essay on jamaican music

History of Jamaican Music Essay

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Natty Rebel (U-Roy). The genre of this track is reggae. The bits have splits. A lot of keyboard and trumpets are used. The soft female voices humming in the background add to the atmosphere of a typical Jamaican reggae and create an impressive contrast between the soothing sound and the rebellious protest of the lyrics.

I Shot The Sheriff (Bob Marley & The Wailers). The slow tempo makes it clear from the very start that the off-beat song belongs to the genre of reggae. In this song, Bob Marley and Waivers tell a story of how he shot and killed a Sherriff. Emphasizing that this was self-defense, the singer demands more freedom for people. The song is another mini-revolt in disguise.

I’ll Never Grow Old (The Maytals). This song also belongs to the reggae genre. The composition has an ascending beat and the consistent slow rhythm, which creates the atmosphere of suspense and anticipation. A story of a man who is searching for the love of his life, the song revolves around personal issues rather than social ones, which makes it stand out among the rest of reggae songs.

House Call (Shebba Ranks ft. Maxi Priest). Beating in a slow ascending rhythm, this reggae song also touches upon the delicate issue of love and the beauty of body language.

Zunguzung (Yellow man). Due to a relaxed, laid-back melody and the rhythmic beat, this song has taken its place in the treasure trove of the reggae hits. Revealing a not-a-care-in-the-world philosophy of a Rastafarian, this song is the essence of Jamaican music.

Girl I’ve got A Date (Alton Ellis& The Flames). This song is a rock steady genre composition. It has a mixture of reggae, pop and dance styles. Sending its audience back in the times when reggae was only beginning to gain weight, this song tells about the singer’s relationships with a girl. The phrase “I can’t stay late” seems a motto of a typical reggae singer, free as a bird and with just as little care about anything.

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Jamaican Music, From Reggae to Dancehall, Has an Important Cinematic Legacy

In this essay, writer AJ Morris explores the cultural history of Jamaican music , from reggae to dancehall, and examines how the medium works in tandem with Jamaican film as acts of protest and political commentary.

At its core, Jamaican music culture is a project of self-determination. Reggae emerged in the ‘60s and ‘70s out of political protest, disenfranchisement, and social change in Jamaica. As the Jamaican diaspora migrated overseas to Britain , young artists like Carroll Thompson and Honey Boy, and later, DJs like Shy FX, rebelled against the mainstream musical and societal narratives from which they were excluded, and introduced and developed genres like lovers rock, jungle, and garage.

That same self-determination, that instinct toward rebelling against the establishment, and of course, that inextricable tie to music, is present in Jamaica’s lesser-known cultural export: cinema, which has grown alongside and been shaped by reggae , dancehall, ska, and other Jamaican musical movements. The music created the environment.

Where the island had previously been used as a backdrop or setting for films featuring foreign, non-Jamaican cast and crew — see Dr. No (1962), or Papillon (1973) — Jamaican creators took back the narratives of their culture and life starting in the early 1970s. They used music to do it; Jamaican music as a central theme and sonic storytelling device in film helped push Jamaican culture to the forefront while representing the roots of the genres and culture as seen, told, and experienced by Jamaicans themselves.

The most essential of these films include Perry Henzell’s 1972 crime thriller The Harder They Come , one of the very first Jamaican films. It was lauded as a “ landmark cult hit ” that brought reggae to an international audience.

The Harder They Come sees iconic reggae artist Jimmy Cliff star as Ivanhoe Martin, a country boy who moves to Kingston upon his grandmother‘s death with dreams of becoming a reggae star. Instead, due to the low-paying monopolies of the Jamaican music industry, he turns to a life of crime, becoming an anti-state anti-hero.

The film’s soundtrack, which includes the title track performed by Cliff himself and musical contributions from legacy acts like The Maytals and Leslie Kong, represents a golden era of reggae.

It initiated the building of a global platform for the genre as the movie spread beyond the island. Where Henzell demonstrates the division between the wealthy, uptown record executives and the artists themselves from Kingston’s ghettos and tenement yards, he also encapsulates the state oppression of the culture through his depiction of a corrupt police force’s subjective persecution of working-class farmers and dealers of the ganja trade.

The film’s 1973 theatrical run also coincided with Island Records’ release of Bob Marley and the Wailers’ album Catch a Fire , which reggae historian Roger Steffens called “an incredible one-two punch that knocked out America for Jamaican music.” This, in turn, set the stage for future reggae cinema, including the 1978 cult classic by Theodoros Bafaloukos, Rockers .

The stylish, dynamic reggae film originally began as a documentary but evolved into a feature-length film about a reggae artist’s standoff with uptown resort-owners, analyzing reggae music, Rastafarian culture, and classism in Jamaica.

Starring reggae drummer Leroy “Horsemouth” Wallace as himself, along with a star-studded cast featuring reggae mainstays like Burning Spear, Gregory Isaacs, and more, Rockers was the first on-screen depiction of Jamaica and its Rastafari that had creative direction, storytelling, and acting by the community themselves.

That agency shows in how the film presents Rastafarian life — a culmination of spirituality, community and cultural purity , centered around a belief in the togetherness of Jah (God) and man, and the fight against the oppressive evils of Babylon, the representation of colonial systems of white and Western supremacy.

Rockers is culture, unfiltered — scripted and performed in full patois, with nothing diluted or revised for an outsider’s eye. The film presents reggae to the world as it began, and in its purest form — the song and cry of the people, or as Cliff himself once put it in an interview with Ramparts magazine , “the frustration of oppressed people… fighting to get out from under that heavy weight.”

Aside from its use as a central theme or an accompanying soundtrack, there are also cinematic instances of Jamaican music being used as a narrative device in and of itself.

In Menelik Shabazz’s 1981 film Burning an Illusion , Pat (Cassie MacFarlane) navigates her relationship with Del (Victor Romero Evenas) in 1970s London, where violent discrimination , economic disenfranchisement, and police brutality consistently dictate their quality of life, and in turn shift the course of their relationship.

When Del is wrongfully incarcerated for a fight with a plainclothes cop, Pat is launched into a journey of political awareness and radicalization that challenges her previously-held moderate beliefs of Black life and liberty in Britain — a shift that’s narrated not only by Pat herself, but by the film’s Jamaican soundtrack.

As Pat’s beliefs evolve, the soundtrack’s subject matter dictates her awakening, using reggae and the British-born lovers rock to illustrate her political transition. Featuring music from Judy Mowatt, Ras Angels, and even a cameo performance by Janet Kay, the film uses the music to build the social context in which Pat exists as a Black British-Jamaican woman , and in turn reflects the context in which lovers rock — a soulful genre borne as an act of radical love in South London’s Caribbean community — exists.

Just as Pat struggles with her political beliefs and emotions, lovers rock represents the politics of vulnerability, love and loss of the Black Caribbean women of 1970s Britain.

Director Steve McQueen builds on this legacy in his 2020 film Lovers Rock , a warm, sensual portrait of a night at a vibrant Jamaican house party in 1980s West London, starring Micheal Ward ( Top Boy ) and Amarah-Jae St. Aubyn. Throughout the film, which debuted as part of McQueen’s Small Axe film series on Prime Video, McQueen uses the musical score to convey the sanctity of the soundsystem; the party is an environment of instinct, in which the attendees are engaged in a cathartic, communal release under the selector’s spell.

The music emboldens and frees them, creating sacred spaces of total vulnerability and intimate physicality as the listeners build and release tensions through explosive “skanking” (reggae dancing) and slow, close couples grinding — a duality reflected in the contrast between the explicitly radical roots reggae and its lovers rock offspring.

Then came dancehall: a bold and provocative genre originating in late 1970s and early 1980s Kingston as a working-class rebellion against conservative Jamaican society and popularized in the global mainstream by icons like Beenie Man, Lady Saw, Vybz Kartel, Spice, Sean Paul, Popcaan and more.

With dancehall came an opportunity for Jamaican women — who, despite some exceptions, were largely backup singers in other popular Jamaican genres — to claim visibility at the forefront of the genre, leading to the creation of a rebellious, autonomous female figure known as the “dancehall queen.”

These women, including the likes of Sister Nancy, Shelly Thunder, Patra, and more, would take to the stages with verve and grit, “breaking down barriers, and celebrating Jamaican female sexuality and empowered identity from the grassroots,” as Dr. Donna P. Hope writes in her book, Dancehall Queen: Erotic Subversion .

This rise was captured in the movies. Babymother (1998) — known as the first Black British musical — and Dancehall Queen (1997), lay bare the struggles of dancehall queens. Both follow the stories of women who engage in dancehall as an empowering escape from the suppression of their day to day lives, subverting the notion of reliance on men as necessity and embracing the attitude and style of the dancehall as a mode of self-actualization.

Featuring the extravagant and trend-setting fashions and hairstyles of the dancehall queens, along with cameos and soundtrack appearances from artists like Beenie Man, Peter Hunningale, Wayne Marshall, and more, the films pay tribute to the culture of dancehall, both in Jamaica and the U.K. respectively, while contrasting the economic and structural complexities of living in Jamaica and abroad as a part of the diaspora.

Jamaica’s musical and cinematic histories are deeply intertwined, as intertwined as they are with the country’s political and social histories and its global impact.

