research onion

Saunders’ Research Onion

Plain-Language Explainer (With Examples)

By:  David Phair (PhD)  and  Kerryn Warren (PhD)  | January 2021

I f you’re learning about research skills and methodologies, you may have heard the term “ research onion ”. Specifically, the research onion developed by Saunders et al in 2007 . But what exactly is this elusive onion? In this post, we’ll break Saunders’ research onion down into bite-sized chunks to make it a little more digestible.

What (exactly) is the research onion?

At the simplest level, Saunders’ (2007)research onion describes the different decisions you’ll need to make when developing a  research methodology   – whether that’s for your dissertation, thesis or any other formal research project. As you work from the outside of the onion inwards , you’ll face a range of choices that progress from high-level and philosophical to tactical and practical in nature. This also mimics the general structure for the methodology chapter .

While Saunders’ research onion is certainly not perfect, it’s a useful tool for thinking holistically about methodology. At a minimum, it helps you understand what decisions you need to make in terms of your research design and methodology.

The layers of Saunders’ research onion

The onion is made up of six layers, which we’ll peel back one at a time:

• Research philosophy
• Research approach
• Research strategy
• Time horizon
• Techniques & procedures

Onion Layer 1: Research Philosophy

The very first layer of the onion is the research philosophy . But what does that mean? Well, the research philosophy is the foundation of any study as it describes the set of beliefs the research is built upon . Research philosophy can be described from either an  ontological  or  epistemological  point of view. “A what?!”, you ask?

In simple terms,  ontology  is the “what” and “how” of what we know – in other words, what is the nature of reality and what are we really able to know and understand. For example, does reality exist as a single objective thing, or is it different for each person? Think about the simulated reality in the film The Matrix.

Epistemology , on the other hand, is about “how” we can obtain knowledge and come to understand things – in other words, how can we figure out what reality is, and what the limits of this knowledge are. This is a gross oversimplification, but it’s a useful starting point (we’ll cover ontology and epistemology another post).

With that fluffy stuff out the way, let’s look at three of the main research philosophies that operate on different ontological and epistemological assumptions:

• Interpretivism

These certainly aren’t the only research philosophies, but they are very common and provide a good starting point for understanding the spectrum of philosophies.

Research Philosophy 1: Positivism

Positivist research takes the view that knowledge exists outside of what’s being studied . In other words, what is being studied can only be done so objectively , and it cannot include opinions or personal viewpoints – the researcher doesn’t interpret, they only observe. Positivism states that there is only one reality  and that all meaning is consistent between subjects.

In the positivist’s view, knowledge can only be acquired through empirical research , which is based on measurement and observation. In other words, all knowledge is viewed as a posteriori knowledge – knowledge that is not reliant on human reasoning but instead is gained from research.

For the positivist, knowledge can only be true, false, or meaningless . Basically, if something is not found to be true or false, it no longer holds any ground and is thus dismissed.

Let’s look at an example, based on the question of whether God exists or not. Since positivism takes the stance that knowledge has to be empirically vigorous, the knowledge of whether God exists or not is irrelevant. This topic cannot be proven to be true or false, and thus this knowledge is seen as meaningless.

Kinda harsh, right? Well, that’s the one end of the spectrum – let’s look at the other end.

Research Philosophy 2: Interpretivism

On the other side of the spectrum, interpretivism emphasises the influence that social and cultural factors can have on an individual. This view focuses on  people’s thoughts and ideas , in light of the socio-cultural backdrop. With the interpretivist philosophy, the researcher plays an active role in the study, as it’s necessary to draw a holistic view of the participant and their actions, thoughts and meanings.

Let’s look at an example. If you were studying psychology, you may make use of a case study in your research which investigates an individual with a proposed diagnosis of schizophrenia. The interpretivist view would come into play here as social and cultural factors may influence the outcome of this diagnosis.

Through your research, you may find that the individual originates from India, where schizophrenic symptoms like hallucinations are viewed positively, as they are thought to indicate that the person is a spirit medium. This example illustrates an interpretivist approach since you, as a researcher, would make use of the patient’s point of view, as well as your own interpretation when assessing the case study.

Research Philosophy 3: Pragmatism

Pragmatism highlights the importance of using the best tools possible to investigate phenomena. The main aim of pragmatism is to approach research from a practical point of view , where knowledge is not fixed, but instead is constantly questioned and interpreted. For this reason, pragmatism consists of an element of researcher involvement and subjectivity, specifically when drawing conclusions based on participants’ responses and decisions. In other words, pragmatism is not committed to (or limited by) one specific philosophy.

Let’s look at an example in the form of the trolley problem, which is a set of ethical and psychological thought experiments. In these, participants have to decide on either killing one person to save multiple people or allowing multiple people to die to avoid killing one person.

This experiment can be altered, including details such as the one person or the group of people being family members or loved ones. The fact that the experiment can be altered to suit the researcher’s needs is an example of pragmatism – in other words, the outcome of the person doing the thought experiment is more important than the philosophical ideas behind the experiment.

Onion Layer 2: Research Approach

Let’s peel off another layer and take a look at the research approach . Your research approach is the broader method you’ll use for your research –  inductive  or  deductive . It’s important to clearly identify your research approach as it will inform the decisions you take in terms of data collection and analysis in your study (we’ll get to that layer soon).

Inductive approaches entail generating theories from research , rather than starting a project with a theory as a foundation.  Deductive approaches, on the other hand, begin with a theory and aim to build on it (or test it) through research.

Sounds a bit fluffy? Let’s look at two examples:

An  inductive approach  could be used in the study of an otherwise unknown isolated community. There is very little knowledge about this community, and therefore, research would have to be conducted to gain information on the community, thus leading to the formation of theories.

On the other hand, a  deductive approach  would be taken when investigating changes in the physical properties of animals over time, as this would likely be rooted in the theory of evolution. In other words, the starting point is a well-established pre-existing body of research.

What’s the relevance of qualitative and quantitative data to research approaches? Well, inductive approaches are usually used within qualitative research, while quantitative research tends to reflect a deductive approach, usually informed by positivist philosophy. The reason for using a deductive approach here is that quantitative research typically begins with theory as a foundation, where progress is made through hypothesis testing. In other words, a wider theory is applied to a particular context, event, or observation to see whether these fit in with the theory, as with our example of evolution above.

Need a helping hand?

Onion Layer 3: Research Strategy

So far, we’ve looked at pretty conceptual and intangible aspects of the onion. Now, it’s time to peel another layer off that onion and get a little more practical – introducing research strategy . This layer of the research onion details how, based on the aims of the study, research can be conducted. Note that outside of the onion, these strategies are referred to as research designs.

There are several strategies  you can take, so let’s have a look at some of them.

• Experimental research
• Action research
• Case study research
• Grounded theory
• Ethnography
• Archival research

Strategy 1: Experimental research

Experimental research involves manipulating one variable (the independent variable ) to observe a change in another variable (the dependent variable ) – in other words, to assess the relationship between variables. The purpose of experimental research is to support, refute or validate a  research hypothesis . This research strategy follows the principles of the  scientific method  and is conducted within a controlled environment or setting (for example, a laboratory).

Experimental research aims to test existing theories rather than create new ones, and as such, is deductive in nature. Experimental research aligns with the positivist research philosophy, as it assumes that knowledge can only be studied objectively and in isolation from external factors such as context or culture.

Let’s look at an example of experimental research. If you had a hypothesis that a certain brand of dog food can raise a dogs’ protein levels, you could make use of experimental research to compare the effects of the specific brand to a “regular” diet. In other words, you could test your hypothesis.

In this example, you would have two groups, where one group consists of dogs with no changes to their diet (this is called  the control group) and the other group consists of dogs being fed the specific brand that you aim to investigate (this is called the experimental/treatment group). You would then test your hypothesis by comparing the protein levels in both groups.

Strategy 2: Action research

Next, we have action research . The simplest way of describing action research is by saying that it involves learning through… wait for it… action. Action research is conducted in practical settings such as a classroom, a hospital, a workspace, etc – as opposed to controlled environments like a lab. Action research helps to inform researchers of problems or weaknesses related to interactions within the real-world . With action research, there’s a strong focus on the participants (the people involved in the issue being studied, which is why it’s sometimes referred to as “participant action research” or PAR.

An example of PAR is a community intervention (for therapy, farming, education, whatever). The researcher comes with an idea and it is implemented with the help of the community (i.e. the participants). The findings are then discussed with the community to see how to better the intervention. The process is repeated until the intervention works just right for the community. In this way, a practical solution is given to a problem and it is generated by the combination of researcher and community (participant) feedback.

This kind of research is generally applied in the social sciences , specifically in professions where individuals aim to improve on themselves and the work that they are doing. Action research is most commonly adopted in qualitative studies and is rarely seen in quantitative studies. This is because, as you can see in the above examples, action research makes use of language and interactions rather than statistics and numbers.

Strategy 3: Case study research

A case study is a detailed, in-depth study of a single subject – for example, a person, a group or an institution, or an event, phenomenon or issue. In this type of research, the subject is analysed to gain an in-depth understanding of issues in a real-life setting. The objective here is to gain an in-depth understanding within the context of the study – not (necessarily) to generalise the findings.

It is vital that, when conducting case study research, you take the social context and culture into account, which means that this type of research is (more often than not) qualitative in nature and tends to be inductive. Also, since the researcher’s assumptions and understanding play a role in case study research, it is typically informed by an interpretivist philosophy.

For example, a study on political views of a specific group of people needs to take into account the current political situation within a country and factors that could contribute towards participants taking a certain view.

Strategy 4: Grounded theory

Next up, grounded theory. Grounded theory is all about “letting the data speak for itself”. In other words, in grounded theory, you let the data inform the development of a new theory, model or framework. True to the name, the theory you develop is “ grounded ” in the data. Ground theory is therefore very useful for research into issues that are completely new or under-researched.

Grounded theory research is typically qualitative (although it can also use quantitative data) and takes an inductive approach. Typically, this form of research involves identifying commonalities between sets of data, and results are then drawn from completed research without the aim of fitting the findings in with a pre-existing theory or framework.

For example, if you were to study the mythology of an unknown culture through artefacts, you’d enter your research without any hypotheses or theories, and rather work from the knowledge you gain from your study to develop these.

Strategy 5: Ethnography

Ethnography involves observing people in their natural environments and drawing meaning from their cultural interactions. The objective with ethnography is to capture the subjective experiences of participants, to see the world through their eyes. Creswell (2013) says it best: “Ethnographers study the meaning of the behaviour, the language, and the interaction among members of the culture-sharing group.”

For example, if you were interested in studying interactions on a mental health discussion board, you could use ethnography to analyse interactions and draw an understanding of the participants’ subjective experiences.

For example, if you wanted to explore the behaviour, language, and beliefs of an isolated Amazonian tribe, ethnography could allow you to develop a complex, complete description of the social behaviours of the group by immersing yourself into the community, rather than just observing from the outside.  

Given the nature of ethnography, it generally reflects an interpretivist research philosophy and involves an inductive , qualitative research approach. However, there are exceptions to this – for example, quantitative ethnography as proposed by David Shafer.

Strategy 6: Archival research

Last but not least is archival research. An archival research strategy draws from materials that already exist, and meaning is then established through a review of this existing data. This method is particularly well-suited to historical research and can make use of materials such as manuscripts and records.

For example, if you were interested in people’s beliefs about so-called supernatural phenomena in the medieval period, you could consult manuscripts and records from the time, and use those as your core data set.

As you can see, there is a wide range of choices in terms of research strategy. The right choice for your project will depend largely on your research aims and objectives, as well as the choices you make in terms of research philosophy and approach.

Onion Layer 4: Choices

The next layer of the research onion is simply called “choices” – they could have been a little more specific, right? In any case, this layer is simply about deciding how many data types (qualitative or quantitative) you’ll use in your research. There are three options – mono , mixed , and multi-method .

Let’s take a look at them.

Choosing to use a  mono method  means that you’ll only make use of one data type – either qualitative or quantitative. For example, if you were to conduct a study investigating a community’s opinions on a specific pizza restaurant, you could make use of a qualitative approach only, so that you can analyse participants’ views and opinions of the restaurant.

