, reptiles, vascular plants, fungi)  
• potential threatened species habitat in species hectares, where ‘species hectares’ is the number of species multiplied by the area of effective habitat.  

Anticipated limitations in the biodiversity accounts include issues around accuracy in modelled data, data gaps in observational data, especially spatial and temporal gaps, and sourcing data from different sources. Proposals to overcome these issues might include identifying where data is not available and ensuring concordance between different data sources, while still allowing for the effective and accurate comparison of data.

3.2.7 Future directions

For the first release, the scope of the biodiversity accounts will be limited by data availability. The spatial coverage of the data will be Australia-wide where possible, and the coverage of species will aim to be as comprehensive as possible.  

Beyond the first release, the scope of the biodiversity accounts has the potential to be expanded, and feedback on the first release can be incorporated to further improve the biodiversity accounts in the Australian context. This might target filling known data gaps, finding new data sources, and identifying where the accounts can be expanded, with the aim of refining biodiversity accounts for improved usability and connection to other accounts.  

3.3 Carbon accounting – sequestration and retention

Carbon accounts are another thematic presentation of the SEEA EA accounting information. A full carbon account will account for stocks of carbon across the geosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, the oceans and the economy, and the flows between them. This type of account is broader in coverage than ecosystem accounts as it includes carbon stocks beyond ecosystems; it is, however, closely linked to the SEEA EA accounts. Carbon accounts can also provide information to support measures of the ecosystem services of carbon sequestration and carbon retention. The SEEA EA defines global climate regulation services as:   

"the ecosystem contributions to reducing concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere through the removal (sequestration) of carbon from the atmosphere and the retention (storage) of carbon in ecosystems. These services support the regulation of the chemical composition of the atmosphere and oceans."

This section focuses on the development of ecosystem service accounts relating to carbon sequestration and retention. The SEEA EA considers two main components of global climate regulation services: carbon sequestration and carbon retention. Carbon sequestration refers to the ability of ecosystems to remove carbon from the atmosphere, while carbon retention is the ability of ecosystems to maintain carbon stocks, thereby avoiding emissions to the atmosphere. The total carbon stock in the environment is substantial and can vary significantly between ecosystems.    

Australia’s National Greenhouse Gas Accounts and National Inventory Reports (DCCEEW) focus on estimating GHG emissions to fulfil international reporting obligations and to track progress toward emission reduction targets. However, ecosystem accounts provide complementary insights by highlighting the role of ecosystems in stabilising the climate and mitigating climate change.  

3.3.1 Carbon in the SEEA EA

The SEEA EA outlines specific measurement boundaries for carbon retention. These include stocks limited to carbon stored in above-ground and below-ground living and dead biomass, as well as soil organic carbon. Inorganic carbon stored in freshwater, marine, and subterranean ecosystems is excluded from this scope. Additionally, carbon stored in fossil fuel deposits are not considered an ecosystem service, as these deposits are not a component of ecosystem assets.   

Carbon sequestration concerns only carbon that is expected to be stored for long periods of time, although this storage may be either within an ecosystem or in the economy. Carbon that is sequestered but not stored for long is excluded.  

Ecosystems store carbon in various forms including biomass (both above and below ground), debris, soil, and sediment. Rates of carbon retention and sequestration vary based on numerous factors, and ecosystems can also release greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. For ecosystem accounting under the SEEA EA, it is essential to account for both the removal of carbon from the atmosphere and the loss of carbon stocks. Accurately estimating carbon retention and sequestration on a national scale is complex, and comprehensive national datasets are currently lacking .

3.3.2 Data for carbon accounting

In the absence of a national dataset, the primary source for carbon retention data in Australia is the Full Carbon Accounting Model (FullCAM) produced by DCCEEW. FullCAM is used to estimate carbon stocks in managed and cultivated land and contributes to Australia’s National Greenhouse Gas Accounts for the land use, land use change and forestry sectors. It is also incorporated into the National Inventory Reports. FullCAM incorporates various models that consider factors such as microbial decomposition of organic matter, climatic conditions and soil data to estimate carbon retention. However, FullCAM is limited to managed ecosystems and does not account for carbon stocks in natural or unmanaged ecosystems. This limitation affects the model's accuracy for such ecosystems.  