August 6 is Jamaican Independence Day, a day that celebrates the island’s separation from the British empire, and the formation of a sovereign, Jamaican state. Independence represents another layer of the spirit of Jamaican self-determination from which these cinematic storylines are derived, and the resilience and creativity of the people they represent.

These stories are still very much in progress, musically and beyond. Sonic movements like the reggae revival of the 2010s and the introduction of the hybridized “dancehall trap” genre stand as examples of the continuing evolution of Jamaican sound and culture, and how it persists as a vehicle for the frustrations and desires of the Jamaican people.

Jamaican music and movies work in tandem, building on themes of spirituality, working-class revolution, youth rebellion, culture, and community. Ultimately, they stand as a testament to the culture-shifting power of Jamaica and its diaspora’s push to define its identity on its own terms. From the soundclashes on the streets of Kingston to the dancehalls of Notting Hill, it’s Jamaica, as told by Jamaicans, to di world .

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The History of Jamaican Music Genres (From Ska and Reggae to Dub)

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Measuring just 145 miles long and 50 miles wide, with a population of around 2.8 million, Jamaica ranks 139th among the world’s most populous countries (putting it just ahead of Mongolia and Latvia).

But it’s impossible to quantify the remarkable impact the island has had on global culture, thanks in large part to a legacy of musical innovation stretching back over 50 years.

Without Jamaican music genres such as ska, reggae and dub (all of which were born on this tiny island in the West Indies), popular artists such as The Police, No Doubt, the Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Sublime, and Skrillex might never have existed.

Here’s a brief look at the rich history of Jamaican music, including our picks for the most influential Jamaican musicians and their must-own albums.

READ MORE: Top 10 Things to Do in Jamaica (For Nature Lovers)

ROCKSTEADY: A BRIEF SKA HISTORY

Though most people associate the island with the laid-back rhythms of reggae, Jamaica’s first major musical movement was the more uptempo sound of ska.

Combining elements of Caribbean mento and calypso with American jazz and rhythm & blues, ska arose in the wake of American soldiers stationed in Jamaica during and after World War II. Its celebratory sound coincided with Jamaica’s independence from the UK in 1962.

Early acts such as The Skatalites  and The Wailers remain legends today, influencing ‘80s acts such as Madness, The Specials and English Beat and ‘90s icons such as Sublime, No Doubt and the Mighty Mighty Bosstones.

But by the late ‘60s, as American soul music was becoming slower and smoother, ska began to evolve into reggae. Led by artists such as Bob Marley, Burning Spear, and Peter Tosh, reggae’s central themes of peace, love, justice, and equality mirrored the ideals of the American counter-cultural movement of the same era.

READ MORE: Interview with Reggae Music Legends The Wailers

ONE LOVE: REGGAE MUSIC HISTORY

The dawn of reggae found Jamaican music spreading throughout the world, with Bob Marley & the Wailers leading the charge.

With lyrics that balanced sociopolitical discourse, religious themes and messages of love and positivity, songs such as “Get Up, Stand Up” and “I Shot the Sheriff” made them international superstars (particularly after the latter was covered by Eric Clapton in 1974).

But they weren’t the only Jamaican musicians to break out on the roots reggae scene. Prominent acts such as ex-Wailer Peter Tosh, Jimmy Cliff, Burning Spear , Black Uhuru, Toots & the Maytals, Israel Vibration, and Culture all emerged as stars on the global stage.

Wailers producer Lee “Scratch” Perry was chosen to work with British punk legends The Clash, while British bands such as The Police and Steel Pulse proved reggae’s influence was spreading far beyond Jamaica’s borders.

In 1985, the Grammy Awards introduced a Best Reggae Album category, signaling the Jamaican sound’s firm place in the mainstream. READ MORE: Ziggy Marley on Jamaica, Ganga & Reggae Music

THE BRANCHES: DUB MUSIC & BEYOND

While the influence of ska and reggae cannot be overstated, it was another Jamaican music sub-genre that ultimately changed the world.

Popularized by production wizards such as Lee “Scratch” Perry and King Tubby ,  dub   is a largely instrumental version of reggae that was originally used to test sound systems.

The DJ would remove vocals from reggae records, remixing them to focus on the beat and toasting over the top in a chatty style that boasted of his prowess, gave shout-outs to his friends, and dissed his competitors. Sound familiar? If you love hip-hop, it should!

When Kingston native Clive “DJ Kool Herc” Campbell moved to the Bronx, his legendary parties gave birth to the sound we now know as hip-hop, influencing practically every DJ and MC that followed.

In the last two decades, a bevy of popular musical forms have evolved out of Jamaican styles, including dancehall, reggaeton, and trip-hop.

Whether it’s Bob’s son Ziggy Marley singing the theme song to the children’s TV show Arthur,  pop star Sean Kingston ,  or the futuristic techno hybrid known as dubstep, these days Jamaican music is everywhere.

And as its sounds continue to evolve and spread all across the world, we can be sure that the little island will continue to be a big influence for many years to come.

READ MORE: The History & Evolution of Dub Music  

JAMAICA ATTRACTIONS FOR MUSIC LOVERS 

The Bob Marley Museum (Kingston)- This museum features the world’s largest collection of writings, photographs, artifacts, memorabilia and other mementos from the reggae legend’s extraordinary life.

The Jamaica Music Museum (Kingston)- This museum chronicles the history and evolution of the island’s music, from mento and ska to reggae, dub and dancehall.

Peter Tosh Memorial Park (Westmoreland)-   This memorial (overseen by Tosh’s mother) includes his mausoleum, a small museum/gift shop and memorabilia of the legend’s life.

Reggae Xplosion Museum (Ocho Rios)- Provides an extensive overview of Jamaican music history, including digital photo archives, music-related art, vinyl albums and a replica of a mobile record shack.

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The Importance of Reggae Music in the Worldwide Cultural Universe

When reggae emerged in the late 1960s, it came as a cultural bombshell not only to Jamaica but the whole world. Reggae has influenced societies throughout the world, contributing to the development of new counterculture movements, particularly in Europe, in the USA and Africa. Indeed, by the end of the 1960s, it participated in the birth of the skinhead movement in the UK. In the 1970s, it impacted on Western punk rock/ pop cultures and inspired the first rappers in the USA. Finally, since the late 1970s onwards, it has also influenced singers originating from Africa, Alpha Blondy, Tiken Jah Fakoly and Lucky Dube being perfect examples. Thus, my paper will examine the impact of Jamaican reggae music on the worldwide cultural universe, especially on Europe, the USA and Africa.

Lorsque le reggae émergea à la fin des années 1960, il eut un impact culturel considérable non seulement à la Jamaïque, mais à travers le monde. Le reggae a influencé les sociétés du monde entier, contribuant au développement de nouveaux mouvements contre-culturels, en particulier en Europe, aux États-Unis et en Afrique. En effet, à la fin des années 1960, il concourut à la naissance du mouvement skinhead au Royaume-Uni. Dans les années 1970, il eut un impact certain sur les cultures punk rock/ pop occidentales et inspira les premiers rappeurs aux États-Unis. Enfin, depuis la fin des années 1970, il influence également de nombreux chanteurs originaires d’Afrique, Alpha Blondy, Tiken Jah Fakoly et Lucky Dube étant de parfaits exemples. Ainsi, cet essai se propose d’étudier l’impact du reggae jamaïcain dans l’univers culturel mondial, notamment en Europe, aux États-Unis et en Afrique.

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1 Reggae is the musical genre which revolutionized Jamaican music. When it emerged in the late 1960s, it came as a cultural bombshell not only to Jamaica but the whole world. Its slow jerky rhythm, its militant and spiritual lyrics as well as the rebellious appearance of its singers, among others, have influenced musical genres, cultures and societies throughout the world, contributing to the development of new counterculture movements, especially in Europe, in the USA and Africa. Indeed, by the end of the 1960s, it participated in the birth of the skinhead movement in the UK. In the 1970s, it impacted on Western punk rock/ pop cultures, influencing artists like Eric Clapton and The Clash. During the same decade, it inspired the first rappers in the USA, giving rise to hip-hop culture. Finally, since the end of the 1970s, it has also influenced singers originating from Africa, the Ivorian singers Alpha Blondy and Tiken Jah Fakoly, and the South African Lucky Dube clearly illustrating this point. Thus, my paper will examine the impact of reggae music on the worldwide cultural universe, focusing particularly on Europe, the USA and Africa.

1. The Impact of Reggae Music on Europe

1.1. the british case.

• 1 Sound systems emerged in the late 1940s in Kingston’s ghettos. This subculture appeared for precise (...)

2 “Between 1953 and 1962 […] approximately 175, 000 Jamaicans from town and country boarded the banana boats destined for London, Liverpool and other British ports” (Chevannes 1994: 263). And despite the 1962 Commonwealth Immigrants Act, the immigration of Jamaicans to the UK, especially England, remained rather significant throughout the 1960s. Thus, in the late 1960s-early 1970s, England had a large Jamaican community. Most of Jamaican migrants lived in working-class districts such as Tottenham (North London) and Brixton (South London), the latter having probably the largest concentration of Jamaican immigrants in the UK. It was basically in that context that the Jamaican popular music of the time, ska, rocksteady and early reggae, gained followers within the Jamaican expatriate communities through the sound system subculture 1 . In the meantime, a youth counterculture movement was surfacing in the same London working-class districts: the skinheads.

• 2 The term “dancehall” refers to the space in which popular Jamaican recordings were aired by local s (...)