If you were to make use of both quantitative and qualitative data, you’d be taking a  mixed-methods approach. Keeping with the previous example, you may also want to assess how many people in a community eat specific types of pizza. For this, you could make use of a survey to collect quantitative data and then analyse the results statistically, producing quantitative results in addition to your qualitative ones.

Lastly, there’s  multi-method . With a multi-method approach, you’d make use of a wider range of approaches, with more than just a one quantitative and one qualitative approach. For example, if you conduct a study looking at archives from a specific culture, you could make use of two qualitative methods (such as thematic analysis and content analysis ), and then additionally make use of quantitative methods to analyse numerical data.

Onion Layer 5: Time horizon

What’s that far in the distance? It’s the time horizon. But what exactly is it? Thankfully, this one’s pretty straightforward. The time horizon simply describes how many points in time you plan to collect your data at . Two options exist – the  cross-sectional  and  longitudinal  time horizon.

Imagine that you’re wasting time on social media and think, “Ooh! I want to study the language of memes and how this language evolves over time”. For this study, you’d need to collect data over multiple points in time – perhaps over a few weeks, months, or even years. Therefore, you’d make use of a  longitudinal time horizon. This option is highly beneficial when studying changes and progressions over time.

If instead, you wanted to study the language used in memes at a certain point in time (for example, in 2020), you’d make use of a  cross-sectional  time horizon. This is where data is collected at one point in time, so you wouldn’t be gathering data to see how language changes, but rather what language exists at a snapshot point in time. The type of data collected could be qualitative, quantitative or a mix of both, as the focus is on the time of collection, not the data type.

Onion Layer 6: Techniques and Procedures

Finally, we reach the centre of the onion – this is where you get down to the real practicalities of your research to make choices regarding specific techniques and procedures .

Specifically, this is where you’ll:

• Decide on what data you’ll collect and what data collection methods you’ll use (for example, will you use a survey? Or perhaps one-on-one interviews ?)
• Decide how you’ll go about sampling the population (for example, snowball sampling, random sampling, convenience sampling, etc).
• Determine the type of data analysis you’ll use to answer your research questions (such as content analysis or a statistical analysis like correlation).
• Set up the materials you’ll be using for your study (such as writing up questions for a survey or interview)

What’s important to note here is that these techniques and procedures need to align with all the other layers of the research onion – i.e., research philosophy, research approaches, research strategy, choices, and time horizon.

For example, you if you’re adopting a deductive, quantitative research approach, it’s unlikely that you’ll use interviews to collect your data, as you’ll want high-volume, numerical data (which surveys are far better suited to). So, you need to ensure that the decisions at each layer of your onion align with the rest, and most importantly, that they align with your research aims and objectives.

Let’s Recap: Research Onion 101

Saunder’s (2007) research onion details the many interrelated choices you’ll need to make when you’re crafting your research methodology. These include:

• Research philosophy – the set of beliefs your research is based on (positivism, interpretivism, pragmatism)
• Research approaches – the broader method you’ll use (inductive, deductive, qualitative and quantitative)
• Research strategies – how you’ll conduct the research (e.g., experimental, action, case study, etc.)
• Choices – how many methods you’ll use (mono method, mixed-method or multi-method)
• Time horizons – the number of points in time at which you’ll collect your data (cross-sectional or longitudinal)
• Techniques and procedures (data collection methods, data analysis techniques, sampling strategies, etc.)

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64 Comments

This is good

Wow this was sooo helpful. I don’t feel so blank about my research anymore. With this information I can conquer my research. Going ‘write’ into it. Get it write not right hahahaha

Very good article . Thanks a million

Do you use each of these as headings for your methodology section

I am doing research with Bolton University so i would like to empower myself.

Really thoughtful presentation and preparation. I learnt too much to teach my students in a very simple and understandable way

Very useful, thank you.

You’re most welcome. Good luck with your research!

thanks alot for your brief and brilliant notes

I am a Student at Malawi Institute of Management, pursuing a Masters’ degree in Business Administration. I find this to be very helpful

Extremely useful, well explained. Thank you so much

I would like to download this file… I can’t find the attachment file. Thanks

Thank you so much for explaining it in the most simple and precise manner!

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I have enjoying your videos on YouTube, they are very educative and useful. I have learned a lot. Thanks

Thank you this has really helped me with writing my dissertation methodology !

Thanks so much for this piece. Just to be clear, which layer do interviews fit in?

well explained i found it to be very engaging. now i’m going to pass my research methods course. thank you.

Thank you so much this has really helped as I can’t get this insight from uni due to covid

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Beautiful, thank you!

Am from Malawi @ LAMAU University. I think this is so helpful and the info is applicable and simple to understand.

Beautiful and helpful. Thank you!

This is well done!

A complex but useful approach to research simplified! I would like to learn more from the team.

A very simplified version of a complex topic. I found it really helpful. I would like to know if this publication can be cited for academic research. Thank you

You’re welcome to cite this page, but it would be better to cite the original work of Saunders.

Thirteen odd years since my MSc in HRM & HRD at UoL. I’d like to say thank you for the effort to produce such an insightful discussion of a rather complex topic.

I am a PhD in Media Studies student. I found this enormously helpful when stringing together the methodology chapter, especially the research philosophy section.

Hello there. Thank you for summarising the work on the onion. A more recent version of the onion (Saunders et al., 2019) refers to ‘methodological choices’ rather than choices. This can be downloaded, along with the chapter dealing with research philosophies at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330760964_Research_Methods_for_Business_Students_Chapter_4_Understanding_research_philosophy_and_approaches_to_theory_development or https://www.academia.edu/42304065/Research_Methods_for_Business_Students_Chapter_4_Understanding_research_philosophy_and_approaches_to_theory_development_8th_edition

Thank you Mark Saunders. Your work is very insightful

Thank you for the update and additional reading Mark, very helpful indeed.

THROUGHLY AND SIMPLY BRIEFED TO MAKE SENSE AND A CLEAR INSIGHT. THANK YOU, VERY MUCH.

Thank you for the sharing the recent version of the Onion!

I want to keep it in my reference of my assignment. May I??

Great summary, thank you taking the time to put this together. I’m sure it’s been a big help to lots of people. It definitely was to me.

I love the analysis… some people do not recognize qualitative or quantitative as an approach but rather have inductive, abductive, and deductive.

This has been helpful in the understanding of research . Thank you for this valuable information.

Great summary. Well explained. Thank you, guys.

This makes my fears on methodology go away. I confidently look forward to working on my methodology now. Thank you so much I ma doing a PhD with UNIMA, School of Education

simple and clear

Simple guide to crafting a research methodology. Quite impactful. Thank you

Thank you for this, this makes things very clear. Now I’m off to conquer my research proposal. Thanks again.

Thank you for this very informative and valuable information. What would the best approach be to take if you are using secondary data to form a qualitative study and relying on industry reports and peer journals to distinguish what factors influence the use of say cryptocurrency ?

Thanks for providing the whole idea/knowledge in the simplest way with essential factors which made my entire research process more efficient as well as valuable.

what is about research design such as descriptive, causal-comparative, correlation, developmental where these fall in the research onion?

This is very helpful. Thank you for this wonderful piece. However, it would be nicer to have References to the knowledge provided here. My suggestion

This material is very important for researchers, particularly for PhD scholars to conduct further study.

This was insightful. Thank you for the knowledge.

Thank you for the wonderful knowledge !Easy to understand and grasp.

thanks very much very simple. will need a coach

Hi this is a great article giving much help to my research. I just wanted to mention here that the example where you mentioned that ” schizophrenic symptoms like hallucinations are viewed positively, as they are thought to indicate the person is a spirit medium” is completely false as those are different cases and a bit out of context here. We are medically and psychologically well versed and obviously understand the difference between the two. As much as I am grateful to this article I would like to suggest you to give proper examples.

Thank you very much, sincerely I appreciate your efforts, it is insightful information. Once again I’m grateful .

In short, a complete insight of and for writing research methodology.

This information was very helpful, I was having difficulties in writing my methodology now I can say I have the full knowledge to write a more informative research methodology.

Thank you so much for this amazing explanation. As a person who hasn’t ever done a research project, this video helped me to clear my doubts and approach my research in a clear and concise manner. Great work

very well explained , after going through this there is no need any material to study . a very concise and to the point.

I have one small query. If I choose mixed -methods (quantitative and qualitative techniques), Then, my research Philosophy will also change to both Positivists and Interpretivist. Isn’t?

well explained and thank you

Thanks for this presentation. Quite simple and easy to understand, and to teach others.

Hello! Having made a decision to use a particular research philosophy, how then do we go about justifying that choice with references? Thank you.

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Understanding the Research Onion

The research onion model.

The research onion model was presented by Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill in their book titled Research Methods for Business Students . This model aims to explain the different stages of writing a dissertation to help students create a better organised methodology. The below Research Onion model symbolically illustrates the ways in which different elements involved in the research could be examined to develop the final research design.

Layers of the Research Onion

The research onion consists of six main layers, which can be explained as:

It refers to the set of principles concerning the worldview or stance from which the research is conducted. It is usually studied in terms of ontology and epistemology. Here, ontology refers to the authenticity of the information and how one understands its existence, whereas epistemology refers to the valid information required for the research and how one can obtain it. Philosophical positions used in academic studies are often divided into positivism and interpretivism, where positivism assumes that knowledge is independent of the subject being studied, and interpretivism claims that individual observers have their own perception and understanding of reality. Hence positivist studies are often more scientific and result in testing phenomena, whereas interpretivist studies are often qualitative in nature.

Once the student has chosen the appropriate methodology, the research onion suggests that an appropriate research must be picked. The deductive approach starts with a specific hypothesis development based on the literature review that has been observed by the researcher, and gradually tries to test this hypothesis and check if it holds in particular contexts. In contrast, the inductive approach starts with observations that the researcher uses to create a new theory.

After this, the student is expected to devise the strategy of the study. The research onion suggests that strategies can include action research, experimental research, interviews, surveys, case study research or a systematic literature review. The strategy is chosen based on the data required for the research and the purpose of the study.

Choices of Methods

The research onion suggests mono-method, mixed method and multi-method as possible choices for conducting research. The mono-method comprises only one method for the study. The mixed method is based on the use of two or more methods of research and commonly refers to the use of qualitative and quantitative methodology. Finally, the multi-method uses a wider selection of methods.

Time Horizons

It refers to the time frame of the research. Generally, observations can be of two types based on time horizons, namely cross-sectional and longitudinal. The cross-sectional data is used when all observations are for a single point of time such as in most surveys. Longitudinal data, in contrast, implies the observations for a particular variable that are available for several years, quarters, months or days.

Data Collection and Analysis

This is the final layer of the research onion and consists of the techniques and procedures used. It is used to clearly explain the ways and purposes of the research conducted. At this stage, the student is expected to choose between the primary and secondary data and between qualitative and quantitative data collected from different sources. Data is considered the central piece in the research onion framework.

If you are struggling with choosing the right methods for your dissertation, feel free to use our methodology generator tool that uses elements of the research onion.

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Understanding the Research Onion (Saunders et al., 2015)

• January 18, 2024

• Published: Jan. 18, 2024

This article provides a comprehensive guide to understanding and writing a compelling and effective research methodology chapter of your thesis/dissertation, focusing specifically on the research onion framework by Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2016) .

Table of Contents

Introduction.

Research is an incredibly important tool for understanding and navigating through the world around us. It is defined as a systematic and structured process of gathering data, analyzing information, and drawing conclusions in order to answer research questions or address a specific problem. Research plays a crucial role in shaping policies, decision-making, validating existing ideas, and gaining insights into how the world operates (Sujatha, 2016)

However, conducting research is not an easy task. It often involves a continuous process of inquiry and response, leading to a multitude of questions such as: where do I start from? What research questions should I formulate? What research design or philosophy is best for my study? How do I select the suitable method for data collection/analysis? 

Recent statistics show that academic research demands rigorous commitment and resilience. A study by Styger Vuuren and Heymans (2014) revealed that, in South African universities , the dropout rates for Master’s degrees ranged from 30% to 67% , while for doctoral degrees, the rates were between 50% and 68% . Similarly, Bekova and Dzhafarova (2019) reported that the dropout rate for certain Ph.D. programs in Spain ranges 70% to 90% , while in Australia , it was approximately 30% , and around 50% in the USA . Even the most developed European countries face 40% to 50% dropout rate of engineering students during their first year, and the rate can be as high as 80% for some engineering disciplines (Sultana et al., 2017; Kabashi et al., 2022).

