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How To Use Abbreviations in Academic Writing

November 3, 2022 | Blog

Cheat sheet

No time to read? Here’s the short version:

Avoid contractions like won’t, can’t, they’re, it’s .
The first time you mention a phrase that can be abbreviated, spell it out in full and provide the abbreviation in parentheses. Use only the abbreviation thereafter.
Only abbreviate phrases that occur three or more times in your paper.
Avoid abbreviations in titles, headings, the abstract, and the reference section.
Use the standard abbreviations you find in reputable dictionaries for months, personal titles, countries and states, and some Latin phrases.

What’s an abbreviation?

Abbreviation is an umbrella term for a shortened version of a longer word or phrase. There are four types of abbreviations:

Contraction: The result of combining two words into one word with an apostrophe. For example, don’t is a contraction of do not.
Shortening: Shortened words in which a part of the word (usually the beginning or the end, but occasionally both!) has been dropped. They may appear as words in their own right, such as app for application, ad for advertisement, and flu for influenza. They may also appear as truncated words which are read out as if they were full words, such as for professor, Mgmt. for management, and Feb . for February. In such cases, the truncation is usually signalled with a full stop.
Acronym: A series of letters that represents a longer phrase. The end result is pronounced like a word. For example, NASA is the acronym for the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration and is pronounced nah-sa .
Initialism: Like an acronym, an initialism consists of several letters and represents a longer phrase. However, the end result cannot be pronounced as a word and instead has to be read letter by letter. FBI is the initialism for the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and each letter is pronounced individually: ef-bee-eye.

Contractions are considered informal. They are therefore best avoided in academic writing, where it’s essential to maintain a formal register.

When to use abbreviations

Only use abbreviations for phrases that you use three or more times in a paper. For terms you use less frequently, it’s easier for a reader to read the full phrase than to try to remember an abbreviation encountered only once several pages earlier.

Sometimes, you may introduce an abbreviation at the beginning of your paper, but may not use it again until much later. In that case, consider adding a List of Abbreviations to help the reader follow along.

How to introduce an abbreviation

When you first use a phrase that can be abbreviated, spell it out in full and show the abbreviation in parentheses immediately afterwards.

Organizations often use a request for proposal (RFP) to solicit work.

The study was conducted at the University of Lagos (UNILAG). Many UNILAG students were surveyed for this research.

If the long-form phrase is already in parentheses the first time it occurs, use square brackets to set the abbreviation apart.

The number of imprisoned journalists globally has risen in the past 10 years (Society of Professional Journalists [SPJ], 2015).

Remember, after you’ve introduced the abbreviation, use only the acronym throughout the rest of your paper. You don’t need to spell out the full phrase again. That’s the beauty of abbreviations!

The World Health Organization (WHO) recently conducted a joint study with the South African Medical Association (SAMA) on water hygiene in South Africa. WHO provided SAMA with a five-year grant to collect data from 25 hospitals.

How to pluralize abbreviations

To make an acronym or initialism plural, all you need to do is add a lowercase s to the end; no apostrophes necessary!

Correct: The CEOs were profiled in Forbes magazine.

Incorrect: The CEO’s were profiled in Forbes magazine.

Incorrect: The CEOS were profiled in Forbes magazine.

Articles before abbreviations

When to use a or an before an abbreviation.

Use the article that matches the way the abbreviation is pronounced. If the first sound is a vowel sound, use an . If the abbreviation starts with a consonant sound, use a .

an NBC reporter

an MRI machine

a NATO representative

a MOMA exhibit

Still not sure which article to use? Deciding whether to use a or an can be tricky. In a pinch, try searching for the entire phrase online (enclosed in quotation marks) to see how other writers in your industry have approached the problem.

When to use the before an abbreviation

This rule depends on whether the abbreviation is an acronym or an initialism. Add the if the abbreviation is an initialism (not an acronym) for a phrase or name that normally includes the word the (but don’t add the letter T in the abbreviation).

Correct: the International Criminal Court → the ICC

Correct: the Women’s National Basketball Association → the WNBA

Incorrect: the National Aeronautics and Space Administration → the NASA

When to avoid abbreviations

Avoid using abbreviations in the following sections of an academic paper:

Section headings

Reference section.

Your title should be accessible to all readers and easy to understand. Avoid ambiguity by spelling out phrases in full.

Correct: The Environmental Protection Agency’s Stance on Carbon Capture

Incorrect: The EPA’s Stance on Carbon Capture

Abstracts are short. It’s unlikely that you’ll use the same term three or more times in an abstract, so abbreviations are not necessary here. However, if you do introduce an abbreviation in the abstract, remember to do it in the body of your paper as well.

Some readers will skim your paper to identify those sections that are most useful to them. Help them navigate the contents more easily by using full phrases in the section headings instead of relying on abbreviations.

Correct: Undergraduate Enrolment in the Society of Women Engineers in 2018

Incorrect: Undergraduate Enrolment in the SWE in 2018

You can use abbreviations in in-text citations. In the Reference section (sometimes labelled Works Cited), however, all abbreviations should be written in full.

Correct: American Psychological Association. (2010). Gen Y’s evolving gender roles. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/millennials/gender.

Incorrect: American Psychological Association (APA). (2010). Gen Y’s evolving gender roles. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/millennials/gender.

Incorrect: APA. (2010). Gen Y’s evolving gender roles. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/millennials/gender.

Abbreviations in other languages

Sometimes, an abbreviation or acronym might be in a foreign language. In this case, introduce both the full phrase or name of the organization in its original language and the English translation. The abbreviation should reflect the correct word order in the original language.

Italy’s Five Star Movement, known as Movimento Cinque Stelle (M5S), is a populist, anti-establishment reform party.

You can also introduce the abbreviation by putting the original name in parentheses and the abbreviation in brackets within the parentheses.

In parliamentary elections held in March 2018, the Five Star Movement (Movimento Cinque Stelle [M5S]) emerged as the largest party in Italy with 32% of the vote.

When to add a list of abbreviations

If you’ve used 10 or more abbreviations in your thesis or dissertation, consider adding a formal list of abbreviations after the table of contents. This will help your reader follow along more easily. Even if you do include a list of abbreviations, be sure to introduce each abbreviated phrase in full the first time that you use it within your text, with the corresponding abbreviation in parentheses.

A list of abbreviations should contain all the abbreviations your paper uses in alphabetical order. Abbreviations starting with a number should come before the letter ‘A’. Here’s a shortened example from a paper on medicine:


BNA	British Nursing Association
BP	blood pressure
DSM-5	Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition
PE	pulmonary embolism

As shown in the example, abbreviations can represent not only names that would be capitalized in their full form, but also common terms that are not normally capitalized, such as blood pressure (BP). If such terms recur often in the running text, it makes sense to abbreviate them, too.

Some acronyms and initialisms are so common that they require no formal introduction; there is no need to define these in either the running text or the List of Abbreviations. Examples include USSR, AIDS, HTML, and GMT.

Frequent errors

Using abbreviations correctly in English is quite tricky, and many writers struggle with this aspect of their academic writing. Here’s a very common mistake: following an abbreviation with a word that is already in the abbreviation. For example, if you say ATM machine , the word machine is redundant because the last letter of the acronym already stands for machine .

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Acronyms and Abbreviations in Academic Writing: A Quick Guide

Abbreviations, acronyms, and Latin expressions can all be found in academic and scientific articles. But as a writer, it can be puzzling to know exactly when and how to use abbreviations and acronyms in formal academic publications. Let’s learn what types of abbreviations there are, what the different style manuals have to say about them, and when you should and shouldn’t include them in your scientific paper.

Table of Content:

What is an abbreviation, using abbreviations properly, how can i use abbreviations in academic writing, how can i avoid making abbreviation mistakes.

An abbreviation is a word that has been shortened from its original longer form. There are several different types of abbreviations.

Acronyms. An acronym is an abbreviation made from the first letter of each word in a name or phrase. Acronyms are pronounced like a word. NASA, which is short for N ational A eronautics and S pace A dministration and pronounced “Nah-suh,” is one well-known acronym. UNICEF, which stands for U nited N ations I nternational C hildren’s E mergency F und and is pronounced “you-nuh-seff,” is another example.

Initialisms. An initialism is similar to an acronym because it is an abbreviation that uses the first letter of each word in a name or phrase. Unlike acronyms, however, the letters of an initialism are pronounced individually. FBI, which is short for F ederal B ureau of I nvestigations, is an initialism. UK (United Kingdom) and USA (United States of America) are also initialisms.

Contractions. A contraction is when two words are combined for ease with an apostrophe. Common examples of contractions include don’t (do not), aren’t (are not), and let’s (let us).

Latin abbreviations. Latin abbreviations are commonly used in academia and law. Common latin abbreviations used in English writing are etc . (et cetera, “and so on”), e.g . (exempli gratia, “for example”), i.e . (id est, “in other words”), and et al . (et alii, “and others”).

Titles, measurements, and dates. Titles ( Dr . for Doctor, Rev . for Reverend), measurement units ( cm for centimeter, kg for kilogram), and days ( Feb . for February, Fri . for Friday) can all be abbreviated.

Before you begin using abbreviations in academic writing, there are a few rules you need to know. There are three main things to keep in mind when using abbreviations in an academic or scientific paper. These are spacing, capitalization, and punctuation . It is important to note that, like many other aspects of writing, the rules are sometimes different in the US and UK variations of English.