3 Actually, the skinhead movement evolved from the modernist movement, a counterculture youth movement which originated in London in the late 1950s but whose peak corresponds to the mid-1960s. Modernists (often simply called “mods”) were usually from working-class backgrounds. They used to cut their hair close, both to help their fashion and prevent their hair from impeding them in street fights. They used to meet every Saturday to attend football matches and support their local teams, which often ended in massive fights between opposing supporters. They were tough kids for sure but paradoxically they “affected dandyism” (Moore 1993: 24). At night, for example, mods used to dress in their finest clothes and go to Black night clubs to dance to Afro-American music like rhythm and blues and soul music which they were absolutely fond of. They also often went to dancehall 2 so as to dance to new sounds brought by Jamaican immigrants such as ska, rocksteady and early reggae. At these gatherings, mods and Jamaican rude boys danced, laughed and drank together, sharing their taste for these musical genres. It is worth underlining that the rude boy movement erupted in the early 1960s as a distinct force among the unemployed young males of Kingston. Jamaican musicologist Garth White said that these young males “became increasingly disenchanted and alienated from a system which seemed to offer no relief from suffering. Many of the young became rude . ‘Rude boy’ (bwoy) applied to anyone against the system” (White 1967: 40-41). Thus, mods and rude boys merged together giving rise to the skinhead movement. In an interview that I conducted with Roddy Moreno, leader of The Oppressed and an emblematic figure of the skinhead movement, the latter said:

3 Roddy Moreno, interview conducted by myself on 29 September 2008.

4 “As much of Britain kept itself distant from the immigrants the skinheads embraced Jamaican style and music. We would attend all night Blues parties together and many young Blacks were skinheads themselves. Remember the [Jamaican] migrants were relatively poor and so the working class kids had more in common with them than with the middle and upper classes of Britain. We lived on the same streets, went to the same schools and we partied together. While much of Britain saw the migrants as ‘those black people,’ we skinheads saw them as ‘our black mates.’ Of course there were skinheads with racist attitudes, but most skinheads had black mates and most skinhead gangs had black kids amongst their ranks. […] Skinhead would not exist without Jamaica” 3 .

5 At that time, as Roddy Moreno explained, most skinheads were close to Jamaican youth, Jamaican rude boys in particular, whom they had things in common with. Indeed, they lived in the same poor London areas, they were bound by their country history, and they were united by the same spirit of rebellion and a mutual love of football, street fights, clothing, music, drugs (above all marijuana called ganja in Jamaican Patois) and so on. From a musical point of view, Jamaican artists like Prince Buster, Lauren Aitken, Max Romeo, Desmond Dekker and The Hot Red All Stars, among others, met great success within the skinhead movement. Skinheads recognized themselves within their rebel lyrics praising rude boys such as Desmond Dekker’s “Shanty Town”:

“Dem a loot, dem a shoot, dem a wail A Shanty Town Dem rude boys out on probation A Shanty Town Dem a rude boy when dem come up to town A Shanty Town” (Desmond Dekker 1966).

• 4 Tony Harcup, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Journalism Studies at the University of Sheffield (...)

6 Some of the above-mentioned artists even dedicated some of their songs to this faithful audience. Lauren Aitken’s “Skinhead Train” (1969) and The Hot Red All Stars’s “Skinhead Don’t Fear” (1970) clearly illustrate this fact. But, by the mid 1970s, the British National Front (BNF) started recruiting skinheads as street soldiers since they were known for their violence and there was an ideal breeding ground for racism. Indeed, Roddy Moreno emphasized in the interview that “there were skinheads with racist attitudes.” In addition, it is said that assaults on Asians (“Paki-bashing”) and homosexuals (“fag-bashing”) were common forms of skinhead brutality 4 . It was at that stage that racism infiltrated into the skinhead movement. Mark Downie, an ex-skinhead and leader of the English ska band N°1 Station, said regarding that phenomenon:

5 Mark Downie, interview conducted by myself on 30 September 2008.

7 “By 1975, skinheads had grown up and moved on to different things, and the upsurge of far-right politics in the form of the National Front was actively leafleting the football terraces, targeting past and present skinheads, and effectively hijacking the fashion” 5 .

6 For further information on the skinhead movement, see George Marshall 1991.

8 The influence of the BNF led to a split within the movement becoming divided between traditional skinheads, namely non-racist ones who remained faithful to Jamaican music, and Neo-Nazi skinheads (called boneheads by traditional skinheads) who turned to a sort of violent punk music. However, despite this regrettable divide, the traditional skinhead movement has perpetuated itself, giving rise to similar branches throughout the world, especially in Europe and the USA 6 .

Photo 1. Jamaican ska singer Prince Buster surrounded by Spanish skinheads

Source: Henrique Simoes, April 2004

10 Reggae music not only influenced the skinhead movement, but it also strongly influenced the punk movement, partly thanks to Don Letts, a young black man born in London of Jamaican parents. In 1977, Don Letts was a DJ at the legendary nightclub The Roxy where he introduced reggae and dub to the burgeoning punk rock scene, thereby influencing British punk bands like The Clash and The Sex Pistols. In an interview that I conducted with Don Letts, he explained to me how he happened to play reggae in this famous punk-oriented club:

7 Don Letts, interview conducted by myself on 24 March 2009.

11 “This was so early in the punk movement that there weren’t any punk record to play. So I played what I loved, dub reggae, and lucky for me the punks loved it too, although I did slip in a bit of New York Dolls, Iggy and the Stooges and the MC5 occasionally. They liked the bass lines and the anti-Establishment stance and the fact that the songs were about something (and they didn’t mind the weed either!)” 7 . The same year, The Clash started mixing punk and reggae rhythms together and they covered Junior Murvin’s reggae hit “Police And Thieves.” As for Bob Marley, whom was actually Don Letts’ friend and moreover had been introduced to the punk scene by the latter, he released “Punky Reggae Party,” a tune that became the anthem to the cultural exchange that Don Letts had created at the Roxy. Another song that deserves to be quoted is The Clash’s “The Guns Of Brixton” which evokes police repression in Brixton and echoes the subsequent riots in 1981:

“When they kick out your front door How you gonna come? With your hands on your head Or on the trigger of your gun When the law break in How you gonna go? Shot down on the pavement Or waiting in death row You can crush us You can bruise us But you’ll have to answer to Oh, Guns of Brixton” (The Clash 1979).

• 8 For further information on the links between the punk and reggae movements in the UK during the 197 (...)

12 This song clearly represents the anger of the people against a society which makes them live in misery, the police incarnating this society. Actually, punk rock and reggae music, though completely different from a musical perspective, shared some similarities, to begin with the fact that they both were counterculture musical movements, spreading a message of rebellion against the Establishment. In other words, punks and Rastas shared a same idea of freedom and of rebellion against social norms and the setting of these norms 8 . Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, numerous other British pop and rock artists were inspired by reggae and paid tribute to it, among which: The Rolling Stones; Eric Clapton –– in 1974, he cut Bob Marley’s “I Shot The Sheriff” which was a true hit ––; Nina Hagen, who is German by birth but made a career in Britain; The Police led by Sting –– “Roxanne” was a worldwide hit in 1978 ––; Culture Club led by Boy George and so forth.

13 Most recently, reggae, dub and dancehall have also greatly influenced the British electronic musical scene which finds its roots in the remix technique quasi-intrinsic to Jamaican music since the emergence of dub in the late 1960s (Veal 2007: 2). It gave rise to new musical genres such as drum and bass, jungle and trip-hop, the latter being pioneered by artists like Massive Attack, Portishead or Tricky. The three of them are originating from Bristol (South West, England). Besides remix, the sound system subculture has also greatly impacted on the British electronic musical scene, resulting in the rave or free parties, namely events held outdoors or in disused buildings. Spiral Tribe, a group of artists originating from London were among the first to organize this type of unlicensed parties in the UK in the early 1990s. It is worth adding that dreadlocks and ganja which belong to the world of ravers also seem to result from the Jamaican reggae universe. Last but not least, Jamaican reggae has obviously fathered British reggae whose emblematic figures remain Steel Pulse, Aswad, UB 40, Maxi Priest and Bitty McLean among others. Such musical and social phenomena are not exclusively linked with the UK, but they have spread throughout Europe. France, for instance, is another European country which has been greatly influenced by reggae both musically and culturally.

1.2. The French Case

14 In the late 1970s, lured by the rebellious aspect of reggae, pop singers like Bernard Lavilliers and Serge Gainsbourg were among the first white French artists to record reggae rhythms. In the meantime, numerous young people of African and French Caribbean origins recognized themselves in the socio-politico-spiritual message conveyed by Jamaican reggae music, which gave birth to a French reggae school pioneered by artists like Pablo Master, Princess Erika, Daddy Yod, General Murphy, Daddy Nuttea or Tonton David. The previous mentioned artists remained on top until the mid-1990s when they got overshadowed by a new wave of reggae artists mostly composed of white singers such like Pierpoljak, Sinsemilia, Tryo, Baobab and Mister Gang among others. However, since the early 21 st century, a new generation of reggae/ dancehall artists has emerged headed by people mainly coming from the French West Indies. Among the latter, it is important to mention singers like Lord Kossity, Mr. Janik, Raggasonic and more recently Admiral T, Straika D and Yaniss Odua.