The high dropout rates for postgraduate students can be attributed to a multitude of factors, including individual, institutional, and sociodemographic considerations.

Individual-related factors such as mental health, regret, anxiety, and age have been identified as potential contributors to dropout intentions among postgraduate students (Peng et al., 2022; Nadeem & Palaniappan, 2021). Additionally, the demanding nature of postgraduate studies, inadequate research preparation, and insufficient institutional and financial support have been highlighted as intrinsic (student-related) and extrinsic (institutional-related) factors influencing dropout rates (Cobbing et al., 2017). Furthermore, gender disparities and educational equality have been associated with higher dropout rates among postgraduate female students compared to their male counterparts (Alabi et al., 2019). Socioeconomic factors, such as the cost of education and economic background, have also been recognized as influential in student dropout from postgraduate studies (Nadeem, Palaniappan & Haider, 2021).

Furthermore, institutional factors, such as inexperienced and overburdened supervisors, inadequate research preparation, and insufficient institutional and financial support, have also been recognized as contributors to the high dropout rates for postgraduate students (Cobbing et al., 2017; Styger et al., 2014). Furthermore, the lack of adequate computer literacy, typing skills, and effective internet usage among postgraduate students has been identified as a challenge, particularly in the context of coursework and research (Havenga & Sengane, 2018).

The lack of proper guidance or academic counseling is yet another factor that has been identified as a significant obstacle contributing to the dropout rates of postgraduate students (Schmidt & Umans, 2014; Deri, 2022). Without proper career guidance or academic counseling, students may find themselves in courses that do not align with their interests or career aspirations, leading to dissatisfaction, prolonged or non-completed  studies (Schmidt & Umans, 2014) and, eventually, dropout. Additionally, the lack of experience and competencies in academic writing has been cited as a barrier to progression for PhD students (Litalien & Guay, 2015).

However, despite the complexity and challenges of conducting research, it is important to highlight that there are many resources and tools available to help researchers navigate the process and write a compelling and effective research methodology chapter. One such resource is the research onion framework (Saunders et al., 2016), which provides a comprehensive structure for conducting research and effectively organizing the methodology chapter. The framework provides a roadmap to guide a researcher from the initial stage of a project to the finished product.

In this comprehensive article, we will delve deeper into the research onion framework and explore in detail how it can be effectively used to write a compelling research methodology chapter for your dissertation/thesis. We will also discuss some common misconceptions about research methods and how understanding the onion can help researchers avoid these errors.

1. Defining the Research Onion

The research onion is a concept that describes the stages of planning and designing a research project. It is a metaphorical model used in research methodology to illustrate the various layers or stages involved in the research process. It is based on the idea of layering, with each layer representing a different stage of the research process.

As the word suggests, this process is similar to peeling an onion; as you go deeper into your research project, you will see more layers that need to be peeled off before reaching the core of your data analysis. Each layer of the onion represents a different step in the process of conducting research, and each step builds upon the previous one. The main idea behind the research onion is that researchers need to understand how their decisions at each stage can affect the quality and validity of their findings.

The concept was first developed by Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2009) to visualize the research process and the various stages researchers must go through to achieve a successful outcome. 

The research onion consists of six layers: (1) the research philosophy, (2) the research approach, (3) the research strategy, (4) the research choice, (5) the time horizon, and (6) the data sources. Each layer of the onion has a unique purpose and is fundamental to the success of a research project. The overall research will likely suffer if any of these layers is neglected. Therefore, researchers need to understand the research onion concept and how the layers interact with each other. This understanding can give them the confidence to accurately plan, design, and execute their research projects and ensure that the results are valid and reliable. 

2. The Research Onion's Layers

The diagram below shows the structure of the onion and how each layer provides a different perspective on the research process:

2.1. Research Philosophies

The first layer of the research onion is the research philosophy. This is the outermost layer and represents the researcher’s underlying philosophical beliefs and assumptions. Research philosophy is about how you view the world. It includes your beliefs about the nature of the truth you are investigating: WHAT is important, and WHY is it important?

As such, the researcher should be able to answer the following questions: what personal values do you bring to the topic? How will they influence your choice of methodologies and procedures? What impact might they have on the validity of your results? Bajpai (2011) suggested the research philosophy helps you decide what types of data to collect, how to collect it, and how to analyze it.

Academic studies frequently adopt four distinct philosophical orientations in research: positivism, interpretivism, pragmatism, and realism (Saunders et al., 2007; Žukauskas, Vveinhardt, & Andriukaitienė, 2018).

1.1. Positivism

Positivism is based on the assumption that the world is objective and that scientific methods are the best way to understand it. The advocates of positivism support the idea of objectivism. In other words, reality can be known objectively through systematic observation and measurement. From this viewpoint, researchers are considered objective observers who examine phenomena that are independent of them (Rehman and Alharthi, 2016). They use symbols and words to describe things as they exist without any interference (Rehman & Alharthi, 2016).

The positivist approach is fundamentally rooted in scientific methods, diligently attempting to explain the underlying causes and effects of various phenomena. It is particularly well-suited for quantitative studies, where researchers employ techniques such as surveys, experiments, and simulations to rigorously gather and analyze data (Holden & Lynch, 2004).

1.2. Interpretivism

Interpretivism focuses on understanding human behaviour by closely examining people’s experiences, interpretations, and perspectives (Bajpai, 2011). The advocates of positivism support the idea of subjectivism. They believe reality is subjective and there are no universal truths (Saunders et al., 2009). This means truth must be created and interpreted subjectively. Individuals must make sense of their own experiences to understand and interpret the world around them. Interpretivism often uses qualitative methods such as interviews, focus groups and observations to collect data (Bajpai, 2011).

1.3. Pragmatism

Pragmatism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes practicality or usefulness as the ultimate criterion for judging truth (Saunders et al., 2009). In other words, pragmatism is committed to using evidence and reason to determine what works best in the real world. It focuses on practical outcomes rather than abstract theories. Pragmatist researchers believe in the efficacy of using practical experience and empirical evidence to determine the truth or falsity of propositions.

The meaning of concepts or ideas cannot be ascertained apart from their use in the context of actual situations. Pragmatism is often contrasted with the epistemological perspective, which holds that knowledge can be derived from a source independent of experience. The following research methods are commonly associated with Pragmatism: empirical observation, experimentation, and survey research.

1.4. Realism

Realism is a philosophical position that believes that the world is fundamentally the same as it is in reality and that the only thing that really matters is what is real. Researchers who adhere to this view believe that there are facts out there that exist independently of human thought or perception. While our perceptions may influence what we observe, ultimately the real world exists outside of our experience or belief. As a result, science can provide us with knowledge about these objective realities (Bajpai, 2011).

Despite the inherent disparities among these philosophical approaches, it’s important to note that one isn’t inherently superior to the others. Instead, researchers may tend to gravitate towards a particular philosophy based on their preferences and the nature of their research (Podsakoff et al., 2012).

2.2. Research Approaches

The second layer of the research onion is the research approach. The onion suggests that a research approach must be selected once the appropriate methodology is chosen. 

According to Saunders et al (2015), there are two main approaches to research: inductive and deductive .

2.1. Inductive research

Inductive research is a type of inquiry that starts with specific observations or experiences and then generalizes them to form theories or hypotheses. The inductive approach is based on interpretivism (Temitope and Udayangani, 2015). This means that the researcher uses his or her personal experiences, observations, and knowledge to form theories that explain the phenomenon being studied. For this reason, inductive research is often considered a more qualitative approach than deductive research.

For example:  suppose you are interested in how people use social media to learn about products. In that case, you might start by collecting data through surveys or interviews, asking people about their experiences buying products online or offline and then draw conclusions based on those interviews. We can see here that the researcher goes from specific to general levels of focus.

As outlined by Bryman and Bell (2011), the inductive approach is predominantly employed in qualitative research. This is particularly advantageous because it obviates the necessity for a guiding theory, which, in turn, diminishes the likelihood of researcher bias during the data gathering phase.

Figure 2 below provides a visual representation of the procedural steps entailed in conducting research utilizing an inductive approach:

2.2. Deductive research

Deductive research starts with a hypothesis or theory that has been established by previous research and then seeks evidence to support or reject it. Here, the researcher goes from general principles to make predictions about what will happen in a specific situation. This approach is based on positivism, i.e. the researcher uses objective methods to gather data from many sources in order to make generalizations about human behavior.

2.3. Research Strategies

2.4. methodological choices, 2.5. time horizons, 2.6. data collection & analysis techniques, common mistakes to avoid.

Nephtali Tshitadi

Nephtali Tshitadi is a researcher and professional content writer with more than 5 years of experience. He holds a Masters's qualification (Mcom) in Finance, Honours Degree in Financial Management, and BCom in Economics.

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The research onion for beginners

Today I will explain the research onion in simple terms. This builds on from my last post, where I introduced you to the concept of research philosophy , giving the simple analogy of a tree which demonstrated how philosophy is inherently linked to research design. 

What is the research onion?

Layers of the research onion, research philosophy, research approach, research strategy, time horizons, data collection and analysis.

The research onion was developed by Saunders et al in 2007 to describe the stages through which a researcher must pass when developing an effective methodology. Just as I previously explained, in order for your research to have maximum credibility, you must provide explanations and justifications for each level of your methodological decisions. The research onion is basically an extension of the research methods tree.

As you can guess, there are different layers to the research onion – the premise being that you start from the outside and peel each layer away until you reach the core. These layers are broken up into six main areas: research philosophy; research approach; research strategy; research choices; time horizons; and techniques and procedures. I will explain what each layer means below.

Research philosophy refers to the set of beliefs concerning the nature of the reality being investigated. It is generally examined in terms of ontology and epistemology. I have provided more detail on this in my post- ‘ Ontology and Epistemology: A Simple Explanation ’, but for now I will provide a brief description of each as follows:

• Epistemology: What Constitutes Valid Knowledge and How Can We Obtain It?
• Ontology: What Constitutes Reality and How Can We Understand Existence?

There are two main positions considered here, known as positivism and interpretivism. This underpins the qualitative versus quantitative debate, often referred to as “the scientist versus detective” debate. I explain exactly what all of this means in my post- ‘ Positivism and Interpretivism: A Simple Explanation ’.

This is referring to the approach that the researcher takes, which can largely be described as either inductive or deductive.

The deductive approach starts small and gets bigger. It starts with a specific hypothesis or hypotheses that have been developed based on information or patterns that have been observed by the researcher. It then seeks to test this hypothesis and develop a broader theory from it.

The inductive approach is the opposite. It starts with a broad theory and then focuses later on the smaller, more specific details. This is sometimes referred to as a move from the specific to the general.

Typically, a deductive approach is associated with quantitative research and an inductive approach is associated with qualitative research.

There are some great texts on this, which will give you a more detailed explanation. One of my favourites is ‘ Key Concepts in the Philosophy of Social Research’ by Malcolm Williams , which I used a lot when writing my PhD thesis. 

The strategy layer of the research onion refers to how the researcher intends to carry out the work, i.e. what method of data collection will be used. You can read more about research method strategies in Cresswell’s book ‘ Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches ‘ .

The choices outlined in the research onion include the mono method, the mixed method, and the multi-method.

The mono-method involves using one research approach for the study. Next, the mixed-methods required the use of two or more methods of research, and usually refers to the use of both a qualitative and a quantitative methodology. In the multi-method, a wider selection of methods is used. You can also read more about the use of mixed methods research in Cresswell’s text , which is personally one of my favourites- it’s easy to understand and provides detailed explanations. 

The Time Horizon refers to the time frame within which the project is intended for completion. According to the research onion, there are two types of time horizons: cross-sectional and longitudinal.

The cross-sectional time horizon is when there is a pre-set time established for the collection of data. A longitudinal time horizon refers to the collection of data repeatedly over an extended period, for example when a person reaches a different age or different seasons throughout the year.

The final layer of the research onion is techniques and procedures. This is the section where you should make explicit exactly how and why you are undertaking the research.