For specific ecosystems like mangroves, which are highly relevant for carbon retention, FullCAM’s models are more appropriate due to their forested nature. Conversely, other ecosystems such as seagrass are modelled in FullCAM using different approaches, including a model designed for estimating emissions from seagrass habitat excavation due to capital dredging. This model may not fully align with the needs of carbon accounting. Ecosystems like saltmarsh, which store less carbon, are aggregated into broader categories, which may reduce the precision of carbon estimates but are unlikely to significantly impact overall estimates.  

Additional limitations with using FullCAM include discrepancies between FullCAM outputs and IUCN GET functional group classifications.  

In the experimental National Ocean Account , the Blue Carbon Accounting Model (BlueCAM) (Clean Energy Regulator) was used to estimate carbon sequestration in coastal ecosystems. BlueCAM uses Australian data to estimate abatement from carbon and greenhouse gas sources and sinks associated with coastal wetland restoration (e.g. tidal restoration) and adheres to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. BlueCAM includes carbon sequestered in soils and biomass and excludes emissions from alternative land uses. However, BlueCAM’s scope is limited to blue carbon coastal ecosystems and does not extend to terrestrial ecosystems.  

In the absence of national sequestration data, FullCAM may be used to estimate sequestration for certain ecosystems. Net sequestration can be estimated as the difference in carbon stocks between sequential years, measured in tonnes of CO2-equivalent (CO2e) per year. Since FullCAM only models anthropogenic changes, it does not capture stock changes in natural ecosystems, which is a significant limitation.  

Both BlueCAM and FullCAM offer potential for providing estimates that can be used to produce some of the inputs into National Ecosystem Accounts. Assessments are underway as to the best source of data to use, or how to integrate these different approaches to carbon modelling into a coherent set of accounts. An ongoing program of continuous improvement provides scope to modify the FullCAM model to make outputs more fit-for-purpose, and also to develop methods to integrate new datasets as they become available.  

While existing models like FullCAM and BlueCAM offer data critical for ecosystem accounting, there are inherent limitations and gaps. Further work is required to develop fit-for-purpose carbon estimates to produce ongoing carbon retention and sequestration accounts in Australia.  

Appendix 4. An example of a National Ecosystem Account

To illustrate the format and information in the National Ecosystem Accounts, this appendix illustrates the National Ecosystem Accounts for rivers in Australia for 2010–11 to 2015–16.    

Rivers are one of the most recognised freshwater ecosystems in the Australian landscape. They are often the focus of our cities and towns, and their condition is ultimately entwined with the use of the landscapes that surround them. Rivers provide a number of services, including water filtration, recreation and food provisioning. In this example set of accounts, the focus is on the single ecosystem service of freshwater provisioning.

4.1 Summary of methods

4.1.1 river extent.

These ecosystems conform with the IUCN GET Rivers and Streams biome. River systems have been split into perennial (usually flowing) and non-perennial (sometimes flowing), based on the native source data classifications from Geofabric dataset v3.3. This division reflects current scientific appreciation of non-perennial systems as different from perennial rivers, but important as an area where the riverine ecosystems interact with upstream terrestrial ecosystems (Datry et al. 2023). The extent of the river ecosystem and the distribution of perennial and non-perennial rivers is taken from the Bureau of Meteorology (BoM) Geofabric dataset v3.3 © Commonwealth of Australia 2021. The Australian Hydrological Geospatial Fabric (AHGF) Mapped Stream layer was used and split using the attribute ‘Perennial’.  

The data sources available for this account provide a single set of extent numbers that are static over time, but which can be used to generate the condition accounts below. As a result, opening and closing stocks are the same for rivers - there is no change narrative associated with this account.

4.1.2 River condition

Freshwater ecological condition, especially that of rivers, is known to be influenced strongly by adjacent land use (Allan et al. 2004; Hynes, 1960). With this, the SEEA EA recognises the utility of recording environmental pressures as a surrogate for condition, providing this linkage is well documented:

“The measurement of environmental pressures is often considered as an indirect approach for measuring ecosystem condition (European Commission, 2016, p. 31). An environmental pressure is a human-induced process that alters the condition of ecosystems (Maes et al. 2018). If there are little data available on state, then measures of pressures on ecosystems can be considered a useful surrogate, as long as the relationship between the two is well understood and justified (Bland et al. 2018; United Nations et al. 2021, s 5.105)."