Spacing . For measurement units, there should be a space between the number and the unit. The unit is written after the number.

Correct : Mumbai had received 11 mm of rain by 6 pm . Incorrect : Mumbai had received 11mm of rain by 6pm .

Capitalization . Initialisms and acronyms should be written in all capital letters.

Correct : The National Health Insurance Service (NHIS) seized Jimin’s $4.7 million dollar apartment for failure to pay premiums. Incorrect : The NHIS (National Health Insurance Service) seized Jimin’s $4.7 million dollar apartment for failure to pay premiums.

Note that if you are abbreviating a phrase that is not a proper noun (name of an institution, organization, etc.), then that phrase should not be capitalized when it is written prior to the abbreviation. For example, if you were introducing BP as an abbreviation for blood pressure, you would write “blood pressure (BP),” not “Blood Pressure (BP).”

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Punctuation . Generally, periods are used with latin abbreviations as well as dates . In US English, titles are followed by a period (Dr.), while in UK English, the period is omitted (Dr). Initialisms and acronyms generally don’t use periods (we write USSR rather than U.S.S.R.). Contractions use an apostrophe.

Now that you know how to use abbreviations, you may be wondering if and when you can use abbreviations in academic writing. You definitely can use abbreviations in academic writing if you keep the following rules in mind!

Spell out the full phrase or term the first time you use it in your paper and include the abbreviation in parentheses. You can use the abbreviation each time after that.
Don’t abbreviate everything . It is fine to abbreviate technical terms or phrases used repeatedly throughout your writing, but only if you use them more than a few times ! The Chicago Manual of Style advises abbreviating a term when it is used five or more times , while the APA only asks that you use an abbreviation if the term is used three or more times. The AMA guidelines suggest that words that are short and easy to write should not be abbreviated at all.
Provide a list of abbreviations for your reader. Especially if you are writing a thesis, an academic article or a monograph, including a list of abbreviations used at the beginning will give your reader an easy reference.
Avoid abbreviations in your paper abstract. While abbreviations are perfectly acceptable in the text of your paper, they should be avoided in your abstract as much as possible.
Avoid contractions. Contractions in English are considered informal, and should therefore generally be avoided in academic writing.
Minimize the use of latin abbreviations . It is fine to include parenthetical i.e . and e.g. here and there, but in general, it is preferred to simply write out “for example” or “in other words.” Researchers should specifically note that ending sentences with etc. in academic writing is frowned upon, and frequent use of this term is perceived as lazy writing.
Know how to make initialisms and acronyms plural . You can pluralize abbreviations by adding a lowercase “s” at the end . CEOs, RNs, and NEATs are all examples of correct plural abbreviations.
Be consistent! Inconsistent abbreviations can confuse the reader and make your paper appear poorly written. If you abbreviate a word, make sure you use the same abbreviation throughout the text.

In addition to following the tips and tricks above, you should always consult the relevant style manual when you are writing your academic or scientific paper to minimize any abbreviation errors. Another option is to use an AI grammar checker like Trinka. Trinka not only checks for grammar and spelling errors , it can also highlight inconsistent abbreviation use and makes sure that your paper adheres to a specific citation style. Abbreviations are a great way to make your paper more readable or adhere to a limited word count, so don’t be afraid to incorporate them into your academic writing today.

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5 Quick Tips for Using Abbreviations and Acronyms in Academic Writing

Whether you’re working on a thesis or a research paper, abbreviations and acronyms are difficult to avoid in academic writing, which is why it’s important that you know how to use them properly. Here’s a quick primer.

1. Spell the word or phrase in full at first mention

When you first use the term that you will be abbreviating, you should usually spell out the actual word or phrase in full and follow that with the abbreviation/acronym in brackets.

For example: “We then conducted an analysis of variance (ANOVA).”

This ensures that your reader understands what your abbreviation means. While some abbreviations may seem common or obvious, different disciplines may use the same shorthand for different phrases. For example, “CAD” could refer to computer-aided design, coronary artery disease, Canadian dollar, current account deficit… You get the point! Abbreviations or acronyms that are extremely common for your audience may not need to be defined, but it’s best to check your style guidelines on this—and if you’re unsure, err on the side of caution and provide the full version at first mention.

2. Make sure abbreviations appear more than once

If you find that you have only used a specific abbreviation once in the entire paper, you should use the full version of the word or phrase instead and delete the abbreviation. This is because the purpose of abbreviations and acronyms is to make the writing more concise and aid comprehension, so—bearing in mind that it’s good practice to spell the abbreviated word or phrase in full at first mention—if it is only used once the abbreviation is redundant.

3. Use abbreviations consistently

Once you have introduced an abbreviation, it should be used consistently throughout the rest of the piece—that is, every time the word or phrase appears following its introduction. This means that once you have defined the abbreviation, you should stick to the same format and not switch back to the full word or a different abbreviation elsewhere in the paper. There are some exceptions to this rule; for example, the original text should be retained in direct quotations and references, and you may wish to use the full version in tables, figures, and section headings, depending on whether your style guide permits or even prescribes this.

4. Don’t go overboard

Abbreviations are a great way to keep writing concise. They can help you meet a tight word count, and enable the reader to focus on important information without getting bogged down by cumbersome phrases (for example, it’s much easier to process “RMSEA” than “root mean square error of approximation”!). However, a good writer will be prudent in their use of abbreviations; if a paper contains too many, that can be distracting and confusing in itself. Bear in mind also that similar constructions should be avoided. For example, if both “CAD” and “CDA” appear in your paper, it may be better to modify one of the abbreviations, or use the full version for one of the terms and do away with that abbreviation altogether.

5. Let us help!

Practice common sense, stick to the rules above, and, as always, feel free to have us check your work prior to submission to make sure your abbreviations are working with your paper rather than against it. Among our usual checks, we’ll ensure abbreviations are appropriate and consistent, and in line with your style guidelines.

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Writing academically: Abbreviations

Academic style
Personal pronouns
Contractions

Abbreviations

Signposting
Paragraph structure
Using sources in your writing

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Abbreviations and acronyms are shortened forms of words or phrases. Generally, abbreviations are not acceptable in academic writing (with some exceptions, see below) and acronyms are (providing they are used as shown below).

As academic writing is formal in style, most abbreviations should be avoided. Even the common ones shown below:

Some common ones to avoid

Avoid e.g. and i.e. , instead use for example and for instance .

Avoid etc . There isn't really an alternative, so rewrite the sentence.

Avoid dept , govt . Use department , government .

Avoid NB , instead use note that .

Avoid vs or v , instead use versus or against (except in Law reports or cases)

Some acceptable abbreviations

Titles such as Mr. Dr. Prof. are acceptable when using them in conjunction with the individual's name i.e. Dr. Smith.

Some Latin phrases

et al. (short form of et alia - and others is acceptable when giving in text citations with multiple authors. The full stop should always be included afterwards to acknowledge the abbreviation. It does not need to be italicised as it is in common usage.

ibid. (short form of ibidim - in the same place) is acceptable if using footnote references to indicate that a reference is the same as the previous one. Again, always include the full stop to acknowledge the abbreviation. It is the convention to italicise this as it is less commonly used.

sic (short form of sic erat scriptum - thus it was written). This is used to indicate there was an error in something you are quoting (either an interviewee or an author) and it is not a misquote. It is added in square brackets but is neither italicised nor followed by a full stop i.e.

"it'd be great if unis [sic] could develop a person's self-knowledge"

Acronyms are acceptable, but use the name in full on its first use in a particular document (e.g. an assignment), no matter how well known the acronym is. For example, on its first use in an essay you might refer to "the World Health Organisation (WHO)" - it would be fine to simply refer to "the WHO" for the remainder of the essay.

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Abbreviations

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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Note: This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019. The equivalent resource for the older APA 6 style can be found here .

In APA, abbreviations should be limited to instances when a) the abbreviation is standard and will not interfere with the reader’s understanding and b) if space and repetition can be greatly avoided through abbreviation. You should not overuse abbreviations (writing is easier to understand when words are written out); you should also not underuse abbreviations (in general, if you use an abbreviation, it should appear at least three times in your paper, because fewer uses mean it is more likely your reader will forget what the abbreviation refers to).

There are a few common trends in abbreviating that you should follow when using APA, though there are always exceptions to these rules. When abbreviating a term, use the full term the first time you use it, followed immediately by the abbreviation in parentheses.

According to the American Psychological Association (APA), abbreviations are best used only when they allow for clear communication with the audience.

Exceptions: Standard abbreviations like units of measurement and states do not need to be written out. APA also allows abbreviations that appear as words in Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary to be used without explanation (IQ, HIV, RNA, CIA, UNESCO).

Do not use periods or spaces in abbreviations of all capital letters, unless it is a proper name or refers to participants using identity-concealing labels:

Exceptions: Use a period when abbreviating the United States as an adjective (U.S. Air Force or U.S. President)

Use a period if the abbreviation is a Latin abbreviation or a reference abbreviation:

Do not use periods when abbreviating measurements:

Exception: Use a period when abbreviating inch (in.) to avoid confusion.

Units of measurement and statistical abbreviations should only be abbreviated when accompanied by numerical values:

Only certain units of time should be abbreviated.

Do not abbreviate:

Do abbreviate:

To form the plural of abbreviations, add s alone without apostrophe or italicization.

Exception: To avoid confusion, do not add s to pluralize units of measurement (i.e., use "12 m" to signify "twelve meters," not "12 ms").