This can be referring to primary data (data collected first-hand for the research project), or secondary data (data that was collected by somebody else and subsequently published).

You will need to make your research design clear, with valid justifications for each stage. This provides a framework that includes the considerations that led to the appropriate methodology being adopted, the way in which the respondents were selected, and how the data will be analysed.

You will also cover research samples in this inner layer of the research onion. A sample is a representative segment of a larger population . In this instance, it is referring to the people who participated in your study. You will need to explain who was selected and why, supported by sampling theory, which you will find in most research methods textbooks. The reader will also want to know about your sample size.

Lastly, it is worthwhile addressing the ethics of your research in this last section of the research onion. This demonstrates that you have been an ethical researcher and that you comply with any regulations set upon you by your university. 

So, that sums up the research onion. And in actual fact it sums up your overall methodology chapter for your research project! I have a number of posts covering each of the areas mentioned in the research onion further, so read on should you require further guidance. I also recommend that you use some of the excellent research methods books available to you- I recommend Social Research Methods by Bryman and Research Methodology: A Step by Step Guide for Beginners by Kumar .

Lastly, I have also included a handy YouTube video below that explains the research onion very clearly (I’ll get round to making my own one day).

If you wish to cite any of the content in the post please reference ‘Stainton, Hayley. (2018) Lifeasabutterfly.’

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Developing a good research design is important while undertaking quality social science research, and in this blog Dr Mahesh BT illustrates the different stages in designing a research methodology using the Research Onion framework.

When I joined for my PhD, as many of you, I too was curious about research. Along with the curiosity came seriousness, but only after one of my mentors said: “Your thesis is your brainchild and indeed a reflection of you”. I am here now to share a few of the specifics that I learnt during my PhD journey. I will be discussing how to design and present a robust research methodology. Why do I find this concept very crucial? It is because these answers to research questions are valid and reliable – if they are answered through a systematic method(s). Often we find dissertations with a poorly explained research methodology chapter, which is required to be crystal clear in every step, so I was in search of something that can explain things clearly. During my desk research, I came across various ways and means to design research methodology; one of the most crucial revelations for me was a research vegetable called ‘Research onion’. Let us first see what this research onion is all about.

WHAT IS ‘RESEARCH ONION’?

Saunders et al. (2012) proposed the research onion framework (Figure 1), which explains pictorially the various aspects of the research to be examined and planned in order to come up with a sound research design. In other words, the research onion guides the researcher through all the steps that need to be taken when developing a research methodology.

Saunders et al. (2019), divided the research onion into three levels of decisions: 1. First two outer rings, i.e., Research philosophy and Research approach; 2. Research design which constitutes (a) methodological choices, (b) research strategy and (c) time horizon; and (3) tactics, i.e., the inner core of the research onion, which includes data collection and analysis aspects.

Before we strip the research onion let us do an activity. Take an onion and try to peel it from the inside without using a knife. You tried but could not peel it, the systematic way is to peel it from the outside to inside, and this is what we have to do with the research onion as well.

To develop a sound research methodology scholarly research starts with the research question(s), the objectives followed by the series of decisions on choice of research philosophy, approach to research, then the research design, i.e., methodological choices, research strategy, the time horizon, and the last inner core – data collection and data analysis. All the layers of research onion are interrelated and interdependent. In other words, the choice of philosophy influences the approach, which in turn influences the selection of methodological choice, strategy, time horizon, data collection and analysis.

PEELING OUT THE RESEARCH ONION 

1.RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY Knowingly or unknowingly a researcher will be making numerous assumptions while embarking on research (Burrell and Morgan 2016).

These assumptions are of three types:

• Ontological assumptions –  Assumptions regarding the reality faced in the research or what makes something a reality, and how a researcher can understand existence.
• Epistemological assumptions – Assumptions associated with human knowledge or what forms valid knowledge, whether it can be known, and how a researcher can get it and transfer it.
• Axiological assumptions  -These are assumptions about the level of influence of the researcher’s values on the research process or what is essential and valuable in the research.

Further, these assumptions help a researcher to design the research questions, choose appropriate methods, and influence the interpretation of findings (Crotty 1998). These assumptions altogether form the research philosophy of the study. According to Saunders et al. (2012), the term research philosophy refers to ‘a system of beliefs and assumptions about the development of knowledge’.

The  ontological assumption  is the assumption made by a researcher regarding the nature of reality. Here reality means the study area or a subject domain, such as agricultural extension. The extension fraternity has various assumptions regarding the subject of extension, we assume it to be a study of human (farmers) behaviour, and others say it is the transfer of technology, and so on and so forth. These ontological assumptions may also be with regard to a specific research area in the subject domain. For instance, we study farmers’ adoption of agro-technology, in most adoption studies the researchers presumed that a lower level of adoption (a reality) of technology is the reason for lower crop production. Therefore, the focus was on studying the level of adoption by farmers and how to increase it. On the other hand, some researchers assume technology adoption as a mental process and see that there is low level of adoption everywhere, and so they try to understand why there is a low level of adoption and what are the factors determining the adoption. From this, it is clear that your assumption about the nature of reality (ontology) decides how you view the subject domain (Agricultural Extension) or the research area, which in turn influences what you want to research (what research questions to ask or what research objectives to study).

The  epistemological assumption  is an assumption made by a researcher regarding knowledge. What forms valid and reliable knowledge? How do we acquire and communicate it? We know that the subject matter of agricultural extension is derived from different disciplines. Therefore, the nature of knowledge will be diverse; it may constitute numerical data (e.g., number of women FPOs) to textual data (results of in-depth interview or focused group discussion), or even visual data (social map, resource map, sociogram). In extension research, facts, opinions, narratives and stories constitute valid knowledge, provided it follows a systematic process of enquiry. You will come across various research studies in extension where the researcher has used different epistemology in their research, research purely based on case studies, and some dealing only with factual stuff.

The  axiological assumption  is an assumption made by a researcher regarding the influence of values and beliefs on the research. The researcher tries to be free from values and beliefs intruding into the research or positively considers and acknowledges values and beliefs influencing the research process and the conclusions. Sometimes we need to decide on whether the values and beliefs of the research respondents should be considered or not. Researchers argue, as reported by Saunders  et al.  (2019), that it is very tough to keep ourselves free from the influence of values and beliefs. For instance, as a researcher you might have come across your advisor saying “parametric test is stronger than non-parametric”, “qualitative data gives in-depth understanding about a phenomenon than quantitative data”. What are these assumptions? They are the aspects of research your advisor values more.

At this juncture, you might have questioned yourself – why should I be making assumptions and know the different research philosophies when I can directly collect data, analyse and report the results? There are several aspects for which these assumptions are essential they are listed below.

• Assumptions are your research tour guide; they tell you how to conduct the research, what should be your role – whether you should maintain objectivity or can subjectivity be expressed. They tell you what methods you can follow.
• The researcher has to defend his/her work at various levels. As a student researcher, we get suggestions from the advisory committee or institutional review board to strictly go for quantitative methods with probability sampling, and try to avoid qualitative methods. This is due to the difference in the assumptions or more specifically, the research philosophy they follow. The most challenging is to convince the journal reviewers and editors, there are chances of your paper getting rejected because your philosophy is different from what they follow. Therefore, to show that your overall approach to research is justifiable, you should state your assumptions (research philosophy) very clearly.
• Another issue we come across is sweeping apologies in our dissertation, for instance, a researcher apologises for not interviewing a large number of respondents in qualitative research; and the other one is failing to get an in-depth understanding due to the quantitative nature of research. No! You need not apologise, all that you need to do is follow the standard methods and procedure that suits your research philosophy. Therefore it is very important to understand the various research philosophies.

According to Saunders  et al.  (2019), there are five research philosophies: (1) positivism; (2) critical realism; (3) interpretivism; (4) postmodernism; and (5) pragmatism. The detailed explanation of these five research philosophies is presented in Tables 1 to 5.

2. THE RESEARCH APPROACH OR APPROACH TO THEORY DEVELOPMENT

The second ring in the research onion contains the research approach. If we critically think on what a researcher does in research, we can classify them into three aspects – theory testing, theory building, and theory modification. The point I am trying to make here is that the research we undertake involves the use of theory which we may or may not name in our research design. You will find the essence of theory in the conclusions of research findings. The selection of a particular philosophy that was discussed in the first section will determine the approach you choose for the development of the theory or for the reasoning behind your findings. Further, the approach you select will influence the choice of research design and methods (Babbie 2010).

Source: Developed from Saunders et al. (2019) Note: Application of positivist philosophy in social science research is a matter of scholarly debate. However, a researcher can apply some of the assumptions and methods with caution and rationality.  Suggested reading: Thomas Houghton, Does positivism really ‘work’ in the social sciences? Link: https://www.e-ir.info/2011/09/26/does-positivism-really-%E2%80%98work%E2%80%99-in-the-social-sciences/ 

Source: Developed from Saunders et al. (2019) Suggested reading : Fletcher Amber J. Applying critical realism in qualitative research: Methodology meets method.  Link:   https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13645579.2016.1144401?journalCode=tsrm20 

Source: Developed from Saunders et al. (2019) Suggested reading : Chen Y Y, Shek D T L and Bu F F. 2011. Applications of interpretive and constructionist research methods in adolescent research: Philosophy, principles and examples. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health 23(2).doi:10.1515/ijamh.2011.022 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21870675/

Source: Developed from Saunders et al. (2019) Suggested reading : Rosenau P V. Postmodernism: Methodology. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/00692-6    Link : https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B0080430767006926

Source: Developed from Saunders et al. (2019) Suggested reading: Crist J D, Parsons M L, Warner-Robbins C, Mullins M V and Espinosa Y M. 2009. Pragmatic action research with 2 vulnerable populations. Family & Community Health 32(4):320–329. doi:10.1097/fch.0b013e3181b9

According to Saunders et al. (2012), there are three research approaches viz., induction, deduction, and abduction. A brief overview of the research approaches is presented in Table 6.

2.1 In this section I have graphically explained all the three research approaches using flowchart with hypothetical examples. 2.1.1 Inductive approach to research

Suggested reading: Ferguson  K M, Kim M A and McCoy S. 2011. Enhancing empowerment and leadership among homeless youth in agency and community settings: A grounded theory approach. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 28(1):122.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-010-0217-6

2.1.2 Deductive approach to research

Suggested reading: Chia-Pin Yu, Shu Tian Cole and Chancellor Charles. 2018. Resident support for tourism development in rural midwestern (USA) communities: Perceived tourism impacts and community quality of life perspective. Sustainability, MDPI, Open Access Journal 10(3):1-17.

2.1.3 Abductive approach to research

You may find some surprising or incomplete observations or conclusions regarding any social aspect; you wanted to study it both empirically as well as know the subjective opinions of people for better understanding. In this situation, you follow the abduction approach in which your research will combine the elements of both the inductive and deductive approaches. To put it in simple words, in abduction ‘You build a theory and then go for its empirical testing’.

Suggested reading: Bristow A, Robinso S K and Ratle O. 2017. Being an early-career CMS academic in the context of insecurity and ‘Excellence’: The dialectics of resistance and compliance. Organization Studies 38(9):1185–1207.

Research design:  It is the overall plan of a research project which involves three distinct but interrelated aspects. They are: methodological choice, research strategy and time horizon. Let us understand them separately. Sanders et al. (2019) classified research designs into three types: (1) quantitative research design; (2) qualitative research design; and (3) mixed methods research design. I have attempted to develop a schematic explanation for qualitative and quantitative research design (Figures 4 and 5, respectively) for better understanding.

3. METHODOLOGICAL CHOICE

Methodological Choice involves   the selection and use of a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods research design. In the mono method, a single data collection technique is utilized, followed by corresponding qualitative or quantitative analysis procedures. In the multiple method design, more than one data collection techniques and analysis procedures are employed (Collis and Hussey 2013). Alternatively, a mixed-method approach utilizes both qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques and analysis procedures (Creswell 2013).