• 9 The May 1968 events started with huge demonstrations in French industry and among students, and cul (...)
• 10 The 2005 civil unrest consisted of a series of riots and violent clashes, involving mainly the burn (...)

15 To understand the importance of reggae in the French popular culture, two major facts must be taken into account. The first one is the old tradition of French rebellious thought characterized among other things by the French revolution of 1789, the widespread unrest of May 1968 9 , the civil turmoil of October and November 2005 10 and the long tradition of left-wing intellectuals and artists such as Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Boris Vian, Jacques Brel, Léo Ferré, Georges Brassens, Barbara and Juliette Gréco. This must certainly be one of the reasons why numerous white people like and/ or play reggae in France. The second fact is that France is a former colonial power, which has played a direct role in the fact that French society is clearly a multicultural and multiethnic one. Consequently, many immigrants and young people of African and West Indian origins have been recognizing themselves in this musical style denouncing slavery, colonialism, exclusion and oppression. Reggae lyrics’ spirituality has also attracted them, all the more so since Rastafari is a Pan-African religion. Indeed, Blacks are generally spiritual and mystic people. Kenyan-born philosopher John Mbiti emphasizes this point in his Concepts of God in Africa stating that “African people do not know how to exist without religion” (Mbiti 1998: 95). Finally, the Jamaican-African reggae rhythm does appeal to these people of African and Caribbean descents. The following excerpts will give the reader a general idea of what French reggae is:

“Issus d’un peuple qui a beaucoup souffert Nous sommes issus d’un peuple qui ne veut plus souffrir Dédicacé par Mosiah Garvey Autour d’un drapeau il faut se rassembler Le rouge pour le sang que l’oppresseur a fait couler Le vert pour l’Afrique et ses forêts Le Jaune pour tout l’or qu’ils nous ont volé Noir parce qu’on n’est pas blanc, on est tous un peu plus foncé Symbole d’unité africaine de solidarité Noir et ensemble faut danser, Tonton reviens DJ…” (Tonton David 1990)

“Originating from a people who has suffered a lot We come from a people who no longer wants to suffer Dedicated by Mosiah Garve y Around a flag we must rally Red for bloodshed made by oppressors Green for Africa and its forests Yellow for all the gold they have stolen from us Black because we’re not White, we’re all a bit darker Symbol of African unity of solidarity Black and together we must dance, Tonton is back as a DJ…” (my own translation);

“Tes yeux sont bleus ta peau est blanche tes lèvres sont rouges Qu’est-ce que je vois au lointain ? C’est un drapeau qui bouge Peux tu me dire ce qui se passe ? Qui représente une menace ? Est-ce toi qui ne veux pas perdre la face ? […] On dit tout haut ce que les jeunes des ghettos pensent tout bas Les fachos éliminent les Rebeus les Renois C’est vrai, certains me diront que c’est une banalité Mais en attendant beaucoup de nos frères se font tuer Tes yeux sont bleus ta peau est blanche tes lèvres sont rouges Si je vois un facho devant moi obligé faut qu’il bouge Je me sers de mon micro comme je me servirais d’un uzi Pour éliminer le FN, Le Pen et tous les fachos à Paris…” (Raggasonic 1995)

“Your eyes are blue, your skin is white, your lips are red What I see looming on the horizon? This is a moving flag Can you tel l me what’s happening? Who represents a threat? Is it you who doesn’t want to lose face? […] We say out loud what ghetto youths are all thinking Fascists eliminate Arabs and Blacks To tell the truth, some people will tell me it’s a banality But by the meantime, many of our brothers are being killed Your eyes are blue, your skin is white, your lips are red If I see a fascist before me, he is forced to move I use my mike as I’d use a Uzi To eliminate the FN, Le Pen and all fascists in Paris…” (my own translation);

“Moi j’sais pas jouer Aut’chose que du reggae J’sais pas danser J’remue que sur du reggae En politique c’est facile il suffit d ’être habile Pour emmener brouter les bœufs Mais j’suis pas le genre de bison qui aime les bâtons Les barbelés pour horizon Ils disent monsieur Pekah tu as une jolie voix Mais pourquoi t’entêter comme ça Prends plutôt une gratte sèche Laisse-toi pousser la mèche Et ta côte va monter en flèche Oh oh oh Bla bla bla…” (Pierpoljak 1998)

“The only thing I can play Is reggae I can’t dance I only jive on reggae In politics it’s easy, you just need to be skilful To take the oxen to the grazing field But I’m not the type of beasts that like canes Barbed wire as horizon They say Mr. Pekah you have a nice voice But why do you in that way You’d rather take an acoustic guitar Grow a stray lock And you will rocket to fame Oh oh oh blah blah blah” (my own translation).

16 Tonton David’s song is clearly a militant song dealing with Black history. It denounces slavery, African unity and solidarity as well as Black pride. This tune is obviously built in the purest Rasta tradition. Raggasonic’s incisive lyrics are against racism and French extreme right-wing embodied by the FN and its long-term leader Jean-Marie Le Pen. They also implicitly defend the multicultural and multiethnic aspects of French society. As for Pierpoljak’s “Je sais pas jouer,” it rebels against the conventional society which, according to the singer, indoctrinates people with false social beliefs and tends to recommend for white artists like him to embrace pop-rock career and certainly not a reggae career reserved for Blacks. Pierpoljak’s song is a hymn to freedom finding its origins in the old tradition of French rebellious thought mentioned earlier. So for almost three decades, reggae and dancehall, just like rap, rock and techno music, have been part of the French musical universe and numerous French people, from various backgrounds and origins, have embraced the Rasta lifestyle and ideology.

Photo 2. Daddy Mory, founder member of Raggasonic

Source: Jérémie Kroubo Dagnini, April 2008

• 11 See Giulia Bonacci, “De la diffusion musicale à la transmission religieuse : reggae et rastafari en (...)
• 12 German reggae/ dancehall DJ Tilmann Otto, better known by his stage name Gentleman, is today one of (...)

17 Similar ethno-musical phenomena have been taking place, more or less importantly, in the rest of Europe such as in Italy 11 or Germany 12 , as well as in the USA and Africa.

2. The Impact of Reggae Music on the USA

18 The major impact that reggae music has had on the USA concerns rap music. Indeed, in the 1950s and 1960s, like the UK, the USA welcomed hundreds of thousands of Jamaican migrants, many of whom settling in the South Bronx in New York. These migrants remained in contact with Jamaica through regular trips to their homeland and never lost touch with the cultural evolution that took place on the island. Thus, when in the late 1960s-early 1970s, toasting also known as DJ style became in vogue in Jamaica, pioneered by artists like U Roy or Big Youth, this new genre deriving from reggae rapidly reached New York. This Jamaican DJ culture coupled with American urban “ingredients” gave rise to rap music and the hip-hop culture in the 1970s. Jamaican-born DJ Kool Herc, who moved to the Bronx, New York, in 1967, was instrumental in originating rap music and hip-hop culture (Chang 2005: 67-85). In the following decades, numerous American rappers of Jamaican background became famous such as Notorious B.I.G., Busta Rhymes or Heavy D among others.

19 The cultural relationship between hip-hop and reggae cultures implies the existence of common points between these two universes. Firstly, they both emerged from a context of oppression and both reflect the lifestyle and sensibilities of black inhabitants of urban ghettos. Secondly, both cultures rebel against the Establishment. Indeed, Afrika Bambaataa and Public Enemy’s rap as well as Big Youth’s toasting and Burning Spear’s reggae have been denouncing for decades social injustices faced by Blacks respectively in the USA and in Jamaica. In addition, these committed artists fight against Eurocentrism and advocate in their own way Pan-Africanism.

3. The Impact of Reggae Music on Africa

20 The Jamaican population is primarily of African descent, reggae has its roots in ancient African musical forms and since its appearance reggae singers have constantly paid tribute to the motherland Africa. Not surprisingly, reggae has had a strong impact on the African continent. Actually, it is the charismatic and powerful Bob Marley who first hit the continent by the end of the 1970s with tunes like “Africa Unite” (1979) or “Zimbabwe” (1979). He rapidly became a symbol for African youth and many started identifying with Jamaicans and the Rasta culture. Indeed, it was easy for young Africans to compare themselves with Jamaicans for they were both black people living in harsh conditions –– for instance, Jamaican ghettos are rather similar to African ones ––, and above all they were both oppressed by white people from a political, financial and social perspective. Consequently, numerous Africans started playing reggae and eminent artists emerged such as Alpha Blondy –– who is considered by some critics as one of the greatest reggae singers in the world –– and Tiken Jah Fakoly in Cote d’Ivoire or the late Lucky Dube in South Africa.