Abbreviations in Citations

Citations should be as condensed as possible, so you should know the basic rules of abbreviation endorsed by the APA to provide your readers with reference information.

Always abbreviate the first and middle names of authors, editors, etc.

Use the following abbreviations within citations (take note of capitalization):



edition	ed.
revised edition	Rev. ed.
Second Edition	2 ed.
Editor(s)	Ed. or Eds.
Translator(s)	Trans.
No date	n.d.
Page(s)	p. or pp.
Volume(s)	Vol. or Vols.
Number	No.
Part	Pt.
Technical Report	Tech. Rep.
Supplement	Suppl.

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Writing Tips

Abbreviations in Academic Writing (6 Top Tips)

3-minute read
1st May 2017

Abbreviations are shortened words or phrases. These come in many forms, most with important roles in academic writing (not least ensuring brevity).

In this post, we take a look at some common types of abbreviation and how to use them.

1. Acronyms and Initialisms

Acronyms and initialisms are abbreviations made from the first letter of each word in a phrase:

BBC = B ritish B roadcasting C orporation

UNICEF = U nited N ations I nternational C hildren’s E mergency F und

You can use these to prevent repetition of longer terms.

BBC is also short for Big British Castle. (Photo: David Benbennick/wikimedia)

Generally, you should define acronyms and initialisms on their first use by giving the abbreviation in parentheses after the full terminology:

The study was criticised for focusing on W estern, e ducated, i ndustrialised, r ich and d emocratic ( WEIRD ) societies. But people from WEIRD societies only represent 12 percent of the global population.

And yes, WEIRD is genuinely an acronym used in the social sciences.

2. Latin Abbreviations

Many Latin abbreviations are part of everyday English, such as ‘e.g.’ and ‘i.e.’. Other examples include ‘etc.’ (short for et cetera ) and ‘N.B.’ (short for nota bene ).

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But academic writing uses other Latin abbreviations too. You might have seen ‘et al.’ (‘and others’), ‘ibid.’ (‘in the same place’) and ‘op cit.’ (‘in the work cited’) used for referencing sources.

If all this Latin sounds confusing, blame the Romans.

The key is knowing which abbreviations are used in your subject area, especially in disciplines like law where Latin terms are very common .

3. Titles, Measurements and Dates

Other common abbreviations include titles, measurements and dates:

Titles (e.g. Doctor) are normally abbreviated when used before a name (e.g. Dr Forde).
Units of measurement are typically written out in full when used in formal writing, but shortened in technical or scientific work (e.g. ‘three metres’ becomes ‘3m’).
Days and months are usually written in full in formal writing, but abbreviated otherwise (e.g. you could shorten ‘Friday, February 5th’ to ‘Fri., Feb. 5’).

4. Punctuating Abbreviations

Whether to put a full stop after an abbreviation can be confusing, as rules vary .

In the UK, we use a full stop when an abbreviation only includes the first part of a word (e.g. ‘Dec.’ as short for ‘December’). If an abbreviation uses the first and last letter of the word, no full stop is needed (e.g. ‘Mr’ as short for ‘Mister’).

In the US, full stops are added after all abbreviations except metric units of measurement.

And that will only matter if the US ever switches to the metric system. (Photo: Aslak Raanes/flickr)

5. Contractions

A contraction omits letters to combine two words (e.g. ‘do not’ = ‘don’t’). These are common in everyday speech, but they are typically considered too informal for academic writing.

6. Listing Abbreviations

Most dissertations include a list of abbreviations. This is where you can set out frequently used abbreviations, acronyms or initialisms in your work, giving your reader a handy guide whenever an unfamiliar term is used.

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Abbreviations in Research: Common Errors in Academic Writing

“Provided they are not obscure to the reader, abbreviations communicate more with fewer letters. Writers have only to ensure that the abbreviations they use are too well known to need any introduction, or that they are introduced and explained on their first appearance.”

—From “The Cambridge Guide to English Usage” by Pam Peters 1

David Crystal defines abbreviations as “a major component of the English writing system, not a marginal feature. The largest dictionaries of abbreviations contain well over half a million entries, and their number is increasing all the time.” 2 Students and researchers often use abbreviations in research writing to save space, especially when facing restrictions of page or word limits. Abbreviations in research are also used in place of long or difficult phrases for ease of writing and reading. Exactly how abbreviations in research writing should be used depends on the style guide you follow. For example, in British English, the period (or full stop) is omitted in abbreviations that include the first and last letters of a single word (e.g., “Dr” or “Ms”). But in American English, such abbreviations in writing are followed by a period (e.g., “Dr.” or “Ms.”).

While using abbreviations in academic writing is a common feature in many academic and scientific papers, most journals prefer keeping their use to a minimum or restricting their use to standard abbreviations. As a general rule, all non-standard acronyms/abbreviations in research papers should be written out in full on first use (in both the abstract and the paper itself), followed by the abbreviated form in parentheses, as in the American Psychological Association (APA) style guide.

Mistakes to avoid when using acronyms and abbreviations in research writing3
Tips to using abbreviations in research writing

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Mistakes to avoid when using acronyms and abbreviations in research writing 3.

Avoid opening a sentence with an abbreviation in research papers; write the word out.
Abbreviations such as a.m., p.m., B.C., and A.D. are never spelled out. Unless your style guide says otherwise, use lowercase or small capitals for a.m. and p.m. Use  capital letters  or small caps for B.C. and A.D. (the periods are optional).
Avoid RAS Syndrome:   RAS Syndrome stands for Redundant Acronym Syndrome…Syndrome. For example, DC Comics—DC already stands for “Detective Comics,” making Comics after DC redundant.
Avoid Alphabet Soup:   Alphabet soup refers to using too many abbreviations in academic writing. Do not abbreviate the words if their frequency of appearance in the document is less than three.

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Do not follow acronyms with a period unless at the end of a sentence.
When pluralizing acronyms add a lowercase “s” at the end (“three ECGs”); acronyms can be made possessive with an apostrophe followed by a lowercase “s” (“DOD’s acknowledge”).
Acronyms are treated as singulars, even when they stand for plurals. Therefore, they require a singular verb (“NASA is planning to…”).
Articles “a” or “an” before an acronym should be based on the opening sound rather than the acronym’s meaning. This depends on whether they are pronounced as words or as a series of letters. Use “an” if a soft vowel sound opens the acronym; else, use “a.” For example, a NATO meeting; an MRI scan.

Tips to using abbreviations in research writing

1. When to abbreviate: Using too many abbreviations in research papers can make the document hard to read. While it makes sense to abbreviate every long word, it’s best to abbreviate terms you use repeatedly.

2. Acronyms and initialisms: Define all acronyms and initialisms on their first use by giving the full terminology followed by the abbreviation in brackets. Once defined, use the shortened version in place of the full term.

3. Contractions: Using contractions (isn’t, can’t, don’t, etc.) in academic writing, such as a research paper, is usually not encouraged because it can make your writing sound informal.

4. Latin abbreviations: Latin abbreviations in research are widely preferred as they contain much meaning in a tiny package. Most style manuals (APA, MLA, and Chicago) suggest limiting the use of Latin abbreviations in the main text. They recommend using etc. , e.g. , and i.e., in parentheses within the body of a text, but others should appear only in footnotes, endnotes, tables, and other forms of documentation. But APA allows using “ et al .” when citing works with multiple authors and v. in the titles of court cases.

Maintain consistency in abbreviations and writing with Paperpal now!

5. Capitalization: Abbreviations in writing are in full capital letters (COBOL, HTML, etc.). Exceptions include acronyms such as “radar,” “scuba,” and “lidar,” which have become commonly accepted words.

6. Punctuation: Abbreviations in research can be written without adding periods between each letter. However, when shortening a word, we usually add a period as follows:

Figure → Fig.

Doctor → Dr.

January → Jan.

Note that units of measurement do not require a period after the abbreviation. But, to avoid confusion with the word “ in ,” we write “ inches ” as “ in. ” in documents.

7. Create a list: Make a list of the abbreviations in research as you write. Adding such a list at the start of your document can give the reader and yourself an easy point of reference.

Write error-free research papers with Paperpal. Start your free language review now .

Avoid making abbreviation mistakes in your writing with Paperpal

Finalizing a research paper requires more than great writing. Proofreading for errors such as correct abbreviations in research is also an essential step, which often consumes a lot of time. That’s where Paperpal, the comprehensive AI academic writing assistant, can help you!

Paperpal’s Consistency Check automatically identifies inconsistencies in formatting, style, abbreviations, and language and allows you to fix them. It can flag instances where you introduce an abbreviation without first defining it. It ensures you’re following consistent academic abbreviation styles and helps finalize your paper for submission faster, saving you a lot of time and effort.

Consistency checks are available with Paperpal Prime. Here’s how to use these checks to fix abbreviations in research:

Turn on Consistency Checks: Once logged in, paste your content in a new document, navigate to Edit and enable the Consistency feature.
Inconsistency Flags: Paperpal will scan your paper and flag any inconsistencies it finds in your abbreviation usage. This might include
Using the full term in some places and the abbreviation in others for the same concept.
Formatting errors (e.g., p=0.05 vs. P>0.02)
Language and numbering style erros (e.g., Jan vs. January or 9%-10% vs. 9-10%)
Inconsistency in capitalization and plurals (e.g., MRI vs. mri).
Fix the Abbreviations: Once it identifies inconsistencies, Paperpal will prompt you to review and ensure consistency throughout your research paper. This allows you to have control over your work and edit mindfully.