According to Saunders et al. (2019), mixed method research can be classified into three ways which are as follows:

• Concurrent mixed methods research: Here a researcher collects both qualitative and quantitative data and analyses them in a single phase study.
• Sequential mixed methods research : Here a researcher collects and analyses data in two phases, which can further be divided into two forms:
• sequential exploratory research design: where a researcher collects and analyses qualitative data in the first phase, followed by quantitative data collection and analysis in the second phase;
• sequential explanatory research design: Here a researcher collects and analyses quantitative data in the first phase followed by qualitative data collection and analysis in the second phase.
• Sequential multi-phase: In this a researcher collects and analyses data in more than two phases, in sequence. For example, qualitative followed by quantitative and then qualitative.

4. THE RESEARCH STRATEGY

The research strategy describes how the researcher aims to carry out the work (Saunders  et al . 2007). There are several research strategies, viz., Experimental design, Survey design, Archival research, Case study, Ethnography, Action research, Grounded theory and Narrative inquiry (Saunders  et al. 2012). Here we can include other research strategies appropriate to our study.

• Experimental design : Here, a researcher tries to study a cause-effect relationship between two or more variables. He/she decides to systematically manipulate the independent variable to study the corresponding changes in the dependent variable.
• Survey design:  Here, a researcher tries to seek answers for ‘what’, ‘who’, ‘where’, ‘how much’ and ‘how many’ types of research questions. Data is collected and analyzed from a sample of individuals.
• Case study: is an empirical inquiry of an individual social unit. Here the researcher tries to seek answers for ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions.
• Action research : A systematic inquiry to address real-life practical problems. Here a researcher tries to find practical solutions for problems through participation and collaboration with members of a social unit.
• Grounded theory:  This is a systematic inductive method for conducting qualitative research to develop a theory.
• Ethnography : is a research strategy adopted to explore cultures and societies. Here a researcher collects data through direct interaction and involvement so as to gain firsthand information from research subjects.
• Archival research: A systematic inquiry wherein primary sources held in archives are studied for evidence collection or deep understanding. Here a researcher does not use secondary sources relevant to the research topic.

5. TIME HORIZON

Research can be grouped into two types based on time, i.e., longitudinal or successive independent samples; and cross-sectional (Bryman and Bell 2015). The longitudinal study refers to the study of a phenomenon or a population over a period of time (Caruana et al. 2015). A cross-sectional study is a ‘snap-shot’ study, it means a phenomenon or a cross-section of the population is studied for one time (Setia 2016). Please read the suggested reading given below to understand one of the longest researches in the history of social science research.

Suggested reading: Hastorf A H 1997. Lewis Terman’s longitudinal study of the intellectually gifted: Early research, recent investigations and the future. Gifted and Talented International 12(1):3–7. doi:10.1080/15332276.1997.11672858

6. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 

  The inner circle of research onion is made up of ‘tactics’ which refers to aspects   about the finer details of data collection and analysis. In this section, the following aspects are described.

A. Data collection tools and procedures : Data collection tools such as scale, questionnaire, mail survey, etc., and procedures such as scale construction, interviews, focused group discussion, etc. B. Study Area – A brief description about the study area and why you have selected this locale, supported by reliable data. C. Research population and sampling procedures : Describe the following aspects in this section:

a. Inclusion /exclusion criteria; b. Sample size; c. Sampling method; d. Sampling plan – Flow chart with a table indicating sample details; e. Sourcing samples : Here the researcher has to describe the source of the study samples; it has the following three aspects:

• Source population(N) : This is the group about which the researcher is going to draw inferences and to which the inclusion and exclusion criteria are applied (Example: women farmers of a district – say may be N=1000);
• Study population  (Np): The group which fits the inclusion and exclusion criteria (Example: women farmer growing sunflower, with landholding more than 2 ha and five years of experience, say maybe Np=500);
• Sample (n) : The group selected after following a suitable sampling method, and finally with whom you conduct your study (a representative sample of women sunflower growers sampled from the study population, say maybe n=120).

f.  Sample limitations

D. Study Phases:  describe in how many phases your study will be done (during planning-synopsis) / was done (while reporting in the thesis) if it was done in multiple phases. Explain the list of the tasks using a Gantt chart (Figure 6).

Variables and their measurement:  Describe how the concepts, constructs and the variables were identified; this aspect is linked with the theoretical orientation. Provide the operational definition; it means how the variable is measured, mention the level of measurement also. A schematic table would suffice (for example, see Table 7).

Table 7. List of variables their method of measurement and operational definition

F. Statistical analysis: Mention all the statistics tools applied and software(s) used to analyse the research data (in thesis).

G. Ethical considerations: All the ethical aspects considered in the study need to be clearly planned and mentioned. Mention about respondent consent, how sensitive information (in synopsis) was elicited, if any. Report the approval of Research ethics committees, if applicable.

The difference between a researcher and a non-researcher is, whatever a researcher does she/he does it systematically, justifies logically, subjects it to verification, is always open to criticism, ready for self-correction and explicitly expresses what was done, how it was done, why it was done and what was found. A researcher starts with a research problem, raises questions, and transforms it into workable objectives. To find answers to the research questions, we need a sound research methodology. Research onion is one such framework that helps in designing a robust research methodology; simply put, it will help you to make a series of decisions that allows systematic research. We began with three assumptions, viz., ontological, epistemological and axiological, which constitute our research philosophy. Once we decide on the specific philosophy, an appropriate research approach can be adopted based on the research question and philosophy. The deductive approach is adopted for theory testing, inductive approach for theory building, and abductive approach for theory modification.

Further, these two crucial decisions will guide the next important aspect that is research design, which is made up of three important decisions: 1. Methodological choice – whether to follow a qualitative method, quantitative method or a mixed method; 2. Research strategy; and 3. Time horizon – cross-sectional or longitudinal research. Furthermore, the last decision is about very minute intricacies of research that is data collection, analysis and ethical statement.

Authors’ observation

It is often observed in academic discussions that various aspects of research are presented and (or) perceived to be competitive (quantitative versus qualitative, parametric versus non-parametric, probability sampling versus non-probability sampling, small sample size versus large sample size, experimental design versus non-experimental, cross-sectional versus longitudinal, and so on) rather than complimentary. Every aspect of research has got its own importance and relevance. A research scholar values every logical approach to research, and it is possible only after looking at it through all dimensions via the lenses of different questions (why, what, when, where, who, what).

Acknowledgement

I wish to acknowledge and thank the AESA, CRISP, ICAR-CTCRI, MANAGE, NAARM collaborative National Workshop on ‘Advances in Social and Behavioural Science Research’ held from 12 to 17 November 2018 at ICAR-CTCRI, Kerala. This event was an eye opener for me which oriented me towards social science research methodology, and indirectly helped me in my PhD research.  

Babbie E. 2010. The practice of social research. 12th Edition. Belmont, USA: Wadsworth.

Bristow A, Robinson S K and Ratle O. 2017.Being an early career CMS academic in the context of insecurity and ‘Excellence’: The dialectics of resistance and compliance’. Organization Studies 38(9):1185–1207.

Bryman A and Bell E. 2015. Business research methods Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Burrell G and Morgan G. 2016. Sociological paradigms and organisational analysis. Abingdon: Routledge (originally published by Heinemann 1979).

Caruana E J, Marius Roman, Jules Hernández-Sánchez and Piergiorgio Soll. 2015. Longitudinal studies. Journal of Thoracic Disease 7(11):537–540. doi: 10.3978/j.issn.2072-1439.2015.10.63. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4669300/

Chen Y Y, Shek D T L and Bu F F. 2011. Applications of interpretive and constructionist research methods in adolescent research: Philosophy, principles and examples. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health 23(2).  doi:10.1515/ijamh.2011.022  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21870675/

Chia-Pin Yu, Shu Tian Cole and Charles Chancellor.2018. Resident support for tourism development in rural midwestern (USA) communities: Perceived tourism impacts and community quality of life perspective. Sustainability, MDPI, Open Access Journal 10(3):1-17.

Crist J D, Parsons M L, Warner-Robbins C, Mullins M V and Espinosa Y M. 2009. Pragmatic action research with 2 vulnerable populations. Family & Community Health 32(4):320–329. doi:10.1097/fch.0b013e3181b91f

Crotty M. 1998. The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process. London: Sage.

Collis J and Hussey R. 2013. Business research: A practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students. Macmillan International Higher Education.

Creswell J W. 2013. Qualitative inquiry & research design; choosing among five approaches. Third edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ferguson K M, Kim M A and  McCoy S. 2011. Enhancing empowerment and leadership among homeless youth in agency and community settings: A grounded theory approach. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 28(1):1-22.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-010-0217-6

Hastorf A H. 1997. Lewis Terman’s longitudinal study of the intellectually gifted: Early research, recent investigations and the future. Gifted and Talented International 12(1):3–7. doi:10.1080/15332276.1997.11672858

Saunders M, Lewis P and Thornhill A. 2007. Research methods for business students. (6th ed.) London: Pearson.

Saunders M, Lewis P and Thornhill A. 2019. Research methods for business students. Eighth edition. London: Pearson.

Setia M S. 2016. Methodology series module 3: Cross-sectional studies. Indian Journal of Dermatology 61:261-4. Retrieved from  http://www.e-ijd.org/text.asp?2016/61/3/261/182410

Thomas Houghton. 2011.Does positivism really ‘work’ in the social sciences? Link: https://www.e-ir.info/2011/09/26/does-positivism-really %E2%80%98work%E2%80%99-in-the-social-sciences/

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Cancel reply.

Very interesting blog. Enjoyed reading it. I do have a small difference of with respect to one of the statements. Author says ‘you need not be apologetic in saying that sample was small or methods limit interpretation’. I am a firm believer of transparent communication and I feel that it is the role of a researcher to know the limits of the study and also communicate it to the readers, and there is nothing to be apologetic about it (Bsically I disagree with the term too). Infact I see many paper where they make very strong causal statements, when the methods are not really designed for it which I see as a more serious concern. This is my humble opinion, as academician I really enjoyed the blog. I appreciate the efforts of the author in elaborating on a very Important topic.

Thank you Aditya, thank you for your observations and. The very purpose of this blog was to make things systematic and clear. Yes the author strongly believe in reporting every aspect of the research including limitations provided they are indeed limiting the research design. Here the author is trying to state that when the research design demands or permits certain conditions those conditions should not be expressed as limitations, and it doesn’t imply any aspect should be hidden. I welcome your disagreements in the usage of words, we can disagree to agree. I strongly agree with you that even I enjoyed working on this blog. Thank you once again.

Well written.

Very comprehensively covering different paradigms in research methodology, with interesting analogy, Dr Mahesh could peel out research onion, explaining each layer starting from research philosophy to the data collection. Congratulations to Dr Mahesh. Further one important inner layer could be added to the onion, which would make it complete-the layer of research reporting/research communication. Unless we plan how we are going to communicate our research to the others, and communicate effectively through research paper, conference etc., research remains incomplete.

Very Good effort to write the blog to make research methodology easy to understand, Dear Mahesh , I enjoyed reading it

Saunders Research Onion: A Guide To Building Research Methodology Chapter For Master’s And PhD Students

by bookmyphdeditor.com | Jan 17, 2023 | PhD | 0 comments

As a Master’s or PhD student, one of the most critical components of your research project is the methodology chapter. This section of your thesis outlines the framework you’ll use to answer your research question or hypothesis. One useful tool to help you structure your methodology chapter is the Saunders Research Onion.

Developed by Professor Mark Saunders, the Saunders Research Onion is a unique and versatile research framework that can help guide you through the process of conducting and reporting research. In this article, we’ll take a closer look at the Saunders Research Onion and show you how to use it to structure your methodology chapter.

What is the Saunders Research Onion?

The Saunders Research Onion is a multi-layered model that depicts the various stages involved in conducting research. The onion model features six layers, with each layer representing a different aspect of the research process. The layers of the onion model include:

• Research Philosophies
• Research Approaches
• Research Strategies
• Research Choices
• Time Horizons
• Techniques and Procedures (Data Collection and Data Analysis Methods)

Each layer builds on the previous one and helps to clarify and refine the research process. By using the Saunders Research Onion, you can create a structured and logical approach to conducting and reporting your research.

The first layer of the Saunders Research Onion is the Research Philosophy layer, which is an essential aspect of research methodology. It is concerned with the underlying assumptions and beliefs that guide the research process. This layer comprises three sub-layers: Epistemology, Ontology, and Axiology.