3.1. The Ivorian Case

13 For further information on the role of France in the Ivorian crisis, see Kroubo Dagnini 2008a: 117.

21 Before moving on the impact of reggae on Cote d’Ivoire, let’s have a quick look at the history of this West African country. It will help us to better understand the overall situation. Cote d’Ivoire borders the countries of Liberia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso and Ghana. The most ancient and principal populations include the Kru, originating from Liberia, the Senoufo, coming from Burkina Faso and Mali, the Mandika (also known as Mandigo or Malinke), coming from Guinea, and the Akan (Agni, Baoulé), originating from Ghana. France took an interest in Cote d’Ivoire in the 1830s-1840s, enticing local chiefs to grant French commercial traders a monopoly along the coast. France’s main goal was to stimulate the production of exports. Coffee, cocoa and pal oil crops were soon planted along the coast and a forced-labour system became the backbone of the economy. In 1893, Cote d’Ivoire was made a French colony after a long war against the Mandika forces led by warlord Samory Touré and the Baoulé people. In 1958, Cote d’Ivoire became an autonomous republic before being given full independence in 1960, headed by Félix Houphouët-Boigny, General de Gaulle’s loyal servant. During his 33-year time in power, Félix Houphouët-Boigny openly favoured his ethnic group (Baoulé) and allowed France to exploit and plunder the mineral resources of his country (coffee, cocoa, hevea, banana, cotton). In return, French Presidents de Gaulle, Pompidou, Giscard d’Estaing and Mitterrand assured him a peaceful reign and turned a blind eye to the fortune he built to the detriment of the Ivorian people. Theses ambiguous, close and opaque relationships that the former Ivorian President had with France inspired François-Xavier Verschave, co-founder of Survie association, who popularized the expression Françafrique . Françafrique (“FrancAfrica”) is a term that ironically refers to the expression used in 1955 by Félix Houphouët-Boigny to describe the “good” relationships between France and Africa. It is a secret criminal club composed of economic, political ad military actors, operating both in France and Africa, organized in lobbies and networks, and centred on the misappropriation of two revenues: raw materials and the ‘Public Aid for Development’ (APD). […] This system is naturally hostile to democracy. The term also refers to confusion, a domestic familiarity looking towards liberties: presidents’ offspring, ministers and generals all take part in trafficking” (Agir ici/ Survie 1996: 8-9; my own translation). The expression also means France à fric , François-Xavier Verschave emphasizing that over the course of four decades, hundreds of billions of euros misappropriated from debt, aid, oil, cocoa…or drained through French importing monopolies have financed French political-business networks –– all of them offshoots of the main neo-Gaullist network ––, shareholders’ dividends, the secret services’ major operations and mercenary expeditions (Diop, Tobner and Verschave 2005: 106-107; my own translation). Houphouët-Boigny ruled with an iron hand until his death in 1993 and was succeeded by a Baoulé of his choice, Henri Konan Bédié, who led the same “FrancAfrican” politics until December 24 th , 1999, the date at which he was overthrown by General Robert Guéï (a member of the Yacouba ethnic group originating from Liberia). A presidential election was held in October 2000 in which Guéï vied with Laurent Gbagbo (a member of the Bété ethnic group originating from Liberia). The latter, Houphouët Boigny’s historic opponent, won the election. It is worth noting that Henri Konan Bédié, accused of embezzlement, and former Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara, whose nationality was questioned, were disqualified from running. Some people saw it as the fruit of a political arrangement between Laurent Gbagbo and Robert Guéï. However, on 26 October 2000, socialist Laurent Gbagbo, Houphouët Boigny’s historic political opponent and therefore France’s most hostile political opponent too, became the fourth president of the Republic of Cote d’Ivoire. On 19 September 2002, only two years after his coming to power, rebels allegedly coming from the north of the country tried to overthrow him but they failed. Nevertheless, they managed to control several strategic cities located in the middle and the north of the country. Since then, despite the French and UN interventions, Cote d’Ivoire has been divided between the pro-government party South (composed mainly of Christians) and the North (composed mainly of Muslims) , held by rebels. As a result, Cote d’Ivoire would suffer from an ethnic and possible religious conflict. Obviously some ethnic tensions are palpable in this country, all the more so since they have been exacerbated by politicians from all sides for decades. Yet, it would seem that economic elements also played a great part in sparking off the crisis. Indeed, it would seem that France itself, which did not want to lose its Ivorian pré-carré with Laurent Gbagbo’s unexpected coming to power, launched the conflict. This is all the more probable since, a short time before the 2002 coup attempt, Laurent Gbagbo was about to challenge French multinationals’ financial interests in Cote d’Ivoire, considering the recourse to international invitations to tender. It is worth keeping in mind that multinationals such as Bouygues and Bolloré, among others, have been controlling every aspects of national life –– transport, water and electricity. Another crucial fact to be mentioned in this crisis is that large oil, gas and gold fields were discovered in and offshore the country, natural resources which are likely to reinforce French interest in Cote d’Ivoire and consequently which are likely to give them the idea of orchestrating a coup 13 .

22 Thus, like most African countries, Cote d’Ivoire’s history has been associated with colonialism, neo-colonialism, tribalism, political manoeuvres, tyrannies, corruption, and the plundering of natural resources by the former colonial power. So, like Jamaica, Cote d’Ivoire has been a favorable place for the explosion and development of reggae which has become the principal medium to point the finger at the scourges previously mentioned. Such plagues are denounced by Alpha Blondy and Tiken Jah Fakoly who are the indisputable ambassadors of reggae in Cote d’Ivoire and the genuine spearheads of reggae in Africa. Alpha Blondy’s “Bloodshed in Africa” (1986) and Tiken Jah Fakoly’s “Françafrique” (2002) give an insight of what African reggae is. The first song denounces the bloody neocolonial policy developed by Western countries in Africa:

“Bloodshed in Africa Bloodshed in Africa What a shame, what a shame

It’s a bloody shame oh yeah! It’s a mighty shame oh Lord! See Babylonians are coming around and messing around…” (Alpha Blondy 1986).

23 As for Tiken Jah Fakoly’s song, it accuses France and America of being at the origin of poverty and conflicts in most African countries, encouraging arms trafficking and looting African natural resources:

“Réveillez-vous! La politique France Africa C’est du blaguer tuer Blaguer tuer La politique Amérique Africa C’est du blaguer tuer Blaguer tuer

Ils nous vendent des armes Pendant que nous nous battons Ils pillent nos richesses Et se disent être surpris de voir l’Afrique toujours en guerre Ils ont brûlé le Congo Enflammé l’Angola Ils ont brûlé Kinshasa Ils ont Brûlé le Rwanda…” (Tiken Jah Fakoly 2002)

“Wake up! Politics France Africa That’s bullshit Bullshit Politics America Africa That’s bullshit Bullshit

They sell us weapons While we’re fighting They steal our natural resources And claim being astonished to see Africa always at war They have burned down Congo Set fire to Angola They have burned down Kinshasa They have burned Rwanda…” (my own translation).

24 Alpha Blondy and Tiken Jah Fakoly are therefore among the greatest reggae singers in Africa, if not in the world. In Cote d’Ivoire, most reggae singers model themselves upon them, including Ismaël Isaac, Ras Goody Brown, Pablo Uwa, Naphtaline, Kajeem and Beta Simon just to name a few, and reggae pulse has become the heartbeat of the country. Cote d’Ivoire really positions itself among the major reggae countries in the world. Like the French case, the growth of reggae in Cote d’Ivoire has been accompanied by significant social impacts.

25 The most striking social impact of reggae on Cote d’Ivoire is without a doubt the fact that reggae is everywhere: live and recorded, in the country and the city, at home, in bars, in taxis etc. Ex-Wailer Tyrone Downie, who produced Tiken Jah Fakoly’s françafrique album, was really and agreeably surprised the first time he went to Cote d’Ivoire:

14 Tyrone Downie, interview conducted by myself on 8 February 2008.

26 “The first time I went to Abidjan, I was astonished by the fact that all cafés played reggae, all bands played reggae, you could hear reggae everywhere, in taxis, at people’s houses, at dances, in the ghetto, EVERYWHERE! I said to myself, ‘I am in Africa or in Jamaica?’ Even in some traditional music you can hear reggae sounds. Then Tiken told me, ‘You know Tyrone, Cote d’Ivoire is the second reggae country in the world after Jamaica!” 14 .

15 Abdou Aziz Kane, interview conducted by myself on 28 December 2004.

27 Indeed, reggae is everywhere in Cote d’Ivoire, which has resulted in a “Rastafarization” of Ivorian society with more and more people wearing dreadlocks, wearing Ethiopian colours and smoking ganja, among other things, especially among poor urban youth. The Rasta culture is such a vital part of society in Cote d’Ivoire that a Rasta village was born a few years ago in the district of Vridi in Abidjan. This is a place where Rastas, reggae musicians, singers, painters and some other artists dealing with Rasta culture usually meet. Moreover, Alpha Blondy himself recorded the video clip of his song “Demain t’appartient” over there. Nevertheless, even if young people in Cote d’Ivoire have been identifying with Jamaican reggae music and Rasta culture, elders generally have a low opinion on these musical and cultural movements which they still associate with drugs and gangsterism. Furthermore, as mentally ill people commonly wear dreadlocks (simply because they never comb their hair), they usually consider dreadlocks a dirty and messy hairstyle, if not insanity. One could conclude this part quoting Dr Abdou Aziz Kane, a Rastafarian from Senegal living in France who sadly remarked: “Africans have apparently forgotten that wearing dreadlocks used to be part of an ancestral tradition in Africa. Check your history!” 15 .

Photo 3. Alpha Blondy performing in Paris

Source: Jérémie Kroubo Dagnini, May 2009

3.2. The South African Case

28 South Africa, with apartheid (officially abolished in 1991), is indisputably the African country which best symbolizes racial and social injustices mentioned earlier. In this extremely tense socio-political climate, a voice emerged to denounce such evils: Lucky Dube, Alpha Blondy and Tiken Jah Fakoly’s counterpart, the emblematic figure of South African reggae. Throughout his fertile career which he started in 1980, Lucky Dube never stopped denouncing discrimination, segregation and exclusion, which black South Africans were the victims of. He also advocated unity among people. Among his most representative albums, one must mention Slave , Prisoner and Victims . Lucky Dube was killed in October 2007, in the Johannesburg suburb where the criminality rate is, like Kingston’s, one of the highest in the world.