In the recent Australia State of the Environment (SOE) report (DCCEEW, 2021), a ranking of land use was used that combined the Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences ( ABARES) Australian Land Use and Management (ALUM) Classification into 4 classes of Land Use Intensity (LUI) - these are described in Table 4.  

These categories allow a simple measure of landscape condition to be mapped nationally. Land use data, collated by ABARES based on the ALUM classification, is supplied at five-year intervals and maps a complex of land uses across Australia. For the river condition account this land use intensity dataset has been mapped onto river ecosystems to generate a spatial layer of river condition for Australia. 

For these accounts the river lines (perennial and non-perennial) were intersected with the LUI maps for 2010–11 to 2015–16 to look at differences in the lengths of each river that fell within each of the four LUI categories between the two time periods. This shows changes in land use along rivers in the five years between the two LUI maps.

4.1.3 Water supply ecosystem service (physical measures)

Water provisioning services involve the use of water abstracted from the environment by economic units (businesses, households and government) for consumption or production processes. The physical supply and use tables (PSUT) show the volume of surface water supply and usage across states, territories, and nationally for the years 2010–11 and 2015–16. The PSUT were compiled using data on surface water from the Water Account, Australia (ABS) and associated input data sources.  

The surface water was extracted from an ecosystem classified under the Rivers and Streams biome level. In the absence of spatial data for water extraction, it was not possible to identify the sub-state location and types of ecosystems from which water was extracted for economic purposes at a resolution below the biome level.  

Water use is allocated to the economic unit where environmental extraction occurred. End use by other users is outside the scope of the ecosystem accounts and is typically covered under economic accounts.   

Three classifications of final water provisioning ecosystem services, according to the CICES, have been compiled. These are: 4.2.1.1 Surface water used for drinking, 4.2.1.2 Surface water used as a material, and 4.2.1.3 Surface water used as an energy source.

Surface water used for drinking

Surface water for drinking is the distribution of the volume of surface water (in megalitres), by water supply companies to households. These data were derived from the Water Account, Australia (ABS), based on data collected via an ABS census of all known water and wastewater suppliers and utilities across Australia.  

Surface water used as a material

Surface water used as a material input into production includes the volume of water that is distributed by water supply companies to other industries including the Agriculture, forestry and fishing industry, the Mining industry and the Manufacturing industry. Water is also self-extracted by these industries and this information is also sourced from the Water Account, Australia (ABS).  

Surface water used as an energy source

Freshwater used for generating hydroelectricity constitutes the majority of the surface water used in energy production. This high volume of water is a non-consumptive use as it is immediately returned to the environment, however, it is recorded as it provides an economic benefit. This data was published in the Water Account, Australia (ABS) as the volume of water used by the Electricity and gas supply industry.

4.1.4 Water supply ecosystem service (monetary measures)

Consistent with paragraph 8.13 in the SEEA EA guidelines (United Nations et al. 2021), water provisioning services are valued through exchange values that are estimated based on median market prices of tradable allocations within Australian surface water markets.  

The extensive use of tradable water allocations within Australia provides an opportunity to value water provisioning services at market prices (United Nations et al. 2021). Water allocations are “the specific volume of water allocated to water access entitlements in a given water accounting period” (Water Act 2007). Water access entitlements and allocations are typically tradable on open markets, separate from the land they adjoin. This allows the valuation of the water resource itself, through water access entitlements, and the allocations allow the market valuation of service flows from the water resource.  

Surface water allocation prices in Australian water markets are driven by a number of supply and demand factors. Annual water allocations affect the supply of water in the market. Annual allocations are dependent upon factors such as rainfall, water storage, and allocation carryover.   

Demand for allocations is driven by factors such as changes in agricultural demand for water due to investment and production changes, institutional arrangements, and climatic influences such as temperature and evaporation (BoM, 2023). Water allocation prices in the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia are similar, reflecting the trading opportunities across the basin. The value of the water provisioning service as a material is based predominantly on trades in the MDB from the BoM (BoM, 2024). These allocation trades reflect prices of water allocations for use in agriculture, manufacturing, and drinking water.   

The number and size of water trades often reflects rainfall seasonality. For instance, in 2015–16, some areas of Victoria recorded the lowest percentile of rain on record, which resulted in lower water allocations and higher allocation prices (ABARES, 2017b). For other areas, southern MDB median prices gradually increased from their low in 2010–11 to reach their highest peak in 2015–16.  