Epistemology is concerned with the nature of knowledge and how it can be acquired. The three dominant paradigms within epistemology are Positivism, Realism, and Interpretivism. Positivism holds that knowledge can only be gained through empirical observation and scientific methods. Realism posits that there is an objective reality that exists independently of the observer, and that knowledge can be acquired through direct observation of this reality. Interpretivism, on the other hand, suggests that reality is subjective and that knowledge is acquired through interpretation and understanding of the social world.

Ontology , the second sub-layer of research philosophy, is concerned with the nature of reality and the assumptions that underpin it. There are three dominant paradigms within ontology, namely Objectivism, Constructivism, and Pragmatism. Objectivism posits that there is a single objective reality that exists independently of the observer. Constructivism suggests that reality is socially constructed and that it is shaped by the individual’s experiences and interactions with the world. Pragmatism posits that reality is constructed through the individual’s experiences and interactions with the world, and that the truth is relative to the context in which it is defined.

The third sub-layer of Research Philosophy is Axiology , which is concerned with the values and ethical considerations that guide the research process. It includes considerations such as ethical principles, cultural values, and political beliefs. Axiology is essential to ensure that the research is conducted in a manner that is ethical and reflects the values of the research community.

It is crucial for researchers to understand the different paradigms within epistemology and ontology, as well as the ethical considerations within axiology. This understanding helps researchers to select an appropriate research methodology that is aligned with their research question and objectives. Moreover, this understanding enables researchers to critically evaluate existing literature and to select appropriate research methods for their studies.

The research approach you choose will depend on your research question and the nature of your research problem. Saunders Research Onion identifies two main research approaches – deductive and inductive.

Deductive approach : In the deductive approach, researchers start with a theory and then test it through empirical data collection. The researcher will develop a hypothesis and then collect data to confirm or refute the hypothesis. This approach is commonly used in quantitative research.

Inductive approach : The inductive approach, on the other hand, is where the researcher starts with a set of observations or data and then tries to develop a theory or explanation based on the patterns that emerge. This approach is common in qualitative research.

Research strategies refer to the specific techniques or methods used to collect and analyze data. Saunders Research Onion identifies several research strategies:

Experiment: In an experiment, the researcher manipulates one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable. This research strategy is typically used in laboratory settings.

Survey: In a survey, the researcher collects data from a sample of participants using questionnaires, interviews, or online surveys. This strategy is commonly used in social sciences and business research.

Case Study: In a case study, the researcher analyzes a specific case or phenomenon in depth, usually using multiple sources of data, such as interviews, documents, and observations. This strategy is commonly used in social sciences and business research.

Action research: In action research, the researcher collaborates with a group of participants to identify and solve a problem or improve a situation. This strategy is commonly used in organizational and educational research.

Grounded Theory: In grounded theory, the researcher develops a theory or explanation based on the patterns and themes that emerge from the data. This strategy is commonly used in qualitative research.

Ethnography: In ethnography, the researcher studies a particular culture or community in depth by collecting data through interviews, observations, and other sources. This strategy is commonly used in social sciences and anthropology.

Archival Research: In archival research, the researcher collects data from existing sources, such as historical documents, government records, or organizational archives. This strategy is commonly used in historical and legal research.

Research choices refer to the decision of the researcher to use a single method, multiple methods, or mixed methods in their research. Saunders Research Onion identifies three research choices:

Mono method: In mono-method research, the researcher uses a single research method, either qualitative or quantitative, to collect and analyze data.

Multi-method: In multi-method research, the researcher uses multiple research methods, either qualitative or quantitative, to collect and analyze data.

Mixed-method: In mixed-method research, the researcher uses both qualitative and quantitative methods to collect and analyze data.

Time horizons refer to the duration of time over which data is collected. Saunders Research Onion identifies two types of time horizons:

Cross-sectional: In cross-sectional research, the researcher collects data at a single point in time.

Longitudinal: In longitudinal research, the researcher collects data over an extended period of time, often through repeated measurements or observations.

• Techniques and Procedures – Data Collection and Data Analysis

Data collection and data analysis are critical components of research methodology, and they are also a part of the sixth layer of the Saunders Research Onion model. Techniques and procedures used for data collection and analysis will depend on the research approach, strategy, and time horizon selected by the researcher.

There are various data collection methods, including surveys, interviews, focus groups, observation, and experiments. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses, and the researcher must choose the most appropriate method based on the research objectives and the nature of the research question. It is also essential to consider ethical issues related to data collection, such as obtaining informed consent, maintaining confidentiality, and protecting participants from harm.

Data analysis techniques are also crucial for research methodology, and they can be broadly divided into two categories: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative data analysis involves analyzing data in a non-numerical form, such as text, images, or videos. Common techniques for qualitative data analysis include content analysis, thematic analysis, and discourse analysis.

Quantitative data analysis, on the other hand, involves analyzing numerical data using statistical techniques. Common techniques for quantitative data analysis include descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and regression analysis. It is important to choose the appropriate data analysis technique based on the type of data collected and the research question.

The Saunders Research Onion model is a valuable tool for structuring the research methodology chapter of a PhD thesis or Master-level dissertation. The model provides a step-by-step approach to research methodology, starting with the research philosophy and ending with the techniques and procedures for data collection and analysis. By using the model, researchers can ensure that their research methodology chapter is comprehensive, well-structured, and logically organized.

It is important to note that while the Saunders Research Onion model provides a useful framework for research methodology, it is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Researchers must carefully consider their research objectives, research question, and other contextual factors when selecting the appropriate research philosophy, approach, strategy, time horizon, and data collection and analysis techniques.

A t Book My PhD Editor , we understand the importance of a well-written and well-structured research methodology chapter. Our team of experienced editors and proofreaders can help you to ensure that your research methodology chapter is clear, concise, and error-free. We also offer data analysis services to help you analyze your research data using the appropriate techniques. Contact us today at [email protected] to learn more about our services and how we can help you with your research methodology chapter.

Bonus Tip for Scholars:

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The Layers of Research Design

2012, The Layers of Research Design

Within this article we use the metaphor of the “Research Onion” (Saunders et al., 2012: 128) to illustrate how these final elements (the core of the research onion) need to be considered in relation to other design elements (the outer layers of the research onion). It is the researcher’s understandings and associated decisions in relation to these outer layers that provide the context and boundaries within which data collection techniques and analysis procedures will be selected. Please note, this is the published version and has been uploaded with permission from Karen Moxom (ANLP) Please note, with Pearson's permission I have uploaded the proofs of chapter 4 for the 7th edition of Research Methods for Business Students (published in August 2015) to academia.edu. This contains the latest version of the research onionademia.edu. The direct link is: https://www.academia.edu/13016419/Research_Methods_for_Business_Students_Chapter_4_Understanding_research_philosophy_and_approaches_to_theory_development_

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After many years of working with undergraduate, postgraduate and research students we recognise only too well the struggles that they often experience wrestling with the somewhat strange and seemingly obtuse language used to describe research philosophy. We once experienced similar difficulties and empathise with the confusion and lack of confidence that flows from being unclear whether you have really understood terms such as methodology, ontology or epistemology. We set out to produce a text that dealt with two problems. The first was to provide something that guides novice researchers through the whole process from identifying a topic to the writing up of findings via engagement with the literature and a brief overview of both qualitative and quantitative techniques. The second problem we wanted to tackle related to what we often refer to as ‘the ologies’. Here we wanted to offer a structured approach to familiarising yourself with the terminology and to demonstrate how a nested set of descriptions builds towards a coherent, comprehensive and consistent articulation of your research paradigm. We are indebted to our colleagues for their help in delivering on the first of these two problems in the first edition of the book. This was achieved at a pace which seemed frankly ridiculous but which produced a remarkably coherent guide for novice researchers. Despite positive feedback on many aspects of the first edition from both students and colleagues, we were however convinced that we could improve in relation to ‘the ologies’. For this reason, the second edition features some relatively minor changes to many chapters and a complete rewrite of our account of research philosophy. Central to the revised text is the methods map (see Chapter 4), which sets out a logical process for researchers to articulate their position in relation to five key aspects of their research philosophy. We have road tested this approach with many colleagues and students to ensure that it is clear and concise. In addition, we have developed a free app to accompany the book and this enables novice researcher to quickly develop a comprehensive justification of their particular research design in an interactive way. We would acknowledge that the methods map makes some simplifications and would suggest that for all but the most sophisticated of purposes, this is entirely appropriate. Indeed, if you are well enough versed in the philosophical nuances of knowledge explored in the method map then you are probably not part of our intended audience since you already possess the skills, confidence and capacity to articulate and defend the underpinning philosophical assumptions of your research. For everyone else, we hope that the second edition of Research Methods for Business and Management helps demystify the dreaded ‘ologies’.

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A research turns out to be successful if a suitable research design has been incorporated. Research design is a blueprint adopted by a researcher before data collection begins and it acts as a guide to achieving the research objective in a valid way. A suitable research design guides the researcher in translating a research problem into data for analysis so as to provide relevant answers to research questions at a minimum cost. This paper highlights what research design is, the different kinds of research design and shows the dilemmas a researcher faces in choosing a suitable research design and how the researcher can choose an appropriate research design for his study. This review paper will make use of secondary data to explain the different types of research design. This study reveals that choice of a research design is guided by a careful analysis of: statement of the problem, research questions, conceptual or theoretical framework and analyzing the relevant literature.

Research Methods for Business Students

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This is the proof copy of the Preface, Contents pages and Chapter 4 from the 9th edition, published in March 2023. It is uploaded with full permission from Pearson. The chapter introduces the research onion, defines ontology, epistemology and axiology, and explain their relevance to business research; explains the main research paradigms that are significant for business research; explains the relevance for business research of philosophical positions of positivism, critical realism, interpretivism, postmodernism and pragmatism; helps you reflect on and articulate your own philosophical position in relation to your research; Discusses and explains deductive, inductive, and abductive approaches to theory development. It also contains a tool developed by Alexandra Bristow and Mark Saunders called 'HARP' that will help you diagnose your own research philosophy.

Dagobert Soergel

Introductory note on scope and limitations: • The classification is focused on social and behavioral sciences, but the principles are general. • It is a resource for students in a one-semester course in research methods (for many the only course in research methods they will take), so it is selective rather than encyclopedic. • It started out as a guide through Wildemuth 2017 Application of social research methods to questions in Information and Library Science t. So the selection of topics included in parts 3 - 5 largely follows Wildemuth; the topic sequence is different. • There are many definitions, explanations, and/or examples, some from me ({DS}), others assembled from many sources given in {} (see list at the end); source tracking is not complete. Annotations represent different perspectives with some disagreement and some repetition. • While independence of dimensions is desirable, reality is not so simple. Two dimensions may look at the same conceptual distinction from different perspectives or overlap in other ways. • Distinction are rarely dichotomous but rather the two ends of a continuum. • Research, research design, and (research) study are used somewhat interchangeably, with word choice depending on context. Wildemuth chapters are indicated by ● , e.g., ●Quasi-experimental Studies. W-Ch. 11, p. 91 – 102 Tip: To find a concept number, search for the number followed by a space

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The research onion.

The Research Onion model, developed by Saunders et al., is a framework that outlines the stages and layers involved in the development of a research methodology. Here’s a detailed table with sections, subsections, and sub-subsections of the Research Onion, along with expanded explanatory notes:

This table outlines the Research Onion model, detailing the stages and layers of research methodology, from philosophy and approach to strategies, choices, time horizons, techniques, ethical considerations, and validity/reliability concerns.

The research onion is a valuable tool for researchers, particularly those formulating a research methodology for a dissertation, thesis, or any other formal research project. Developed by Saunders et al. in 2007, it offers a systematic approach to designing a robust methodology by guiding you through a series of decisions.

Here’s an in-depth breakdown of the research onion’s layers, moving from the outermost layer inwards:

1. Research Philosophy: This layer forms the foundation, representing the underlying beliefs about the nature of knowledge and reality that inform your research. Here, you grapple with fundamental questions like:

• What is the nature of reality? (Positivism: single, objective reality. Interpretivism: multiple, subjective realities)
• How can we acquire knowledge? (Positivism: through observation and testing. Interpretivism: through interpretation and understanding)

2. Research Approach: Based on your chosen philosophy, you’ll adopt a broader research approach. There are three main options:

• Deductive Approach:  This method starts with existing theories and aims to test or refine them through hypothesis testing and experiments. It aligns well with a positivist philosophy.
• Inductive Approach:  This approach seeks to develop new theories or understandings through observation and data collection. It goes hand-in-hand with an interpretivist philosophy.
• Abductive Approach:  This approach combines elements of deduction and induction. It starts with observations, then uses existing theories to develop new explanations and then tests those explanations.