It’s recommended to always follow your journal’s guidelines and use the tips above to eliminate abbreviation errors in research papers. Never forget to proofread your work; remember that AI academic writing tools like Paperpal can help proofread and fix such errors before you submit. Get Paperpal Prime and ensure your writing is submission ready in minutes!

References

Peters, P. The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge University Press (2004). 
Crystal, D. Spell it out: The singular story of English spelling (2013).
Nordquist, R. 10 Tips for Using Abbreviations Correctly (July 25, 2019). Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/tips-for-using-abbreviations-correctly-1691738

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Abbreviations in a research paper are shortened forms of words or phrases used to represent specific terms or concepts. They are employed to improve readability and conciseness, especially when there are strict word counts and terms are mentioned frequently throughout the paper. To ensure clarity, it is essential to define each abbreviation when it is first used in the research paper. This is typically done by providing the full term followed by its abbreviation in parentheses.

Some commonly used abbreviations in academic writing include e.g. (exempli gratia), i.e. (id est), et al. (et alia/et alii), etc. (et cetera), cf. (confer), and viz. (videlicet). Additionally, there are several subject-specific abbreviations that are known by and commonly used in a field of study. However, know that abbreviations may mean different things across different fields. This makes it important to consult style guides or specific guidelines provided by the academic institution or target publication to ensure consistent and appropriate use of abbreviations in your academic writing.

An acronym is an abbreviation formed from the initial letters of a series of words and is pronounced as a word itself. For example, NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) and UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) are acronyms. An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase but they are usually pronounced as individual letters. Examples of abbreviations include “et al.” for “et alia/et alii” and “e.g.” for “exempli gratia.”

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The Editor’s Manual

Free learning resource on English grammar, punctuation, usage, and style.

Abbreviations

How to Introduce an Abbreviation

Introduce an abbreviation or acronym by providing its full form the first time you use it in a formal text. The standard way to introduce an abbreviation is to write the complete term and enclose the abbreviation in parentheses.

All our boats are equipped with personal locator beacons ( PLBs ).
Augmented reality ( AR ) can improve the workplace for those with disabilities.
We investigate how an automated driving system ( ADS ) can cause accidents.
Unsinkable floating devices ( UFDs ) are now a popular way to cross the Atlantic.

How to introduce an abbreviation: Rules and examples. Provide the full form at first use: Long-range radio (LRR) is used in space travel. Don’t capitalize unless it is a proper noun. (UN: United Nations; CGI: computer-generated imagery.) Add “s” to form the plural: Deep neural networks (DNNs) can identify patterns in complex data.

If you expect the abbreviation to be better known than its full form, enclose the complete term in parentheses instead.

A URL ( uniform resource locator ) is the unique address of a web page.
The first ATM ( automated teller machine ) was installed in Rockville Centre, New York, in 1969.
The first movie on DVD ( digital video disc ) was released in 1997.

You can also introduce or explain the abbreviation without the use of parentheses. This style works well in writing meant for a general audience.

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries , better known as OPEC , is not as effective a cartel as some believe.
One-time passwords , or OTPs , have made banking more secure.
Fast-moving consumer goods have been flying off the shelves in this pandemic, which is why FMCG companies are now on a hiring spree.
The United Nations Children’s Fund , known globally as UNICEF , is responsible for providing aid to children worldwide.

While you should always explain an abbreviation at first use, also consider explaining it again to help your readers if it reappears after a long gap, such as in a new section of the document.

Avoid redundancies such as “ATM machine.” The word machine is already part of the abbreviation ATM , which stands for “automated teller machine .”

Providing a glossary

Consider adding a glossary or list of abbreviations after the index in an academic paper that contains nonstandard abbreviations. This can help the reader quickly and easily find the meaning of an abbreviation. Remember that the abbreviation still needs to be explained the first time it appears in the main text.

Exceptions: Abbreviations that don’t need explanation

You don’t need to provide the full form of an abbreviation listed as a noun rather than an abbreviation in a standard dictionary such as Merriam-Webster or Oxford .

Standard abbreviations need not be explained if you are reasonably certain your audience will recognize them. Such expressions almost always appear in their abbreviated form, and readers may be more familiar with the abbreviated than the full form.

Contractions of titles that appear before a name or are part of a proper noun (like a company name) also don’t need to be explained.

Abbreviated SI units, which are standard, need not be explained either.

Weight = 20 kg

Some abbreviations may be common in a specific field and familiar to those who work in that field. Make sure to provide the full form when writing for a general audience.

NOPAT: net operating profit after tax
adj.: adjective
BP: before present
ac: alternating current
FA: functional assay
CDN: content delivery network

Plural abbreviations

Use the plural form of an abbreviation as appropriate when introducing it in text. To form the plural, simply add s without an apostrophe.

Original owners can create more non-fungible tokens ( NFTs ) of their own work.
Electronic memory archiving tools ( EMATs ) can now be used to store memories you don’t want to permanently delete.
Content management systems ( CMSs ) help users create and modify content.

Capitalizing the full form

Don’t capitalize the words in the full form of an abbreviation unless it stands for a proper noun, like the name of a country, agency, company, university, or organization.

A v irtual p rivate n etwork (VPN) protects you by encrypting your data.
We sell PFDs ( p ortable f loating d evices).
NATO, or the N orth A tlantic T reaty O rganization, is after all a military alliance.
The E uropean U nion (EU) was established in 1993.
She works at the D epartment of E ducation (ED).

Don’t capitalize prepositions like of and conjunctions like and in the expanded form of an abbreviation, even when the term is a proper name.

Examples from published content

The following examples illustrate how abbreviations can be explained in text. Abbreviations may be introduced in different ways depending on the tone of the work, always with the goal of improving readability and clarity.

Hard disk drive ( HDD ) storage technology is now largely used in consumer devices. — Gianfranco Pistoia, Battery Operated Devices and Systems (2009)
The detection of a radio signal, which is a very high-frequency alternating current ( AC ), requires that the signal be rectified. — Robert I. Scace, “Electronics,” Encyclopedia Britannica (June 2, 2020)
As the quiet whirr of electric vehicles gradually replaces the revs and noxious fumes of internal combustion engines, a number of changes are set to filter through our familiar world. . . . Currently, lithium ( Li ) ion batteries are those typically used in EVs and the megabatteries used to store energy from renewables, and Li batteries are hard to recycle. — Allison Hirschlag, “Lithium batteries’ big unanswered question,” BBC Future (Jan. 6, 2022)
An SEP is something we can’t see, or don’t see, or our brain doesn’t let us see, because we think that it’s somebody else’s problem . — Douglas Adams , The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy (1979)

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To introduce an abbreviation that is not commonly used, spell it out and then enclose the abbreviated form in parentheses.

Don’t capitalize the full form of an abbreviation unless it is a proper noun.

Abbreviations that are listed as nouns in the dictionary need not be explained.

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Writing Tips

6 Tips for Using Abbreviations in Academic Writing

3-minute read
4th November 2017

Academic writing can be a bit… wordy. As such, anything that makes your work more concise is usually welcome. Perhaps that’s why abbreviations are so common in essays!

But if you’re going to use abbreviations in your writing, you need to do it right. To help you out with this, we’ve prepared a quick guide to using abbreviations in academic work.

1. Acronyms and Initialisms

Some of the most common abbreviations are acronyms and initialisms. These are made up of the initial letters in a phrase. For instance:

AWOL = A way W ithout O fficial L eave

FBI = F ederal B ureau of I nvestigation

Technically, acronyms are pronounced as a single word, whereas the letters in initialisms are pronounced separately. Despite this, you’ll often see the term ‘acronym’ applied to initialisms.

The key to using these in academic writing is introducing them on the first use. This is done by giving the abbreviation in brackets after the full term, such as in the following:

Hugh Jackman went to the W estern A ustralian A cademy of P erforming A rts (WAAPA), passing up a role in Neighbours to study full time. WAAPA’s other alumni…

After an acronym or initialism has been defined like this, it can be used in place of the full term.

2. Latin Abbreviations

Academic writing uses a lot of Latin abbreviations . Some of these are common in everyday life, such as ‘e.g.’ (short for exempli gratia ) and i.e. (short for id est ). But others are more specific.

The terms ‘et al.’ and ‘ibid.’, for instance, are among several Latin abbreviations used in referencing. Your university style guide should set out whether (and how) you need to use these words when citing sources in an essay.

3. Titles, Measurements and Dates

Abbreviations of titles, measurements and dates are also common. For instance:


Titles (e.g. Mr, Mrs, Dr)	Used before a name
Measurements (e.g. cm, Kg)	Used in technical or scientific work; reporting results
Days and Months (e.g. Sept.)	Used in informal writing or when not part of a sentence

In situations other than those noted above, it is usually best to write out these terms in full. Remember to check your style guide if you’re not sure.

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4. Punctuating Abbreviations

Some abbreviated terms are followed by a full stop, but the rules for this can seem confusing.

In Australian English, we add a full stop when an abbreviation only includes the first part of a word (e.g. writing ‘Prof.’ instead of ‘Professor’). If an abbreviation ends in the same letter as the full word, however, no full stop is required (e.g. using ‘Dr’ instead of ‘Doctor’).

5. Contractions

Contractions (e.g. writing ‘isn’t’ instead of ‘is not’) are common in everyday language. However, they are informal, so they should not be used in academic writing!