• 16 Shinichiro Suzuki, ““Samurai Looking to the West”: Japan and Its Others as (Un)sung in Japanese Reg (...)
• 17 Shuji Kamimoto, “Spirituality within Subculture: Rastafarianism in Japan,” paper presented on Sunda (...)

29 To conclude on the importance of reggae music in the worldwide cultural universe, it is essential to mention the influence of reggae in Latin America, especially in Brazil with the development of samba-reggae since the early 1980s as well as in Puerto Rico, Panama or Costa Rica with the success of reggaeton since the early 2000s. It is also crucial to emphasize the Pacific region. As Jennifer Raoult claims in her article entitled “La scène reggae de Nouvelle-Zélande” (“The Reggae Scene of New Zealand”), reggae and Rastafari are extremely popular in New Zealand as well as in New Caledonia and Australia, especially among the native people. Indeed, like Jamaicans and Africans, Maori, Aborigines and Kanaks have experienced colonialism, enslavement, genocides and denial of their traditions and religious beliefs. So, many of them have been recognizing themselves through reggae songs’ lyrics and the Rastafari movement, which in a way help them to recover their rights and dignity. Last but not least, reggae music and Rastafari are getting rather popular in Asia too, in Japan in particular as showed the papers of Shinichiro Suzuki (Shinshu University) and Shuji Kamimoto (Kyoto University) presented during the 2008 ACS Crossroads Conference which took place at the University of the West Indies (UWI) in Mona, Jamaica, and respectively entitled ““Samurai Looking to the West”: Japan and Its Others as (Un)sung in Japanese Reggae” 16 and “Spirituality within Subculture: Rastafarianism in Japan.” 17 Noting that Bob Marley’s concerts in Japan, New Zealand and Australia in April 1979 are credited with being the genesis of reggae music and Rasta culture in these regions of the world.

30 In conclusion, the impact of reggae and Rastafari on the worldwide cultural universe is colossal. It is not an overstatement to say that almost the whole world have been culturally influenced by reggae music and its Rastafarian message. How can we explain such a scattering? It would seem that Jamaican large migrations as well as Bob Marley’s huge success have played a major role in spreading these fundamental elements of Jamaican culture throughout the world. Besides, foreigners appear to be captivated by reggae music because of its militant, rebellious and spiritual message as well as its positive and universal message dealing with the concept of unity. Rasta symbols such as dreadlocks, Ethiopian colours, ganja or military clothing also play an important part in charming foreign audience. In other respects, a final remark could be made: the great importance of reggae and Rastafari in the worldwide cultural universe raise the question of the place of reggae and Rastafari in Caribbean studies in France. Like rock, punk or hippie movements, reggae and Rastafari have influenced societies from a musical, cultural and political point of view. For that reason, they really can not be ignored, especially in the field of Caribbean Studies, which in France and the French West Indies, unfortunately, tend to focus on topics like tourism, migrations or environmental geography.

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Raggasonic (1995). «  Bleu, Blanc, Rouge » (Big Red et Daddy Mory). Raggasonic. 1995. Raggasonic. Paris: Source Records, 7243 8 40934 2 6, CD, chanson n°10.

Tiken Jah Fakoly (2002). « Françafrique» (Tiken Jah Fakoly) . Tiken Jah Fakoly . 2002 . F rançafrique, Paris: Barclay, 589613-2, CD, chanson n°1.

1 Sound systems emerged in the late 1940s in Kingston’s ghettos. This subculture appeared for precise reasons. First, at the time, only the white and brown elite had access to theatres and clubs. Similarly, radio was not within the reach of everyone. Last but not least, both clubs and radio played folk mento songs and jazz, but certainly not rhythm and blues which was in vogue among youth during the decade of the 1950s. So, the black ghetto youth turned to dancehall , accessible to everyone, where censorship did not exist and where music was definitely rousing. It is worth pointing out that major Jamaican musical genres such as ska, rocksteady and reggae were largely popularized by sound systems. This subculture was brought along to the UK by Jamaican immigrants. For further details, see Kroubo Dagnini 2008b: 104-119.

2 The term “dancehall” refers to the space in which popular Jamaican recordings were aired by local sound systems.

4 Tony Harcup, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Journalism Studies at the University of Sheffield, interview conducted by myself on 26 October 2008.

8 For further information on the links between the punk and reggae movements in the UK during the 1970s, see Don Letts 2008.

9 The May 1968 events started with huge demonstrations in French industry and among students, and culminated in a general strike which was perceived both as a challenge to the Establishment and a cry for freedom.

10 The 2005 civil unrest consisted of a series of riots and violent clashes, involving mainly the burning of cars and public buildings. This wave of violence was triggered by the accidental death of two teenagers, Zyed Benna and Bouna Traoré, in Clichy-sous-Bois, a working-class commune in the Eastern suburbs of Paris. They were chased by the police – though they were guilty of nothing but “being of foreign origins” – and tried to hide in a power substation where they were electrocuted.

11 See Giulia Bonacci, “De la diffusion musicale à la transmission religieuse : reggae et rastafari en Italie,” in Giulia Bonacci et S. Fila-Bakabadio, (dirs.), 2003, Musiques populaires. Usages sociaux et sentiments d’appartenance. Dossiers africains , Paris, EHESS, 73-93.

12 German reggae/ dancehall DJ Tilmann Otto, better known by his stage name Gentleman, is today one of the most popular reggae artists in the world.

16 Shinichiro Suzuki, ““Samurai Looking to the West”: Japan and Its Others as (Un)sung in Japanese Reggae,” paper presented on Sunday 6 July 2008 at UWI, Mona, Jamaica, during the 2008 ACS Crossroads Conference.

17 Shuji Kamimoto, “Spirituality within Subculture: Rastafarianism in Japan,” paper presented on Sunday 6 July 2008 at UWI, Mona, Jamaica, during the 2008 ACS Crossroads Conference.

List of illustrations

Electronic reference

Jérémie Kroubo Dagnini , “ The Importance of Reggae Music in the Worldwide Cultural Universe ” ,  Études caribéennes [Online], 16 | Août 2010, Online since 15 August 2010 , connection on 07 September 2024 . URL : http://journals.openedition.org/etudescaribeennes/4740; DOI : https://doi.org/10.4000/etudescaribeennes.4740

About the author

Jérémie kroubo dagnini.

Université des Antilles et de la Guyane ; ATER ; [email protected]

The text only may be used under licence CC BY-NC 4.0 . All other elements (illustrations, imported files) are “All rights reserved”, unless otherwise stated.

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rozmichelle

The personal blog of creative soul roslyn michelle cyrus mcconnell, the evolution of jamaican music.

This is an essay that I wrote in March 2007 for an independent study music class at Cornell. As Jamaican music continues to evolve, I’ll update this post to reflect new developments to the genre. Enjoy! (Last updated in 2007.)

Introduction

In surveying the development and contribution of various musical styles, perhaps nothing is as prominent in recent history as the musical creations that stem from the tiny Caribbean island of Jamaica. The senses come to life when visiting or surrounded by the mere concept of Jamaica, whether imagining Dunn’s River Falls, tasting ackee and salt fish, or smelling saltwater on the shores of Negril. Yet it can be argued that hearing what comes from Jamaica is the most appealing sense of them all: allowing the rhythmic uniqueness that is Jamaican music to become more than listening to it, allowing it to transform into a feeling. What is it, exactly, about Jamaican music that makes it stand out when lined up against the likes of R&B, salsa, or other forms of music from across the globe? Do these styles not have their own particular sound that makes them equally attractive to their lovers and listeners? Of course. Yet Jamaica possesses something deep down inside of the music, whether it’s a richly diverse bass line or the mingling of instruments that weave themselves in and out of sound.

Jamaican music, along with the extremely important contributions of the artists, musicians, producers and engineers, has a special combination of qualities: a spirit of the people, one that evolves with the population and culture over time and contributes to the diverse nature of the music, becoming deeply rooted in the essence of Jamaica. The social commentary, political upheaval, unique music styles of the entertainers, dancehall and sound system excitement: all of these things shape the mold of Jamaican music, but it is the composition of the music itself that makes it definitively Jamaican. Jamaican music is anything but predictable. It refuses to be static and for the few decades that the music has existed, it has continued to evolve into an even more structured and diverse sound, all the while remaining essentially Jamaican and upholding to past traditions even in the face of newer compositions. These things shape the sound of the music, and regardless of international popularity, the island never fails to keep the music inherently Jamaican.

The conception of early Jamaican music

From the abolition of slavery in Jamaica in 1838 came not only a long-awaited sense of independence and freedom, but also a well-ingrained concept of music and religion. Slaves were formerly taught to play European instruments, further encouraging their thirst for musical expression. This led to the merging of prior cultural influences with European styles of music. During a period known as the Great Revival when religious practices were flourishing, music of the Pocomania church, quadrille bands, Kumina and Jonkanoo all contributed to the early stages of Jamaican music. Revival Zion, as well, played a part in the development of the Jamaican sound, possessing what would soon become traditional inclusions of instruments and styles. Steve Barrow and Peter Dalton, in their book The Rough Guide to Reggae , characterize Revival Zion and Pocomania as a combination of “African and Christian religious elements, [involving] handclapping, foot-stamping and the use of the bass drum, side drum, cymbals and rattle” (Dalton 5). Count Ossie and his Nyabinghi drumming were also influential during this early period of musical development (Dalton 23). From these early forms of music, the groundwork for what would sprout into the buds of a uniquely Jamaican sound would soon emerge. The first of these sounds is mento.