Southern MDB allocation trades make up around 90% of national allocation trades (ABARES, 2017b). Given the prevalence of MDB water allocation trading in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia, state level price estimates ($/ML) will align heavily with prices in the southern MDB network. Australian Capital Territory valuation will generally align with New South Wales’ prices.    

The data collected by BoM for surface water allocation trades includes many trades with no price reported. Such trades represent misreporting or sales which are not at “arm’s length” and have been excluded from the estimates (BoM, 2023). Likewise, trades with values in excess of $10,000 per ML have been excluded, as they are assumed to include values beyond the right to abstract the water (BoM, 2023).  

By aggregating median prices, national and state prices reflect catchments with a higher numbers of trades, specifically trades within the MDB, as these represent the most traded allocations. The number of allocation trades collected for Queensland, Western Australia and Tasmania is currently small, representing a “thin” market. At this stage, no monetary values have been produced for these states.

4.1.5 Data sources

Geofabric dataset v3.3 (bom, 2021).

River lengths were sourced from Geofabric V3x All Products - Overview (bom.gov.au) . These data are supplied as GDA94 (EPSG 4283) and were converted to the Australian Albers version (EPSG3577). 

Land Use of Australia (ABARES, 2022)

Land use intensity was determined from Land use of Australia 2010–11 to 2015–16, 250 m - DAFF (agriculture.gov.au) , which is collated by ABARES according to the Australian Land Use and Management Classification version  8 .

Australia State of the Environment 2021 (DCCEEW, 2021)

Groupings of land use intensity published in the Australia state of the environment 2021 (dcceew.gov.au) l an d chapter were applied to generate LUI classifications.

Water Account, Australia (ABS)

Data were collated from the ‘Physical Supply and Use Tables, by Water Type’ for each state and territory and nationally from the Water Account, Australia. The data in the 2016-17 publication of the Water Account, Australia, were used to compile the ecosystem account for 2010–11 ( 4610.0 - Water Account, Australia, 2016-17 (abs.gov.au)). The data for 2015–16 was from the Water Account, Australia, 2021-22 publication Water Account, Australia, 2021-22 financial year | Australian Bureau of Statistics (abs.gov.au) . Where data were aggregated for 2010–11, information from the time series presented in the Water Account, Australia, 2021–22, were used to estimate these values.

Water Information Dashboard (BoM)

Data on surface water allocation trades has been sourced from the BoM ( Water Information Dashboard: Water Information: Bureau of Meteorology ), which constitutes reported data from a range of Commonwealth, state and private sector sources. In the valuation of monetary supply and use of water provisioning services, median surface water allocation trade prices have been aggregated to produce a median price nationally, and for New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and the Australian Capital Territory.

4.2 Summary analysis of river accounts

4.2.1 river extent.

The lengths of the perennial and non-perennial rivers in each state and territory in Australia are shown in Table 5. There are roughly 25 times as much length of non-perennial than perennial rivers in Australia. New South Wales contains almost 60% of Australia’s perennial rivers, while Queensland is home to the greatest length (34%) of non-perennial rivers.

Footnote: this includes linear measures through lakes and estuaries that lie along the river path.

4.2.2 River condition

In the following commentary LUI 1 is the least intense land use (near natural), and LUI 4 is the most intense land use, including urban development and industrial areas. In 2015–16,  

• 29% of perennial rivers were located within relatively natural land use (LUI 1)  
• 25% were associated with extensive (low intensity) production land such as grazing native vegetation and native production forests (LUI 2)   
• Half of non-perennial rivers were located within low intensity production uses LUI 2, and 32% were relatively natural LUI 1.
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Between 2010–11 to 2015–16, there was an observed increase in the intensity of land use adjacent to rivers and streams.

• The length of perennial rivers flowing through intensive production uses (LUI 3) increased 29.5% (5,657 km). This was driven by New South Wales, which increased by 41.9% (5,322 km).
• River length through urban and other intensive land uses increased by 11.7% (637 km).
• Over the same period, river length crossing less intensive land uses LUI 1 and LUI 2 decreased (867 km and 4,978 km respectively).  