6. Listing Abbreviations

Finally, if you use a lot of abbreviations in your work, you may want to add a list of abbreviations near the start of your document. This is especially common in theses and dissertations, as these are likely to contain many acronyms and other abbreviated terms.

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Video Transcripts: APA Formatting & Style: Abbreviations

Academic Paragraphs: Examples of the MEAL Plan
Academic Paragraphs: Appropriate Use of Explicit Transitions
Academic Paragraphs: Types of Transitions Part 1: Transitions Between Paragraphs
Academic Paragraphs: Types of Transitions Part 2: Transitions Within Paragraphs
Academic Writing for Multilingual Students: Using a Grammar Revision Journal
Academic Writing for Multilingual Students: Write in a Linear Structure
Academic Writing for Multilingual Students: Cite All Ideas That Come From Other Sources
Academic Writing for Multilingual Students: Developing Your Arguments With Evidence and Your Own Analysis
Academic Writing for Multilingual Students: Follow Faculty Expectations
Accessing Modules: Registered or Returning Users
Accessing Modules: Saving a Module Certificate
Analyzing & Synthesizing Sources: Analysis in Paragraphs
Analyzing & Synthesizing Sources: Synthesis: Definition and Examples
Analyzing & Synthesizing Sources: Synthesis in Paragraphs
APA Formatting & Style: Latin Abbreviations
APA Formatting & Style: Shortening Citations With et al.
APA Formatting & Style: Capitalization
APA Formatting & Style: Numbers
APA Formatting & Style: Pronouns (Point of View)
APA Formatting & Style: Serial Comma
APA Formatting & Style: Lists
APA Formatting & Style: Verb Tense
Commonly Cited Sources: Finding DOIs for Journal Article Reference Entries
Commonly Cited Sources: Journal Article With URL
Commonly Cited Sources: Book Reference Entries
Commonly Cited Sources: Webpage Reference Entry
Course Paper Template: A Tour of the Template
Crash Course in Scholarly Writing
Crash Course in the Writing Process
Crash Course in Punctuation for Scholarly Writing
Engaging Writing: Overview of Tools for Engaging Readers
Engaging Writing: Tool 1--Syntax
Engaging Writing: Tool 2--Sentence Structure
Engaging Writing: Tool 3--Punctuation
Engaging Writing: Avoiding Wordiness and Redundancy
Engaging Writing: Avoiding Casual Language
Engaging Writing: Incorporating Transitions
Engaging Writing: Examples of Incorporating Transitions
Grammar for Academic Writers: Advanced Subject–Verb Agreement
Grammar for Academic Writers: Verb Tense Consistency
Mastering the Mechanics: Pronoun Tips #1 and #2
Mastering the Mechanics: Pronoun Tip #3
Mastering the Mechanics: Pronoun Tip #4
Mastering the Mechanics: Nouns
Mastering the Mechanics: Introduction to Verbs
Mastering the Mechanics: Articles
Mastering the Mechanics: Modifiers
Mastering the Mechanics: Proofreading for Grammar
Mastering the Mechanics: Punctuation as Symbols
Mastering the Mechanics: Semicolons
Mastering the Mechanics: Common Verb Errors
Mastering the Mechanics: Helping Verbs
Mastering the Mechanics: Past Tense
Mastering the Mechanics: Present Tense
Mastering the Mechanics: Future Tense
Mastering the Mechanics: Apostrophes
Mastering the Mechanics: Colons
Mastering the Mechanics: Commas
Mastering the Mechanics: Periods
Methods to the Madness: Authors in a Reference Entry
Methods to the Madness: Publication Date in a Reference Entry
Methods to the Madness: Title in a Reference Entry
Methods to the Madness: Publication Information in a Reference List Entry
Methods to the Madness: Creating a Citation From a Reference Entry
Methods to the Madness: Why Do Writers Use Citation Styles?
Methods to the Madness: Why Does Walden Use APA Style?
Module Preview: Avoiding Passive Plagiarism
Module Preview: Basic Citation Formatting
Module Preview: Book Reference Entries
Module Preview: Essential Components and Purpose of APA Reference Entries
Module Preview: Basic Citation Frequency
Module Preview: Journal Article Reference Entries
Module Preview: Web Page Reference Entries
Module Preview: Introduction to APA Style
Module Preview: Avoiding Bias
Module Preview: Clarifying the Actor
Module Preview: Emphasis and Specification
Module Preview: Using and Formatting APA Headings
Module Preview: Listing the Facts
Module Preview: Introduction to Paragraph Development
Module Preview: Transitions Within and Between Paragraphs
Module Preview: Introduction to Scholarly Writing
myPASS: Navigating myPASS
myPASS: Making a Paper Review Appointment
OLD myPASS: Making an Appointment
myPASS: Joining a Waiting List
myPASS: Attaching a File
myPASS: Attaching a File at a Later Time
myPASS: Updating an Appointment Form
myPASS: Download Your Reviewed Paper From the Writing Center
myPASS: Canceling an Appointment
Nontraditional Sources: Course Videos
Nontraditional Sources: Textual Course Materials
Nontraditional Sources: Citing Yourself
Nontraditional Sources: Works With the Same Author and Year
Nontraditional Sources: Secondary Sources
Nontraditional Sources: Ebooks
Nontraditional Sources: Chapter in an Edited Book
Nontraditional Sources: Discussion Board Posts
Nontraditional Sources: Dissertations or Theses
Nontraditional Sources: Citing Sources With the Same Author and Year
Nontraditional Sources: Personal Communications
Nontraditional Sources: Basic Entry for Nontraditional Sources
Paper Reviews: Insider Tips for Writing Center Paper Review Appointments
Paraphrasing Strategies: Comparing Paraphrasing and Quoting
Paraphrasing Strategies: Paraphrasing Strategies
Paraphrasing Strategies: Paraphrasing Example
Paraphrasing Strategies: Paraphrasing Process Demonstration
Structuring Sentences: Misplaced Modifiers
Structuring Sentences: Dangling Modifiers
Structuring Sentences: Types of Sentences
Structuring Sentences: Simple Sentences
Structuring Sentences: Compound Sentences
Structuring Sentences: Complex Sentences
Structuring Sentences: Combining Sentences
Common Error: Unclear Subjects
Structuring Sentences: Common Error--Run-On Sentences
Structuring Sentences: Common Error--Fragments
Structuring Sentences: Common Error--Subject–Verb Agreement
Common Error: Parallel Structure
Summarizing Sources: Definition and Examples of Summary
Summarizing Sources: Incorporating Citations Into Summaries
Template Demonstration: Correcting Common Errors in the Template Table of Contents
Template Demonstration: Updating the Template List of Tables
Using & Crediting Sources: Why We Cite: Examples
Using & Crediting Sources: How We Cite
Using & Crediting Sources: What We Cite
Using & Crediting Sources: How Often We Cite Sources
Using & Crediting Sources: How Often We Cite Sources: Examples
Using & Crediting Sources: Citing Paraphrases
Using & Crediting Sources: Citing Quotations
Using & Crediting Sources: Publication Year Quick Tip
Using Quotations: Integrating Quotations in the Middle of a Sentence
Using Quotations: When to Use a Quotation
Using Quotations: Shortening Quotations With Ellipses
Using Quotations: How to Cite a Quotation
Welcome to the Writing Center, Undergraduate Students!
Writing Center Website Tour
Website Tour: For Multilingual Students
Welcome to the Writing Center, Master’s Students!
Welcome to the Writing Center: Coursework to Capstone: Writing Center Support for Doctoral Students
Writing Tools: Using a Dictionary for Grammatical Accuracy: Countability, Transitivity, and Collocations
Applying Feedback to Your Paper: Grammar Feedback
Applying Feedback to Your Paper: Applying Feedback Principles
Applying Feedback to Your Paper: Paragraph Feedback
Applying Feedback to Your Paper: Thesis Statement Feedback
Applying Feedback to Your Paper: Transition Feedback
Applying Feedback to Your Paper: Word Choice Feedback
Prewriting Demonstrations: Mindmapping
Prewriting Demonstrations: Outlining
Form and Style: Welcome, Doctoral Capstone Students!
Faculty Voices: Faculty Introduction: Dr. Darci Harland
Faculty Voices: Faculty Introduction: Dr. Catherine Kelly
Faculty Voices: Faculty Introduction: Dr. Allyson Wattley Gee
Faculty Voices: Faculty Introduction: Dr. Laurel Walsh
Faculty Voices: Faculty Introduction: Dr. Kim Critchlow
Faculty Voices: What Is Academic Integrity?
Faculty Voices: Why Is Academic Integrity Important?
Faculty Voices: What Causes and Can Prevent Plagiarism? Inexperience Parapharsing
Faculty Voices: What Causes and Can Prevent Plagiarism? Using Resources
Faculty Voices: What Causes and Can Prevent Plagiarism? Time Management
Faculty Voices: What Causes and Can Prevent Plagiarism? Critical Reading Strategies
Faculty Voices: What Causes and Can Prevent Plagiarism? Insufficient Understanding
Faculty Voices: How Does Academic Integrity Relate to Students' Professional Lives? With Dr. Allyson Wattley Gee
Faculty Voices: How Does Academic Integrity Relate to Students' Professional Lives? With Dr. Kim Critchlow
Faculty Voices: How Does Academic Integrity Relate to Students' Professional Lives? With Dr. Gregory Campbell
Faculty Voices: How Does Academic Integrity Relate to Students' Professional Lives? With Dr. Catherine Kelly, Dr. Allyson Wattley Gee, and Dr. Kim Critchlow
Faculty Voices: How Does Academic Integrity Relate to Students' Professional Lives? With Dr. Darci Harland
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: Plagiarism Examples: Insufficient Citation Frequency
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: Plagiarism Examples: Insufficient Paraphrasing
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: Types of Plagiarism: Overt Plagiarism
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: Types of Plagiarism: Passive Plagiarism
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: Types of Plagiarism: Self-Plagiarism
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: What Is Plagiarism?
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: A Writing Process for Avoiding Plagiarism
Writing Process: Writing Motivation:
Writing for Social Change: With Dr. Catherine Kelly
Writing for Social Change: With Dr. Gregory Campbell
Writing for Social Change: How Are Writing and Social Change Connected?
Writing for Social Change: With Dr. Laurel Walsh
Writing for Social Change: With Dr. Allyson Wattley Gee
Transitioning Rrom APA 6 to APA 7 With the Walden Writing Center
Previous Page: Analyzing & Synthesizing Sources: Synthesis in Paragraphs
Next Page: APA Formatting & Style: Latin Abbreviations