Mento is a combination of African and European popular music and is similar in sound to the fun and upbeat calypso music of Trinidad, and its influence affected Jamaica tremendously. The terms mento and calypso became almost interchangeable. Mento is also often compared to the rumba music of the Caribbean. The music shares a similar arrangement of instruments with quadrille bands, making use of the banjo, maracas, hand drums, guitar, kalimba and rumba box, the last two being thumb pianos. Other commonly used instruments are the steel pan, fiddle, shaker, penny whistle, bongo and bamboo saxophone (Dalton 6).

By the 1950s, mento became one of the largest influences on the development of Jamaican music. Leon Jackson from All Music Guide calls mento “the ribald, witty first cousin of Jamaican reggae,” and further states:

Like reggae, mento is marked by a shuffling, syncopated guitar strum, an irreverent attitude, and a lazy, swaying danceability. Unlike reggae, mento has no sacramental roots, nor does it strain after profundity. Instead, mento makes a religion of sexual braggadocio, drinking, and good times.

The traditional mento song “Touch Me Tomato” is a good demonstration of this genre of music. It fits Jackson’s definition of mento because it has a lazy and slightly upbeat rocking mood, with the guitar and drums as the lead instruments. It also features emphasis on the one, three, and four counts in the bass line. The lyrics are also fun and catchy, which is common in mento, where the lead singer exclaims, “Please mister don’t you touch me tomato, please don’t touch me tomato. Touch me and me pumpkin, potato; [but] me say don’t touch me tomato. Touch me this, touch me that; touch me everything I’ve got. Touch me plum and the apples too, but here’s one thing you must not do!” The lyrics suggest sexual innuendo as well, which is, as previously stated, another trait of mento and other soon to emerge genres on the island. In addition, it is important to note that the influence of mento carried on throughout the decades. This song was rerecorded by other artists years after the original. For example, The Jolly Boys, who Jackson calls “the foremost performers of mento,” recorded the song (CD 1, Track 2) in 1972 during a period when both ska and rocksteady had already experienced their period of popularity.

Another good example of a nice mento track is Lord Messam and The Calypsonians’ “Linstead Market” (CD 1, Track 1), whose composition is shown below:

“Linstead Market” (Music Notes)

The song is a smooth upbeat mento song with an easygoing feel to it. It is characterized by a flute segment as well as horns and drumming. As demonstrated in the bass line, emphasis is placed on counts one, three, and four, which is a widely used bass line construction that is found in a lot of mento songs, along with a strong emphasis on the last beat of each bar.

In these ways, mento has been a very important part of the development of reggae music. As the first definitive Jamaican genre of popular music, mento is especially significant because it is also the island’s first recorded music with the arrival of the Ken Khouri’s Federal Records in 1954 (Dalton 18). This would encourage record and music development on the island from the 1950s onward. From mento’s fast, upbeat sound emerged the genre that would quickly take over the island: ska.

The birth of Jamaica’s own sound

Mento soon became influenced by the R&B and New Orleans style jazz era that was taking place in the United States. This fusion of different genres of music birthed the creation of ska, a very fast, upbeat variation of mento that would become Jamaica’s first indigenous popular music, a sound inherently Jamaican in style. The love themes and singing style that was a result of R&B’s influence definitely inspired the lyrical sound of the music, but the production of the music itself is what made ska such a success. Instruments used include the saxophone, trombone, trumpets, drums, bass, pianos, guitars. The drums emphasize the second and fourth beats of each measure—the “backbeat” that was influenced by American R&B—while the horns and bass line reinforce the main pulse of the music. The upbeat, which emphasizes every other eighth note of each measure starting with the second eighth note, is highlighted by the guitar and saxophone, particularly during verses of the song. Musicians such as Don Drummond, Lloyd Knibbs, and Aubrey Adams would contribute their outstanding skills to the popular sound of ska. A good example of a ska song is Bob Marley and the Wailers’ 1963 song “Simmer Down” (CD 1, Track 3). The horn segment is very pronounced and the song is a great example of an upbeat, party-feel track. Other influential ska bands include The Skatalites, Desmond Dekker and the Aces (CD 1, Track 4) and Toots & The Maytals (CD 1, Tracks 5 & 6).

A good example of a slower production of ska is The Ethiopians’ song “Train to Skaville” (CD 1, Track 7):

“Train to Skaville” (Hal Leonard 216)

The song, although slower than the typical ska song, has the same basic construction and serves as a good example of the rocksteady and reggae eras soon to come. This track, which has the same rhythmic construction as Toots and the Maytals’ “5446, That’s My Number” (CD 1, Track 6), has a simple yet effective bass line. It is a good representation of the bridge between ska and the soon-to-emerge rocksteady style of the 1960s. This method of having more than one song on the same rhythm—or “riddim” as it is typically called in the Caribbean—would become one of the most popular and definitely Jamaican traits. This led to the naming of riddims over the years, with many of the early riddims getting their name from the first song cut on the riddim, such as in this case with the riddim name 5446, also commonly called the Boops riddim.

The 1960s saw ska in musical domination in Jamaica. Sound systems started to emerge, where they competed to play the latest R&B songs from abroad. Yet when these songs became harder to access, local artists began recording their own music on this new rhythmic music that became ska. Two of Jamaica’s most popular and productive producers, Clement ‘Coxsone’ Dodd and Duke Reid, started working with local bands to produce what would become some of the island’s best music. Prince Buster, Leslie Kong, Lee “Scratch” Perry and others would also prove influential during this time and onward. Dodd’s Studio One Records and Reid’s Treasure Isle Records would become two of the most powerful musical forces in the industry for decades thereafter, soon leading the music to rocksteady.

In the middle of the 1960s, some Jamaicans found themselves wanting a new change from the fast ska songs (Dalton 56). Independence had just been granted to the island on August 6 th , 1962, and many people from the country parts of the island moved to the city for better job opportunities and a greater chance of success. Rudeboys became the nickname given to the youths who struggled to find this ideal place in the new lifestyle they encountered in the city. They became representatives of a slower style of music. Because of this, there was large influence on the desire for a different sound in the music and soon rocksteady would be the genre to fulfill this desire. A slower tempo, rocksteady reflected the soul of the people, with smooth ballads, rich bass lines, and beautiful instrumentation. The instruments worked in sound harmony, with the strings of a guitar playing in unison with the bass. It was during this time, as well, that the American R&B sound started slowing down to the smooth and slow sounds of Motown Records, a change that similarly reflects the shift in music in Jamaica. The one drop, which emphasizes the afterbeat (counts 2 and 4 of every measure), was also introduced in rocksteady, and although it could be thought of as doubled-up in ska, the one drop became more pronounced in rocksteady and, later, in reggae. Dalton states,

Rocksteady was slower, more refined and, most of all, cooler. Firstly, the regularly paced ‘walking’ basslines that ska inherited from r&b became much more broken-up: in rocksteady the bass didn’t play on every beat with equal emphasis, but rather played a repeated pattern that syncopated the rhythm. In turn, the bass and drums became much more prominent, with the horns taking on a supportive rather than a lead role (Dalton 55).

These traits helped rocksteady become revolutionary in its own sense, with the demand for more music increasing steadily.

Dodd and Reid would find themselves competing for years, creating a musical war to see who could produce the best music with the best artists. Dodd, for example, produced the song “Simmer Down,” whereas Reid produced The Jamaicans’ hit song “Ba Ba Boom” (CD 1, Track 8). A good example of a rocksteady song is Ken Boothe’s “Everything I Own” (CD 1, Track 9). Below is the music for the song, which shows a smooth and simple bass line.

“Everything I Own” (Hal Leonard 60)

Another example is The Mighty Diamonds’ song “I Need a Roof” (CD 1, Track 10):

“I Need a Roof” (Hal Leonard 98)

This song has a more detailed bass line. The one drop can be seen in the treble line, in the enclosed red areas as shown. Artists that flourished during the rocksteady era include Jacob Miller, Derrick Harriott, Delroy Wilson, Alton Ellis, and Ken Boothe. Phyllis Dillon, another artist from this time, also sang over the song “Touch Me Tomato, her version being a rocksteady cut of the tune (CD 1, Track 11). This became a popular thing to do, many Jamaican artists remaking a popular song even if the genre was completely different yet still essentially Jamaican.