3. Research Strategies: Here, you delve deeper into how you’ll actually conduct your research. This layer encompasses various strategies like:

• Experiments:  Manipulating variables to observe cause-and-effect relationships (often used in deductive approaches)
• Surveys:  Collecting data from a large sample of participants through questionnaires (can be used in both deductive and inductive approaches)
• Case Studies:  In-depth investigations of a single person, group, or event (often used in inductive approaches)
• Action Research:  Conducting research while implementing changes and reflecting on the outcomes (often used in a pragmatic philosophy)

4. Choices/Techniques and Procedures: Within your chosen strategy, you’ll need to specify the specific techniques and procedures for data collection and analysis. This layer might involve decisions like:

• Sample Selection:  How will you choose participants for your study?
• Data Collection Methods:  Interviews, surveys, observations, etc.
• Data Analysis Techniques:  Statistical analysis, thematic analysis, etc.

5. Time Horizon: This layer considers the timeframe of your research. Will it be:

• Cross-sectional:  Data collected at a single point in time.
• Longitudinal:  Data collected repeatedly over time to examine changes.

Benefits of the Research Onion:

• Systematic Approach:  It guides you through a logical sequence of decisions, ensuring a well-considered methodology.
• Holistic View:  It encourages you to consider all the interconnected elements of your research design.
• Improved Research Quality:  By carefully considering each layer, you lay the groundwork for a strong and credible research project.

In Conclusion:

The research onion is a powerful tool for researchers of all disciplines. By working through its layers, you can develop a robust and well-structured research methodology that effectively addresses your research questions.

Also, from another source:

“The Research Onion” is a conceptual framework proposed by Saunders et al. (2012) in their book “Research Methods for Business Students.” It provides a systematic approach to understanding the layers involved in conducting research, with each layer representing a different aspect or stage of the research process. The metaphor of an onion is used to depict the layers of complexity involved in research, where each layer needs to be peeled back to reveal deeper insights. Elaborating extensively on the research onion involves delving into its various layers and their significance in the research process:

• Philosophy : At the core of the research onion lies the philosophical stance or worldview adopted by the researcher. This includes ontological (nature of reality), epistemological (nature of knowledge), and methodological (methods of inquiry) considerations. Researchers may align with positivism, interpretivism, or critical realism, depending on their beliefs about the nature of reality and how knowledge is constructed.
• Approach : The second layer involves choosing a research approach that best fits the philosophical stance. This could be deductive (testing hypotheses derived from existing theory) or inductive (generating theory from empirical observations). The approach also encompasses the overall strategy for conducting research, such as experiments, surveys, case studies, or ethnography.
• Strategy : Within the approach layer, researchers must decide on a specific research strategy that outlines the overall plan for data collection and analysis. Common strategies include experiments, surveys, case studies, action research, and grounded theory. Each strategy has its own strengths, weaknesses, and suitability for different research contexts.
• Choices : This layer involves making decisions regarding the research design, data collection methods, and sampling techniques. Researchers must determine the most appropriate design (e.g., cross-sectional, longitudinal) and select suitable data collection methods (e.g., interviews, questionnaires, observations). Sampling decisions involve selecting the participants or cases that will be included in the study, considering factors such as representativeness, accessibility, and relevance to the research objectives.
• Time Horizons : Time horizons refer to the timeframe over which data is collected and analyzed. Research can be cross-sectional (data collected at a single point in time), longitudinal (data collected over an extended period), or a combination of both. The choice of time horizons depends on the research objectives, the nature of the phenomenon under study, and practical considerations such as resource constraints.
• Techniques : The outermost layer of the research onion involves the selection of specific data analysis techniques. This includes qualitative techniques such as thematic analysis, content analysis, and grounded theory, as well as quantitative techniques such as descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and regression analysis. The choice of techniques depends on the nature of the data collected, the research questions, and the overall research design.

Each layer of the research onion is interconnected, with decisions made at one layer influencing choices at subsequent layers. By systematically peeling back the layers of the onion, researchers can design and conduct rigorous and methodologically sound research studies that contribute to knowledge in their respective fields. The research onion serves as a valuable tool for guiding researchers through the complexities of the research process and ensuring that their studies are theoretically grounded, methodologically robust, and capable of generating meaningful insights.

The research onion is a conceptual framework that provides a systematic and structured approach to conducting research. It was developed by Saunders et al. (2012) and is commonly used in social science research. The research onion consists of multiple layers, each representing a different aspect of the research process. This model helps researchers understand and plan the various stages involved in conducting a study. Let’s explore the layers of the research onion in exemplary detail:

• Research Philosophy: The outermost layer of the research onion is the research philosophy. It represents the researcher’s worldview and the overall approach to knowledge and understanding. There are three main research philosophies:a. Positivism: This philosophy assumes that reality is objective and can be measured and observed. Positivist research aims to discover universal laws and generalizations through a systematic and scientific approach.b. Interpretivism: Interpretivism emphasizes the subjective nature of reality and focuses on understanding and interpreting human experiences and meanings. Researchers adopting this philosophy use qualitative methods to explore the complexity and contextuality of social phenomena.c. Pragmatism: Pragmatism combines elements of both positivism and interpretivism. It acknowledges the importance of both objectivity and subjectivity and employs a mixed-methods approach to answer research questions.
• Research Approach: The second layer of the research onion is the research approach. It determines the overall strategy for collecting and analyzing data. Two main research approaches are commonly used:a. Deductive Approach: In the deductive approach, researchers start with a theory or hypothesis and test it through data collection and analysis. This approach involves the formulation of specific research questions and the use of quantitative methods.b. Inductive Approach: The inductive approach involves collecting data first and then developing theories or explanations based on the analysis of the data. This approach is commonly associated with qualitative research, where researchers aim to generate new insights and theories.
• Research Strategy: The research strategy layer of the onion involves decisions about the overall design and structure of the study. Different research strategies include:a. Experiment: The experimental strategy involves manipulating variables and measuring their effects on the dependent variable(s). It allows researchers to establish causality and control over the research environment.b. Survey: Surveys involve collecting data from a large sample using questionnaires or structured interviews. This strategy aims to gather information about attitudes, opinions, or behaviors from a broader population.c. Case Study: The case study strategy focuses on a detailed examination of a particular individual, group, or organization. It provides an in-depth understanding of a specific context and allows for rich qualitative data collection.d. Ethnography: Ethnography is an observational research strategy that involves immersing the researcher in the social setting being studied. Researchers aim to understand the culture, behaviors, and interactions within a specific group or community.
• Time Horizon: The time horizon layer of the research onion refers to the researcher’s decisions about the duration and scope of the study. Two main time horizons are considered:a. Cross-sectional: Cross-sectional studies collect data at a specific point in time. They provide a snapshot of a particular phenomenon at a given moment.b. Longitudinal: Longitudinal studies involve collecting data over an extended period. They allow researchers to observe changes, trends, and developments over time.
• Data Collection Methods: The data collection methods layer includes decisions about how to collect data. There are various data collection methods, including:a. Interviews: Interviews involve direct interaction between the researcher and participants to gather information and insights. They can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.b. Questionnaires: Questionnaires are structured sets of questions administered to participants. They can be self-administered (paper-based or online) or conducted through interviews.c. Observations: Observational methods involve the systematic recording and interpretation of behaviors, interactions, or phenomena in their natural settings.d. Document Analysis: Document analysis involves the examination and interpretation of existing documents, such as official records, reports, or historical data.
• Data Analysis: The data analysis layer focuses on how collected data will be analyzed to answer research questions. Different approaches to data analysis include:a. Quantitative Analysis: Quantitative analysis involves the use of statistical techniques to analyze numerical data collected through surveys or experiments. It aims to identify patterns, relationships, and statistical significance.b. Qualitative Analysis: Qualitative analysis involves the interpretation and thematic analysis of textual or visual data collected through interviews, observations, or documents. It aims to uncover meanings, themes, and patterns in the data.c. Mixed-Methods Analysis: Mixed-methods analysis combines quantitative and qualitative techniques to analyze data from different sources. It allows researchers to triangulate findings and gain a comprehensive understanding of the research problem.

Each layer of the research onion builds upon the previous one, providing a systematic and structured framework for conducting research. Researchers can make informed decisions at each layer based on the nature of their research questions, the context of their study,and the resources available to them. The research onion helps researchers navigate the complexities of the research process and ensures that all relevant aspects are considered and addressed. By following the layers of the research onion, researchers can conduct rigorous and methodologically sound studies that contribute to knowledge and understanding in their respective fields.

In conclusion, the research onion provides a comprehensive framework for conducting research. It encompasses various aspects of the research process, including research philosophy, approach, strategy, time horizon, data collection methods, and data analysis. By considering each layer of the onion, researchers can design and execute studies that are robust, reliable, and aligned with the research objectives. The research onion serves as a guide for researchers, helping them make informed decisions at each stage of the research process and ensuring the integrity and quality of their work.

Here is a step-by-step guide to conducting research using the Research Onion model, starting from the outer layer and moving to the inner layers, with expanded explanatory notes for each step.

Step-by-Step Guide Using the Research Onion Model

Expanded Explanatory Notes

• Positivism : Objective, measurable reality. Focus on facts and observable phenomena.
• Interpretivism : Subjective interpretation. Understanding meaning in social phenomena.
• Direct Realism : Reality as it is observed.
• Critical Realism : Reality is influenced by social and cultural factors.
• Pragmatism : Practical outcomes, integrating both positivist and interpretivist approaches as needed.
• Deductive : Hypothesis testing, typically quantitative.
• Inductive : Theory development from data, typically qualitative.
• Abductive : Best possible explanation from incomplete observations.
• Experiment : Manipulating variables to determine cause and effect.
• Survey : Collecting data through questionnaires or interviews.
• Case Study : In-depth investigation of a single case or few cases.
• Action Research : Collaborative problem-solving and evaluation.
• Grounded Theory : Developing theories from data.
• Ethnography : Immersive study of cultural or social groups.
• Archival Research : Using existing records and documents.
• Mono-Method : Single research method.
• Mixed-Method : Combining qualitative and quantitative methods.
• Multi-Method : Multiple methods of the same type.
• Cross-Sectional : Single point in time.
• Longitudinal : Extended period, observing changes over time.
• Data Collection Methods : Interviews, questionnaires, observations, document analysis.
• Quantitative : Statistical techniques.
• Qualitative : Thematic or content analysis.
• Mixed Methods : Integration of quantitative and qualitative analysis.
• Informed Consent : Participants are fully aware and agree to participate.
• Confidentiality : Protecting participants’ privacy.
• Transparency : Openness and honesty in research.
• Avoidance of Harm : Ensuring no harm comes to participants.
• Internal Validity : Accuracy of measurements within the study.
• External Validity : Generalizability of findings.
• Reliability : Consistency and dependability of findings.
• Triangulation : Using multiple data sources, methods, or theories to cross-verify findings.
• Implement your planned methods for data collection and analysis while adhering to ethical standards.
• Analyze data and draw conclusions based on your research approach, comparing findings with hypotheses or developing new theories.
• Write a detailed report or dissertation, and share your findings through publications, presentations, or reports.

This guide outlines each step of the research process using the Research Onion model, providing detailed explanations for each layer to help structure and conduct thorough and rigorous research.

Analysis of Saunders Research Onion

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1.0       introduction to saunders research onions.

The Saunders Research onion illustrates the stages involved in the development of a research work and was developed by Saunders et al, (2007). In other words, the onion layers give a more detailed description of the stages of a research process. It provides an effective progression through which a research methodology can be designed. Its usefulness lies in its adaptability for almost any type of research methodology and can be used in a variety of contexts (Bryman, 2012). Saunders et al (2012) noted that while using research onion one has to go from the outer layer to the inner layer. When viewed from the outside, each layer of the onion describes a more detailed stage of the research process (Saunders et al., 2007). Saunders et al sees research process as unwrapping of an onion layer by layer, for the inner layer to be seen the outer layer must be unwrapped first. For a goal to be achieved the right steps must be taken accordingly, this applies in research, cover one step first before proceeding to another.