APA Formatting & Style: Abbreviations

Last updated 3/12/2020

Video Length: 2:42

Visual: Screen opens to a background image with a person typing on a laptop and a notebook and pencil, along with the Walden University Writing Center logo. The title Walden University Writing Center and tagline “Your writing, grammar, and APA experts” appears on the screen. The screen changes to show the series title “Formatting & Style” and the video title “Abbreviations.”

Audio: Guitar music

Visual: Video changes to new slide titled, “Abbreviations." Below the title are two rules for acronyms. The rules are in blue boxes with large text, and examples for these rules are in small grey boxes to the right of the blue boxes. These rules and examples are as follows:

Introduce once within parenthesis

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
English language learners (ELLs)

Combine abbreviations and a citation

The Department of Education (DOE; 2012)
(The Department of Education [DOE], 2012)
(DOE, 2012)

Audio: Abbreviations can be a helpful way of shortening phrases or names when you use them repeatedly in your writing. This can help you with concision in your writing. However, at the same time, you also want to be clear in your writing, and so it’s important that you introduce abbreviations and use them consistently when you do use them. Additionally, you don’t want to overuse abbreviations, because then you may be asking the reader to keep track of multiple abbreviations in their head at the same time, and your writing could then become difficult for a reader to follow.

All of this is to say, you should work towards a balanced use of abbreviations, using them to help you achieve concision but not using them so much that they become difficult for your reader.

To use abbreviations, you’ll first want to spell out the phrase or name, followed by the abbreviation in parentheses. Then, in any subsequent use of that phrase or name, only use the abbreviation. Let’s look at our examples. In each case, we’ve written out the full phrase or name, and then we have introduced the abbreviation in parentheses. The “Center for Disease Control and Prevention” becomes the “CDC” and the phrase “English language learners” becomes “ELLs”.

Another situation you might encounter is the need to introduce an abbreviation as part of a citation when you’d like to shorten a group author. How you introduce the abbreviation will depend on whether you’re using a narrative or parenthetical citation. With a narrative citation, introduce the abbreviation in parentheses with the publication year. In a parenthetical citation, introduce the abbreviation in brackets. Then, for any subsequent citations, simply use the abbreviation in place of the group author’s full name.

Visual: Video transitions to new slide still titled, “Abbreviations,” with three examples of what not to do when referring to an acronym or abbreviation. Lines are drawn from each example with a note about why each is wrong (listed in a). The following samples and explanations are provided, and as the speaker continues, each correction is displayed.

Abbreviation should be in parentheses.
Correction: The English language learners (ELLs) in my class give a different perspective.
Repetition of learner and students.
Correction: Often ELLs have different experiences they can expose other students to.”
No needs to spell out phrase.
Correction: ELLs are thus a valuable addition to classes.

Audio: Abbreviations can take some practice to get used to, so let’s look at a few common errors when using abbreviations. In this first example, the way the abbreviation is introduced is switched; the abbreviation should be in parentheses, rather than the other way around.

In this second example, the abbreviation includes a word that is then repeated (as a synonym) in the sentence. If we read this sentence with the abbreviation spelled out, it would read as, “Often English language learners students…” Instead, the repeated noun “students” should be removed.

Finally, in our third example, the abbreviation wasn’t used at all, even though it had already been introduced. Instead, a simple solution is to swap out the phrase for the abbreviation.

Now you’re prepared to use abbreviations appropriately in your writing and avoid these common abbreviation mistakes.

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How to introduce acronyms

Traditional brackets.

The standard way to introduce an acronym or initialism is to place it in round brackets after the full term. This is the approach I’ve used in many of the above examples. That is, suppose we wish to introduce the initials ‘AWP’ for ‘acoustic wave propagator’. We would write:

Correct: “In this paper, an acoustic wave propagator (AWP) approach is employed to investigate sound propagation around a barrier.”

This approach is the simplest and the easiest to understand and follow, so it is the most commonly used in academic writing. This is therefore the default approach for most writers.

However, there are several other ways to introduce an acronym or initialism, each with its own benefits. I mentioned earlier that many editors and journals will automatically call for acronyms and initialisms to be introduced at the first use of a term in a body of text, but I also discussed the benefits of introducing them later or reintroducing them at different points. These alternative approaches for explaining an acronym are useful for allowing a writer to reintroduce acronyms and initialisms or to introduce them later in a document.

Explicit introduction

The most obvious way to introduce an acronym or initialism is to explicitly introduce it within the sentence. That is, rather than simply putting the initials in brackets, the sentence explicitly presents them as an alternative name. Let’s look at some examples:

Correct: “They developed the acoustic wave propagator, also known as an AWP, as an analogy to the quantum wave propagator.”
Correct: “They developed the acoustic wave propagator, or AWP, as an analogy to the quantum wave propagator.”
Correct: “They developed the acoustic wave propagator, abbreviated as AWP, as an analogy to the quantum wave propagator.”
Correct: “They developed the acoustic wave propagator, written as AWP, as an analogy to the quantum wave propagator.”
Correct: “They developed the acoustic wave propagator (hereafter, AWP) as an analogy to the quantum wave propagator.”

This approach emphasizes the use of ‘AWP’ as an abbreviation for acoustic wave propagator. This is a good way to preserve a late or repeated introduction so that an editor won’t shift it. For example, let’s look at the formal definition of the acoustic wave propagator:

Correct: “Integrating Equation 3.8 with respect to time produces a formal solution for the state vector Φ(x, t), where exp(−(t−t0)H) is the acoustic wave propagator, or AWP.”

This way, we can reintroduce or late-introduce the initials AWP and explain to the reader that this is a propagator function for the acoustic wave equation, while also using the full name as part of the formal definition. This approach is also useful for stressing that a particular acronym or initialism is an alternate standard or common name, not merely an abbreviation. For example:

Correct: “Schemes for quantum computation are based around interactions between external control fields and quantum bits, or qubits for short.”
Correct: “Using data from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, also known simply as WMAP, we analyze the cosmic microwave background (CMB).”

Reversed explanation

Another way to introduce an acronym or initialism is a reverse approach, that is, to give the initials first followed by the full name. Let’s see how that would look:

Correct: “The algorithms were coded in the Fortran 90 programming language using the FFTW (Fastest Fourier Transform in the West) package.”

This approach emphasizes the initials over the full name. This is useful for cases where the acronym or initialism is the proper name, and the full term is more of a description, as is the case with many software titles, project names, and things named with backronyms and contrived acronyms, which might be too difficult to explain in the normal way. Let’s look at some more examples:

Correct: “Integrating Equation 3.8 with respect to time produces a formal solution for the state vector Φ(x, t), where exp(−(t−t0)H) is the AWP, that is, an acoustic wave propagator.”
Correct: “The Navier–Stokes equations are solved using the SIMPLEC algorithm (Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure Linked Equations-Consistent).”
Correct: “Schemes for quantum computation are based around interactions between external control fields and qubits, or quantum bits.”
Correct: “We employ a hydrogen maser (for ‘microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation’) as a frequency reference…”

By reversing the standard rule and added extra emphasis, this approach can be used to preserve a repeated introduction being used as a reminder for the reader, as an editor ought to think twice before removing it.

Capitalized letters

You will often see acronyms and initialisms introduced with the initial letters of the full term capitalized. For example:

Correct but unclear: “In this paper, an Acoustic Wave Propagator (AWP) approach is employed to investigate sound propagation around a barrier.”