At the state level:

• A similar intensification trend of decreasing LUI 1 and LUI 2 and increasing LUI 3 and LUI 4 was present in most states and territories and in both perennial and non-perennial rivers, although LUI 1 increased slightly (2.3%) in non-perennial rivers.
• All states and territories registered an increase in LUI 4, except for the Australian Capital Territory, which lost LUI 4 river length and gained small amounts in LUI 1.

4.2.3 Water supply ecosystem service (physical measures)

The bulk of surface water provisioning services was for use as an energy source (48,490 GL, 82.3% of total water provisioning services in 2015–16). This is dominated by hydroelectricity generation, where the water is not consumed but used to produce energy and is then immediately returned to the environment. 

Consumptive water provisioning services include surface water used as a material in production and for drinking.   In 2015–16, these amounted to 10,461 GL (17.7% of the national total):

• Water used as a material in production accounted for 8,961 GL, or 85.7% of consumptive surface water provisioning services.
• 1,500 GL of freshwater was extracted from rivers and streams for drinking (14.3% of consumptive use) - this was an increase of 7.4%  from 2010–11.

Surface water for drinking

Drinking water is extracted by the Water supply, sewerage, and drainage services industry before being distributed to households. In 2015–16:

• New South Wales used the most surface water, 509 GL, distributed for drinking - this represents 34% of the surface water distributed to households in Australia.
• Victoria and Queensland are the second and third highest users of distributed drinking water, using 394 GL (26%) and 310 GL (21%) respectively.

The Water supply, sewerage and drainage services industry extracts and redistributes water for use as a material in production to other industries including the Agricultural, Mining, and Manufacturing industries. These industries also self-extract water.

• The Water supply, sewerage and drainage services industry extracted 7,202 GL for use as a material in 2015–16, an increase of 1,408 GL (24.3%) from 2010–11.
• The Agriculture, forestry and fishing industry self-extracted the most surface water for use as a material in production (1219 GL in 2015–16, 13.6% of the national total).

Surface water used for energy is dominated by Tasmania as it generates over half of Australia’s hydroelectricity  ( Australian Energy Statistics - Table O Electricity generation by fuel type 2016-17 and 2017 | energy.gov.au ).

• During 2015–16, Tasmania used 30,854 GL, 63.6% of the national total water used for energy.
• Between 2010–11 and 2015–16, water used for energy fell 16.7% nationally due to lower rainfall and levels of water storage. This was evident in most states and territories.

4.2.4 Water supply ecosystem service (monetary measures)

In 2015–16:

• Australia’s rivers and streams provided $2.02b in water provisioning services for use as a material, based on an Australia-wide median water allocation price of $225/ML. 
• This was an increase of $1.77b from $244m in 2010–11, due to lower rainfall and reduced water allocations coupled with higher water demand. 
• New South Wales water provisioning services for use as a material were valued at $612m in 2015–16, a five-fold increase from $114m in 2010–11.
• In South Australia, the value of water used as a material increased to $95m, from $5m in 2010–11.
• Water used as a material in Victoria was valued at $48m in 2010–11. Valuation for 2015–16 in Victoria was not available.

*Total surface water used as a material in Victoria in 2015-16 was not available for publication.

2015–16 total state/territory values for Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory and 2010–11 total state/territory values for the Australian Capital Territory are not available due to data confidentiality. Values of water provisioning services for Queensland, Western Australia, Tasmania, and the Northern Territory have not been included due to data gaps and quality concerns. Values for surface water used for drinking or as an energy source (i.e. hydroelectricity) have not been estimated for this publication.

Data downloads

Example data cubes.

Ecosystem accounts for rivers in Australia have been compiled for 2010–11 to 2015–16 to illustrate the format and information in the National Ecosystem Accounts. For commentary and summary methods used to compile example accounts, refer to Appendix 4.

Ecosystem extent account, River lengths

Ecosystem condition account, rivers and streams, ecosystem services, supply and use, australia, ecosystem services, supply and use, new south wales, ecosystem services, supply and use, victoria, ecosystem services, supply and use, queensland, ecosystem services, supply and use, south australia, ecosystem services, supply and use, western australia, ecosystem services, supply and use, tasmania, ecosystem services, supply and use, northern territory, ecosystem services, supply and use, australian capital territory.

Abbreviations

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United Nations, European Commission, International Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, World Bank (2009) ‘System of National Accounts 2008’, United Nations.

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