1.1       The Layers of the Saunders research onions

The approach taken in using the research onion framework is to go from the outer layer to the inner layer of the research onion.

The outermost layer is the research philosophy which sets the stage for the research process and defines the method which is adopted as the research approach in the second step. In the third step, the research strategy is adopted, and the fourth layer identifies the time horizon.

The fifth step represents the stage at which the data collection methodology is identified. The benefits of the research onion are thus that it creates a series of stages under which the different methods of data collection can be understood, and illustrates the steps by which a methodological study can be described.

The Saunders research onion stages include:

• Research philosophy
• Research Approach
• Research strategies
• Research Choice
• Research time horizon

1.2       Philosophy to Saunders research onions

A research philosophy refers to the set of beliefs concerning the nature of the reality being investigated (Bryman, 2012). It is the underlying definition of the nature of knowledge. Also, Research philosophies can differ on the goals of research and on the best way that might be used to achieve these goals (Goddard & Melville, 2004). These are not necessarily different, but the choice of research philosophy is defined by the type of knowledge being investigated in the research project (May, 2011).

There are three main philosophies that are significant in the research process.

Ontology – ontology is more or less the study of reality. It describes the nature of reality; what comes to mind when conducting the research and what relational impact does it possess on the society and surroundings. Ontology clears the difference between reality and how you perceive reality. Furthermore, it makes you learn how it influences the behavior of the people. Mainly, three philosophical positions come under the ontological worldview. Those are objectivism, constructivism and pragmatism. Goddard & Melville (2004) noted that it helps one to know how reality actually is and the effect it has on our environment and people living in the environment. Ontology differentiates the actually reality and how one sees reality . Ontology includes ; objectivism, constructivism and pragmatism. Objectivism makes you know a social event and the different meaning that different people attach to it. It differentiates the impact of social phenomena of different people. Constructivism proposes that it is people that create social phenomena; it is the opposite of objectivism. Pragmatism uses theories to identify a solution of a given issue. When compared with others it is relatively new, it is an alternative to others

Epistemology –  Epistemology is mostly used in scientific research and it is like that because it helps you in finding the information that you can prove without a doubt; in other words, it tries to find the common acceptable knowledge and address the facts accordingly. Here, you have to define the acceptable knowledge about the field of your research and give information on results after rigorous testing. Positivism, critical realism and interpretivism are the philosophical positions under the epistemology worldview.

Bryman (2012) noted that epistemology includes; positivism, realism and interpretivism. Positivism uses research question that can be tested. It helps you find explanation by using the generally accepted knowledge of the people. Realism allows one to use new methods of research. For you to know reality you have to carry out research first. It is similar to positivism, the difference is that realism does not support scientific method while positivism does. Interpretivism assists you to interpret how people see their action and others’ own. It helps to understand people’s culture and their participation in social life.

Axiology – Axiology helps you learn how valuables and opinions impact the collection and analysis of your research. Silverman (2013) noted that it make one understand the impact that peoples opinion have on collecting and analysing of research. It helps you to understand that people’s opinion maters a lot while carrying out a research.

1.2.1    Objectivism, Constructivism and Positivism

Objectivism makes you aware of a social phenomenon and their different meanings and influences these phenomena have on their actors. On the other hand, constructivism rather defers that social actors are responsible in creating a phenomenon. Conversely, constructivism suggests that the inherent meaning of social phenomena is created by each observer or group (Östlund et al, 2011). In this philosophy, one can never presume that what is observed is interpreted in the same way between participants and the key approach is to examine differences and nuances in the respondents understanding.

Positivism comes up with research questions and hypothesis that can be evaluated and analyzed. Common knowledge of the world can be measured and explained using Positivism. An example of it is the law of gravity.

Despite the inherent differences between these philosophical practices, one philosophy is not inherently better than the other, although researchers may favor one over the other (Podsakoffet al., 2012). The philosophy simply provides the justification for the research methodology. The methodology should be informed by the nature of the phenomena being observed.

1.3       Approach to Saunders research onions

Deductive and inductive are the two terms that the second layer of the research onion includes. Here, the previous layer of the onion has an effect on this one so it is important to know the research aim and its limitations.

1.3.1    The Deductive Approach

The deductive approach develops the hypothesis or hypotheses upon a pre-existing theory and then formulates the research approach to test it (Silverman, 2013). The deductive approach can be considered particularly suited to the positivist approach, which permits the formulation of hypotheses and the statistical testing of expected results to an accepted level of probability (Snieder & Larner, 2009). It is characterized as the development from general to particular: the general theory and knowledge base is first established and the specific knowledge gained from the research process is then tested against it (Kothari, 2004). However, a deductive approach may also be used with qualitative research techniques, though in such cases the expectations formed by pre-existing research would be formulated differently than through hypothesis testing (Saunders et al., 2007). Deductive approach uses questionnaire to create understanding of observation which allows you to compare different understanding of the people through empirical data. The data gathered helps to confirm or reject the question, the process can be repeated.

1.3.2    The Inductive

The inductive approach allows for you to create a theory rather than adopt a pre-existing one as in the deductive. This clearly outlines the difference in the two approaches. The inductive approach is characterized as a move from the specific to the general (Bryman & Bell, 2011). In this approach, there is no framework that initially informs the data collection and the research focus can thus be formed after the data has been collected (Flick, 2011). Although this may be seen as the point at which new theories are generated, it is also true that as the data is analyzed that it may be found to fit into an existing theory (Bryman & Bell, 2011). This method is commonly used for qualitative research. Interviews are carried out concerning specific phenomena and then the data may be examined for patterns between respondents (Flick, 2011). However, this approach may also be used effectively within positivist methodologies, where the data is analyzed first and significant patterns are used to inform the generation of results.

1.4       Strategies to Saunders research onions

The research strategy describes how the researcher intends to carry out the work (Saunders et al., 2007). The strategy can include a number of different approaches, such as experimental research, action research, case study research, interviews, surveys, or a systematic literature review.

1.4.1    experimental

Experimental research refers to the strategy of creating a research process that examines the results of an experiment against the expected results. It can be used in all areas of research, and usually involves the consideration of a relatively limited number of factors (Saunders et al., 2007).

1.4.2    Survey

Survey strategy of the research onion is often linked with the deductive approach. It is one of the finest and economical research strategy. You can collect rich and reliable data through this method. Surveys tend to be used in quantitative research projects, and involve sampling a representative proportion of the population (Bryman & Bell, 2011). The Survey strategy is mostly used to observe contributing variables among different data. It permits the collection of vast data that will be used to answer the research question.

1.4.3    Case Study

This strategy is focused on a one or more people or a single area. It can offer an insight into the specific nature of any example, and can establish the importance of culture and context in differences between cases (Silverman, 2013). This strategy is more useful in financial research. Case study research is the assessment of a single unit in order to establish its key features and draw generalizations (Bryman, 2012). This form of research is effective in financial research, such as comparing the experiences of two companies, or comparing the effect of investment in difference contexts.

1.4.4 Action research; This form of research is common in professions such as teaching or nursing, where the practitioner can assess ways in which they can improve their professional approach and understanding (Wiles et al., 2011). This strategy is used mainly to find the solution that can be used to solve a certain problem.

1.5       Choice to Saunders research onions

This is the fourth layer of the research onion, it is also known as research choice. This layer helps you to know whether it is fine to combine both quantitative and qualitative methodology or to use only one methodology. According to Saunders et al (2007), there are three outlined choices in the research onion that includes the Mono, Mixed and Multi method research choice or approach.

Mono method; when using this method you are required to gather one type of information; that is using either quantitative or qualitative methodology. You cannot combine the two.

Mixed method; this method permits one to combine quantitative and qualitative methodology in a research to create a precise set of data. According to (Flick, 2011), the mixed method combines methods to create a single dataset while the multi method is used where the research is divided into segments; with each producing a specific data set.

Multi-method; this method is similar with the mixed method because the two combines quantitative and qualitative methodology in a study. Although they are similar but still have their differences. While mixed method combines methodology to establish particular set of data, multi-method does not.

1.6       Time Horizon to Saunders research onions

The time horizon describes the required time for the completion of the project work. wo types of time horizons are specified within the research onion: the cross sectional and the longitudinal (Bryman, 2012).

1.6.1    Cross Sectional

The cross sectional time horizon is the one already established, whereby the data must be collected. This is used when the investigation is concerned with the study of a particular phenomenon at a specific time.

1.6.2    Longitudinal

A longitudinal time horizon for data collection refers to the collection of data repeatedly over an extended period, and is used where an important factor for the research is examining change over time (Goddard & Melville, 2004).

1.7       Analysis and Data collection

This is the sixth and last layer of the research onion; it is the innermost layer of Saunders research onion. The process used at this stage of the research contributes significantly to the study overall reliability and validity (Saunders et al., 2007). Data collection and analysis is dependent on the methodological approach used (Bryman, 2012). This layer explains how the data used in the research are collected and analysed. It also explains the source of data, the research design, the sample, the sample size, sample ethics, sample limitations, the research reliability and validity. The data collected could be primary data or secondary data. Primary data is a direct data, it is obtained directly from the source. Secondary data is the opposite of primary data, secondary data is indirect data.

1.7.1    Primary Data is defined as data collected from the source or first hand. This can be done via the use of several instruments questionnaires, oral or written interviews, etc

1.7.2    Secondary Data is derived from the work or opinions of other researchers (Newman, 1998).

1.8       Conclusion

This study has been able to describe the different layers of the Research onion by Saunders et al., 2007. Although surface, the study critically examines the onion and how it can be used as a guide to successfully develop a research work. You can also click to view Prof. Dino Schwaferts pdf File explanation of Saunders research onion [pdf-embedder url=”https://thesismind.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Saunders_Research_Onion.pdf”]

Read more about literature review , problem statement , research methodology , journal publication , essay and thesis writing, project writing guideline.

Assignment Help UK (2017) Research Onion – Made easy to understand and follow. Retrieved from https://www.allassignmenthelp.co.uk/blog/research-onion-made-easy-to-understand-and-follow/?share=twitter&nb=1

Bryman, A. (2012). Social research methods (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Essays, UK. (November 2018). Research Onion – Explanation of the Concept. Retrieved from https://www.ukessays.com/essays/sychology/explanation-of-the-concept-of-research-onion-psychology-essay.php?vref=1

Feilzer, M. Y. (2010). Doing mixed methods research pragmatically: Implications for the rediscovery of pragmatism as a research paradigm. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 4(1), pp.6-16.

Flick, U. (2011). Introducing research methodology: A beginner’s guide to doing a research project.

Goddard, W. & Melville, S. (2004). Research Methodology: An Introduction, (2nd ed.) Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Gulati, P. M. (2009). Research Management: Fundamental and Applied Research, New Delhi: Global India Productions.

Institut Numerique, (2012). Research Methodology, http://www.institut-numerique.org/chapter-3-research-methodology-4ffbd6e5e339.

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: methods and techniques. New Delhi: New Age International.

May, T. (2011). Social research: Issues, methods and research. London: McGraw-Hill International.

Monette, D.R., Sullivan, T. J., & DeJong, C. R. (2005). Applied Social Research: A Tool for the Human Services, (6th ed.), London:

Neuman, W. L. (2003). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, London: Allyn & Bacon.

Newman, I. (1998). Qualitative-quantitative research methodology: Exploring the interactive continuum. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.

Östlund, U., Kidd, L., Wengström, Y., & Rowa-Dewar, N. (2011). Combining qualitative and quantitative research within mixed method research designs: a methodological review. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 48(3), pp. 369-383.

Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, pp.539-569.

Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2007). Research Methods for Business Students, (6th ed.) London: Pearson.

Silverman, D. (2013). Doing Qualitative Research: A practical handbook. London: Sage.

Snieder R. & Larner, K. (2009). The Art of Being a Scientist: A Guide for Graduate Students and their Mentors, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Wiles, R., Crow, G., & Pain, H. (2011). Innovation in qualitative research methods: a narrative review. Qualitative Research, 11(5), pp.587-604.

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