This emphasizes which letters are used in the acronym or initialism; here, A, W, and P are capitalized and so make up ‘AWP’. This is particularly useful when the acronym or initialism is made up of letters that aren’t necessarily the initial letters. For example,

Correct but unclear: “Quantum ChromoDynamics (QCD)”
Correct but unclear: “Superconducting QUantum Interference Device (SQUID)”
Correct but unclear: “FLoridA Multi-object Imaging Near-infrared Grism Observational Spectrometer (FLAMINGOS)”

However, although this is a common style, I don’t believe this is an effective approach, as it can be ambiguous or confusing to a reader. In written English, capital letters are reserved for the beginnings of sentences, titles, and proper nouns, that is, the names of people, organizations, and commercial products. Using capital letters for ordinary terms makes them appear to be proper nouns, not common nouns, which can be confusing for the reader. For example, ‘Acoustic Wave Propagator’ appears to be the official name of a software program or algorithm, which is incorrect; ‘acoustic wave propagator’ is an ordinary noun for a mathematical function. In addition, the extra capital letters in words like ‘QUantum’ and ‘FLoridA’ make them harder to read and they don’t appear like normal words or names. Instead, I feel most readers are familiar with acronyms and initialisms enough to know that the first letters of each word will make up the following acronym or initialism, if it is simple: “acoustic wave propagator (AWP)” is quite clear. I recommend reserving capital-letter introductions for proper nouns and for complex acronyms and initialisms in reversed introductions. For example:

Proper noun with capitals: “…at the National Center for Research on Earthquake Engineering (NCREE).”
Proper noun with capitals: “…using the Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure Linked Equations-Consistent (SIMPLEC) algorithm.”
Proper noun with capitals and reverse introduction: “…using the SIMPLEC (Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure Linked Equations-Consistent) algorithm.”
Proper noun with capitals and reverse introduction: “with the FLAMINGOS (FLoridA Multi-object Imaging Near-infrared Grism Observational Spectrometer)”
Common noun with reverse introduction: “using a SQUID (Superconducting QUantum Interference Device) to measure…”

Nevertheless, you should check the author guidelines for a journal or conference to see if they have a preferred style before submitting your paper.

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How to indicate that a word / acronym X will refer to Y in academic writing

How would I indicate, for example, that I am going to use "toms" to mean "tomatoes". Something like:

Tomatoes (toms) are red. This is false as some toms are green. I like toms.

single-word-requests

I have often seen it in brackets, as in your example, with quotation marks and a capital:

Tomatoes ("Toms") are red. This is false, as some Toms are green. I like Toms.

I suppose the capital is not always necessary if the thing referred to isn't a name or a proper noun; however, it is easier to spot that this thing is special later if you use a capital throughout.

In legal texts, they use hereafter or hereinafter :

Tomatoes, hereafter called "Toms", are red. This is false, as some Toms are green. I like Toms.

But this is not recommended in academic writing. You could simply use in this paper and explain what you're going to do:

Tomatoes, which will be referred to as "Toms" in this paper, are red. This is false, as some Toms are green. I like Toms. Tomatoes, which we will refer to as "Toms" in this paper, are red. This is false, as some Toms are green. I like Toms.

What about "Tomatoes (hereinafter referred to as 'Toms') are red."? – Erik Humphrey Commented Oct 12, 2016 at 17:25
1 @ErikHumphrey: Sounds good to me! The only thing is that the word herinafter is widely considered very formal outside legal text; I don't think I've ever seen it in an academic article. – Cerberus - Reinstate Monica Commented Oct 12, 2016 at 17:28
@ErikHumphrey, I use hereafter "Toms" – Pacerier Commented Feb 24, 2018 at 17:53
@Cerberus, Re "not recommended.."; Why not? – Pacerier Commented Feb 24, 2018 at 17:53
@Pacerier: Well, I would say it is a bit too formal for (non-legal) academic writing? Maybe I can be proved wrong here. – Cerberus - Reinstate Monica Commented Feb 26, 2018 at 2:41

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10 Tips for Using Abbreviations Correctly

How and When to Use Abbreviations in Formal Writing

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Writing Essays
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English Grammar
Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
B.A., English, State University of New York

"Provided they are not obscure to the reader, abbreviations communicate more with fewer letters. Writers have only to ensure that the abbreviations they use are too well known to need any introduction, or that they are introduced and explained on their first appearance."

—From "The Cambridge Guide to English Usage" by Pam Peters

Despite what you may have heard in school, abbreviations , acronyms, and initialisms are commonly used in formal writing (though you'll find them more frequently in business and the sciences than in the humanities). Exactly how they should be used depends on your audience, the country you're living in (British and American conventions differ), and the particular style guide you're following.

Using Indefinite Articles Before Abbreviations, Acronyms, and Initialisms: The choice between "a" and "an" is determined by the sound of the first letter in the abbreviation. Use "a" before a consonant sound (for example, "a CBC documentary" or "a U.S. official"). Use "an" before a vowel sound ("an ABC documentary" or "an MRI").
Placing a Period at the End of an Abbreviation: In American usage, an abbreviation that includes the first and last letters of a single word (Doctor, for example) is usually followed by a period (Dr.), while In British usage, the period (or full stop) is usually omitted (Dr).
Abbreviating the Titles of Doctors: For medical doctors, write either Dr. Jan Jones or Jan Jones, M.D. (Don't write Dr. Jan Jones, M.D.) For nonmedical doctors, write Dr. Sam Smith or Sam Smith, Ph.D. (Don't write Dr. Sam Smith, Ph.D.)
Using Common Abbreviations: Certain abbreviations are never spelled out: a.m., p.m., B.C. (or B.C.E.), A.D. (or C.E.). Unless your style guide says otherwise, use lower case or small capitals for a.m. and p.m. Use capital letters or small caps for B.C. and A.D. (the periods are optional). Traditionally, B.C. comes after the year and A.D. comes before it, but nowadays the abbreviation commonly follows the year in both instances.
Abbreviating Months and Days: If the month is preceded or followed by a numeral (14 Aug. or Aug. 14), abbreviate months as follows: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., Aug., Sep. (or Sept.), Oct., Nov., Dec. Don't abbreviate May, June, or July. As a general rule, don't abbreviate the month if it appears alone or with just the year—and don't abbreviate the days of the week unless they appear in charts, tables, or slides.
Using the Abbreviation Etc.: The Latin abbreviation etc. (short for et cetera) means "and others." Never write "and etc." Do not use etc. at the end of a list introduced by "such as" or "including."
Placing a Period After Each Letter in an Acronym or an Initialism: Though there are exceptions, as a general rule omit the periods: NATO, DVD, IBM.
Punctuating an Abbreviation at the End of a Sentence: Use a single period when an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence. The single period does double duty—marking the abbreviation and closing the sentence.
Avoid RAS Syndrome: RAS syndrome is a humorous initialism for "Redundant Acronym (or Abbreviation) Syndrome syndrome." Avoid redundant expressions such as ATM machine and BBC corporation.
Avoid Alphabet Soup: Alphabet soup (a.k.a. initialese) is a metaphor for using an overabundance of abbreviations and acronyms. If you're unsure whether the meaning of an abbreviation is familiar to your readers, write out the entire word.
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Abbreviations in essays

August 22, 2009 by Roy Johnson

sample from HTML program and PDF book

1. The following is a list of abbreviations in essays you will often come across – mainly in the text, the index, or the bibliography of books designed for serious readers.

2. They are nearly all brief or abbreviated forms of expressions in Latin.

3. Many people also make use of them when taking notes, and they are also used in the footnotes and endnotes of academic writing. Examples below.

4. Don’t use abbreviations in the main text of any formal writing. If you wish to use these terms, they should be written out in full.

5. That is, don’t put e.g. , but write out for example .

6. Notice that a full stop is placed after an abbreviation, but not when the full word is used.

7. This is correct usage, but sometimes the full stop may be omitted in order to avoid double punctuation.

8. Note that these terms are often shown in italics.

9. You should never begin a sentence with an abbreviation.


	appendix
	born. For example, b.1939
	about: usually with a date. For example: c.1830.
	( ) compare.
	chapter (plural )
	column (plural )
	died. For example, d.1956
	( ) the same.
	( ) for example.
	edition; edited by; editor (plural )
	especially.
	( , or ) and others. For example, Harkinson et. al.
	( ) and the following. For example, p.36 et seq.
	( ) and so forth. [An over-used term. Worth avoiding.]
	figure (plural )
	following. For example, 8ff. = page 8 and the following pages.
	( ) in the same place: from the source previously mentioned.
	( ) that is.
	( ) below: refers to a section still to come.
	line (plural ) [NB! easily mistaken for numbers ‘One’ and ‘Eleven’.]
	( ) at the place quoted: from the same place.
	note, footnote (plural )
	no date given
	( ) from the work already quoted.
	page (plural ) For example, p.15 [Always precedes the number.]
	paragraph (plural )
	in many places: too many references to list.
	( ) look up this point elsewhere. For example, q.v. p.32.
	thus. As printed or written in the original. usually in square brackets [sic].
	above: in that part already dealt with.
	translator, translated by.
	( ) namely, that is to say. For example: Under certain conditions, viz…
	volume (plural, )

Here’s the use of abbreviation in an academic footnote. The first reference used edn for edition and p for page. The second reference uses ibid for ‘in the same place’.

2. Judith Butcher, Copy Editing: the Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Authors, and Publishers , 3rd edn., Cambridge University Press, 1992, p.234. 3. Butcher, ibid., p.256

Here’s an example which uses the abbreviated names of two well-known organisations:

The BBC reported yesterday that the leaders of NATO had agreed to discuss the crisis as a matter of urgency.

Abbreviations are commonly used in displaying web site addresses:

http://www.bath.ac.uk/BUBL/home.html

Every term in this address, apart from the names ‘Bath’ and ‘home’, are abbreviations

http = hypertext transfer protocol www = world wide web ac = academic uk = United Kingdom html = hypertext markup language

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How to write an essay introduction | 4 steps & examples

How to Write an Essay Introduction | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on February 4, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A good introduction paragraph is an essential part of any academic essay . It sets up your argument and tells the reader what to expect.

The main goals of an introduction are to:

Catch your reader’s attention.
Give background on your topic.
Present your thesis statement —the central point of your essay.

This introduction example is taken from our interactive essay example on the history of Braille.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

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Step 1: hook your reader, step 2: give background information, step 3: present your thesis statement, step 4: map your essay’s structure, step 5: check and revise, more examples of essay introductions, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the essay introduction.

Your first sentence sets the tone for the whole essay, so spend some time on writing an effective hook.

Avoid long, dense sentences—start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

The hook should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of the topic you’re writing about and why it’s interesting. Avoid overly broad claims or plain statements of fact.

Examples: Writing a good hook

Take a look at these examples of weak hooks and learn how to improve them.

Braille was an extremely important invention.
The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.

The first sentence is a dry fact; the second sentence is more interesting, making a bold claim about exactly why the topic is important.

The internet is defined as “a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities.”
The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education.

Avoid using a dictionary definition as your hook, especially if it’s an obvious term that everyone knows. The improved example here is still broad, but it gives us a much clearer sense of what the essay will be about.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is a famous book from the nineteenth century.
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement.

Instead of just stating a fact that the reader already knows, the improved hook here tells us about the mainstream interpretation of the book, implying that this essay will offer a different interpretation.

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Next, give your reader the context they need to understand your topic and argument. Depending on the subject of your essay, this might include:

Historical, geographical, or social context
An outline of the debate you’re addressing
A summary of relevant theories or research about the topic
Definitions of key terms

The information here should be broad but clearly focused and relevant to your argument. Don’t give too much detail—you can mention points that you will return to later, but save your evidence and interpretation for the main body of the essay.

How much space you need for background depends on your topic and the scope of your essay. In our Braille example, we take a few sentences to introduce the topic and sketch the social context that the essay will address:

Now it’s time to narrow your focus and show exactly what you want to say about the topic. This is your thesis statement —a sentence or two that sums up your overall argument.

This is the most important part of your introduction. A good thesis isn’t just a statement of fact, but a claim that requires evidence and explanation.

The goal is to clearly convey your own position in a debate or your central point about a topic.

Particularly in longer essays, it’s helpful to end the introduction by signposting what will be covered in each part. Keep it concise and give your reader a clear sense of the direction your argument will take.

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As you research and write, your argument might change focus or direction as you learn more.

For this reason, it’s often a good idea to wait until later in the writing process before you write the introduction paragraph—it can even be the very last thing you write.

When you’ve finished writing the essay body and conclusion , you should return to the introduction and check that it matches the content of the essay.

It’s especially important to make sure your thesis statement accurately represents what you do in the essay. If your argument has gone in a different direction than planned, tweak your thesis statement to match what you actually say.

To polish your writing, you can use something like a paraphrasing tool .

You can use the checklist below to make sure your introduction does everything it’s supposed to.

Checklist: Essay introduction

My first sentence is engaging and relevant.

I have introduced the topic with necessary background information.

I have defined any important terms.

My thesis statement clearly presents my main point or argument.

Everything in the introduction is relevant to the main body of the essay.

You have a strong introduction - now make sure the rest of your essay is just as good.

Argumentative
Literary analysis

This introduction to an argumentative essay sets up the debate about the internet and education, and then clearly states the position the essay will argue for.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

This introduction to a short expository essay leads into the topic (the invention of the printing press) and states the main point the essay will explain (the effect of this invention on European society).

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.

This introduction to a literary analysis essay , about Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein , starts by describing a simplistic popular view of the story, and then states how the author will give a more complex analysis of the text’s literary devices.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale. Arguably the first science fiction novel, its plot can be read as a warning about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, and in popular culture representations of the character as a “mad scientist”, Victor Frankenstein represents the callous, arrogant ambition of modern science. However, far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to gradually transform our impression of Frankenstein, portraying him in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

Ad hominem fallacy
Post hoc fallacy
Appeal to authority fallacy
False cause fallacy
Sunk cost fallacy

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Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

The “hook” is the first sentence of your essay introduction . It should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of why it’s interesting.

To write a good hook, avoid overly broad statements or long, dense sentences. Try to start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

It gives your writing direction and focus.
It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, July 23). How to Write an Essay Introduction | 4 Steps & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 6, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/introduction/

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Acronyms and Abbreviations in Academic Writing
5 Quick Tips for Using Abbreviations and Acronyms in Academic Writing
Here's a quick primer. 1. Spell the word or phrase in full at first mention. When you first use the term that you will be abbreviating, you should usually spell out the actual word or phrase in full and follow that with the abbreviation/acronym in brackets. For example: "We then conducted an analysis of variance (ANOVA).".
APA Style 6th Edition Blog: An Abbreviations FAQ
APA Style 6th Edition Blog: An Abbreviations FAQ
Writing academically: Abbreviations
Abbreviations - Writing academically - Hull University Library
APA Abbreviations
APA Abbreviations - Purdue OWL
Abbreviations in Academic Writing (6 Top Tips)
But academic writing uses other Latin abbreviations too. You might have seen 'et al.' ('and others'), 'ibid.' ('in the same place') and 'op cit.' ('in the work cited') used for referencing sources. If all this Latin sounds confusing, blame the Romans. The key is knowing which abbreviations are used in your subject area ...
When to Use Abbreviations
Abbreviate a term in formal writing only if it appears at least three times in a document, including tables and figures. The standard way to introduce an abbreviation is to write the full form and enclose the abbreviation in parentheses, although you may also introduce the abbreviation in the flow of the sentence. Examples.
Abbreviations in Research: Common Errors in Academic Writing
Abbreviations in Research: Common Errors in Academic ...
How to Introduce an Abbreviation
Introduce an abbreviation or acronym by providing its full form the first time you use it in a formal text. The standard way to introduce an abbreviation is to write the complete term and enclose the abbreviation in parentheses. All our boats are equipped with personal locator beacons (PLBs).
List of Abbreviations
List of Abbreviations | Example, Template & Best Practices
6 Tips for Using Abbreviations in Academic Writing
The terms 'et al.' and 'ibid.', for instance, are among several Latin abbreviations used in referencing. Your university style guide should set out whether (and how) you need to use these words when citing sources in an essay. 3. Titles, Measurements and Dates. Abbreviations of titles, measurements and dates are also common. For instance:
APA Formatting & Style: Abbreviations
APA Formatting & Style: Abbreviations - Video Transcripts
How to introduce acronyms
Another way to introduce an acronym or initialism is a reverse approach, that is, to give the initials first followed by the full name. Let's see how that would look: Correct: "The algorithms were coded in the Fortran 90 programming language using the FFTW (Fastest Fourier Transform in the West) package.". This approach emphasizes the ...
How to indicate that a word / acronym X will refer to Y in academic
How would I indicate, for example, that I am going to use "toms" to mean "tomatoes". Something like: Tomatoes (toms) are red. This is false as some toms are green. I like toms.
The Beginner's Guide to Writing an Essay
Come up with a thesis. Create an essay outline. Write the introduction. Write the main body, organized into paragraphs. Write the conclusion. Evaluate the overall organization. Revise the content of each paragraph. Proofread your essay or use a Grammar Checker for language errors. Use a plagiarism checker.
Guidelines for Using Abbreviations in Formal Writing
Using the Abbreviation Etc.: The Latin abbreviation etc. (short for et cetera) means "and others." Never write "and etc." Do not use etc. at the end of a list introduced by "such as" or "including." Placing a Period After Each Letter in an Acronym or an Initialism: Though there are exceptions, as a general rule omit the periods: NATO, DVD, IBM.
Abbreviations in essays and term papers
Don't use abbreviations in the main text of any formal writing. If you wish to use these terms, they should be written out in full. 5. That is, don't put e.g., but write out for example. 6. Notice that a full stop is placed after an abbreviation, but not when the full word is used. 7.
How to Write an Essay Introduction
How to Write an Essay Introduction | 4 Steps & Examples

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How To Use Abbreviations in Academic Writing

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What’s an abbreviation?

When to use abbreviations

How to introduce an abbreviation

How to pluralize abbreviations

Articles before abbreviations

When to use the before an abbreviation

When to avoid abbreviations

Section headings

Abbreviations in other languages

When to add a list of abbreviations

Frequent errors

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Acronyms and Abbreviations in Academic Writing: A Quick Guide

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5 Quick Tips for Using Abbreviations and Acronyms in Academic Writing

1. Spell the word or phrase in full at first mention

2. Make sure abbreviations appear more than once

3. Use abbreviations consistently

4. Don’t go overboard

5. Let us help!

Writing academically: Abbreviations

Abbreviations

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Some common ones to avoid

Some acceptable abbreviations

Some Latin phrases

Abbreviations

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Abbreviations in Citations

Abbreviations in Academic Writing (6 Top Tips)

1. Acronyms and Initialisms

2. Latin Abbreviations

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3. Titles, Measurements and Dates

4. Punctuating Abbreviations

5. Contractions

6. Listing Abbreviations

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Abbreviations in Research: Common Errors in Academic Writing

Table of Contents

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Tips to using abbreviations in research writing

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How to Introduce an Abbreviation

Providing a glossary

Exceptions: Abbreviations that don’t need explanation

Plural abbreviations

Capitalizing the full form

Examples from published content

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6 Tips for Using Abbreviations in Academic Writing

1. Acronyms and Initialisms

2. Latin Abbreviations

3. Titles, Measurements and Dates

Find this useful?

4. Punctuating Abbreviations

5. Contractions

6. Listing Abbreviations

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