From the late 60s and throughout the 70s, social-political themes started becoming prominent in the music. Rastafarian culture started to rear its head in the world of Jamaican music, with the influences of Burning Spear and Bob Marley picking up momentum. Burning Spear’s 1975 song “Marcus Garvey” (CD 1, Track 12), for example, is a good example of a roots song that represents the essence of what would become known as roots reggae music. Roots reggae would include both characteristics of ska and rocksteady, as seen in Bob Marley’s 1970 “Mr. Brown” (CD 1, Track 13). From the roots style emerged the all-inclusive reggae that would cover different sounds and themes. Toots and the Maytals’ “Do the Reggay” (CD 1, Track 14) would be one of the first songs of the era as well as one of the first to call the genre by its name. Eric Donaldson’s “Cherry Oh baby” (CD 1, Track 15), Dennis Brown’s “Money In My Pocket” (CD Track 16), Bob Marley’s “No, Woman No Cry” (CD 1, Track 17), The Abyssinians’ “Satta Massagana” (CD 1, Track 18), and Jimmy Cliff’s “Vietnam” (CD 1, Track 19) are also other good examples of early reggae. Bob Marley’s “Buffalo Soldier” (CD 1, Track 20), with lead sheet music shown below, is another reggae song that features a staccato one-drop that would become popular in the sound of reggae. Both Bob Marley and Jimmy Cliff revolutionized the way the globe viewed reggae music, spreading its appreciation far beyond the shores of the island. Jimmy Cliff and his role in the movie “The Harder They Come” had a huge impact on this spreading of Jamaican music to other parts of the world. It was this film that would have a huge impact on the way the world viewed, understood, and interpreted Jamaican music for years to come. Nevertheless, Jamaica never shortchanged or altered the sound of its music, even though the world was beginning to pay more attention to the creativity stemming from the island. Groups from England such as Third World also encouraged the popularity of reggae.

“Buffalo Soldier” (Hal Leonard 8)

It was during this time that the versioning of named riddims became even more popular. Artists began cutting tracks on the same riddim around the same time, eventually leading to the production and sale of riddim albums. Riddims such as Real Rock (first produced in 1967 by Dodd) (CD 2, Tracks 1- 4), Heavenless (whose music is shown below) (CD 2, Tracks 5 & 6), and Stalag (CD 2, Tracks 7 & 8) became some of the most redone song elements of all reggae history, with some songs cut on these foundation riddims up to this very day. Real Rock and Heavenless, for example, according to an online database of over 50,000 songs at Riddimbase.net, both have over 300 different songs using these signature riddims. This shows how traditional even Jamaican popular music can be and how common it is to stick to the roots of the music even as time progresses.

“Greetings” (Hal Leonard 86)

It was also during this time that dub became popular. Dub is basically the instrumental of a song with the vocals stripped off, which creates the different versions, or instrumental riddims, of a song, sometimes enhanced by sound effects and echoing. U-Roy became notorious for his classic deejaying style. He inspired many to create a form of toasting, where deejays speak over a dub with clever things to say, that would grow into the DJ styles of the 80s, 90s and today. Dub instrumentals encouraged artists to perform in a different kind of way, allowing them to speak over the song in the same manner that one would toast a song by chatting on the microphone. The dub instrumental also caused excitement over what became known as dub reggae, where echoes, sound effects, and the fading in and out of the vocals on a track became popular. An example of this is U Roy’s “Crashie Sweep” (CD 2, Track 9), which is actually on the same riddim as The Mighty Diamonds’ “I Need a Roof.” Augustus Pablo, dub instrumentalist, also was influential during this period. King Tubby and Prince Jammy are two other important dub producers. Pablo, Lee Perry & King Tubby all came together and produced a superb dub track called “Splash Out Dub” (CD 2, Track 10). Putting the version of a song on the B side of the vinyl record became very popular. Dalton states that “the majority of reggae singles from 1973 onwards have had dub versions on their flips” (Dalton 447). Carolyn Cooper, author of the novel Sound Clash: Jamaican Dancehall Culture at Large , states:

The fact that the riddim is often identical for several DJ tunes confirms the potency of the beat in shaping dancehall aesthetics. The riddim itself becomes a compelling signifier, dubbing several times over the language form and message created by the DJ (Cooper 297-298).

This trend makes Jamaican music drastically different from any other genre in the world.

Dub also played another important role. As more and more Jamaican music was being produced, sound systems would have to find unique ways to entertain and win the crowd. The most popular way to do this was to have a special remake of a song, one that featured the sound system’s name in the track. These customized remakes, called dubplates, usually had funny and instigating lyrics that would lyrically attempt to destroy the credibility and popularity of other sound systems, which is a popular feature of sound clashes between different systems. This is when having multiple versions of a song became a phenomenon. Records started being produced with a song on the A side and the instrumental, or riddim version, on the B side. This encouraged the production of exclusive sound system remakes and would eventually lead to the popularity of dub reggae. An example of a specially made song for a sound system is Dawn Penn’s 1992 reggae song, “You Don’t Love Me” (CD 2, Track 11). In the original song, she croons: “No no no no, you don’t love me and I know now…’Cause you left me, baby, and I’ve got no place to go now. No no no no, I’ll do anything you say, boy.” Yet the special of the song (CD 2, Track 12), made for the popular sound system Saxon in the 90s, goes as follows: “No no no no, can’t test Saxon and you know now…‘Cause if you draw card, sound boy, it’s the last time you will play, boy. No no no no, Saxon plays any dub you play, boy…’Cause if you test him, sound boy, you have to pack up and run away boy.”

Growth of a new style

Reggae music was definitely in its prime but was soon to be challenged by a new flavor of Jamaican music. The popular roots themes from the likes of Burning Spear, Bob Marley and others started to decline after the death of Marley in 1981, whose musical influence, had it not existed, would have hindered the development of future Jamaican music altogether (White 340). The younger generations also started craving a new sense of expression in their music, and with versioning on riddims becoming so popular, the rise of DJs soon emerged. Thus arrived the creation of digital reggae, which became known as ragga. Starting in the early 80s, this new style of music became popular in its own right with a large number of new artists on the rise. Barrington Levy, Yellowman, and Eek-a-mouse were a few of the dozens of artists who were making a name for themselves in this decade. Songs such as Yellowman’s 1981 song “Zunguzung” (CD 2, Track 13) on the Diseases riddim and Dennis Brown’s 1983 hit song “Revolution” (CD 2, Track 14) on the Intercom riddim are a couple of the songs that were precursors to what became fully digitally produced tracks. One of the most popular songs of the digital ragga stage was Wayne Smith’s King Jammy-produced song “Under Me Sleng Teng” (CD 2, Track 15) in 1985, a song that would be known for years to pinpoint the start of ragga. The sound was fresh, different, and innovative. Although straying from the instrumental inclusion that reggae features, ragga was a new spin on the sound of Jamaica music, and one that would remain popular over the years.

Artists such as Beenie Man, Shabba Ranks, and Super Cat emerged as dominating artists. Some of the most popular riddims of the 90s include Pepper Seed (CD 2, Track 16) and Joyride (CD 2, Track 17). Shabba Ranks’ song “Wicked Inna Bed” (CD 2, Track 18), released in 1989, is another good example of ragga in its early stages. It has a clear, heavy bass line, as indicated in the following:

“Wicked Inna Bed” (Hal Leonard 246)

Ragga, although digital in nature, also included traditional themes as well. The Kette Drum (CD 2, Track 19) riddim features Nyabinghi drumming that was popular around the time that music began developing itself on the island. It also knew how to slow itself down, with tracks such as Shabba Ranks’ “Flex” (CD 2, Track 20) (which actually sampled the bass line of the R&B group The Temptations’ song “Just My Imagination”) becoming popular internationally (Dalton 450). Ragga took over the island quickly, yet reggae was still large in its own right, with artists such as Garnett Silk (CD 3, Track 1), Cocoa Tea, Singing Melody (CD 3, Track 2), Beres Hammond and Marcia Griffiths (the last two being featured on the track “If You See Me Crying” (CD 3, Track 3)) dominating the industry and sometimes even crossing over to ragga riddims.

In the early to mid-90s, ragga began to change. The DJs were much more competitive, the lyrics were more sexually explicit and the audience was mainly the younger generation in Kingston and other urban areas. Hypnotic, sensual, waist-winding bass lines, feet-tapping rhythms, adrenaline-pumping tempos, and bold and sometimes disturbing lyrics all tie into one gigantic knot of music known as dancehall. It is music that encourages entertainment, enjoyment, and pleasure because of its spontaneity and variety. “Somewhere between 3000 and 5000 [dancehall] singles are produced every year” (Thompson 87). The genre started not so much as a separation from the previous forms of reggae but rather as a new interpretation of them. Dancehall became the “good time dance music” that the youth wanted so badly to hear (White 341). It soon became evident that dancehall was going to be more than just a temporary means of satisfaction. “The future of reggae [is] up to Jamaica’s youth;” thus if the youth want dancehall, then dancehall continues to flourish (White 341).

Riddim albums also became popular, which increased competition among artists to fight for the most popular track on a riddim. “Greensleeves” and “Riddim Driven” albums are a couple of the most popular compilations that release new riddims on a regular basis. Beenie Man’s song “Who Am I” (CD 3, Track 4), released in 1998 and eventually went on to become an international hit, is a good early dancehall selection:

“Who Am I” (Hal Leonard 238)

Producers such as Steely and Cleevie and Dave Kelly became some of the largest names in the production industry in Jamaica. By the end of the 90s and into the new millennium, the sound of dancehall progressed greatly. Bobby “Digital” Dixon and Stephen McGregor, son of the popular reggae artist Freddie McGregor, have become a production powerhouse in the past few years, with hit riddims like Power Cut (CD 3, Track 15). The sound of riddims changes drastically year to year, each a bit different and with a unique spin on what dancehall should sound like for a particular year. Riddims like Filthy (CD 3, Track 5) in 1998, Bug (CD 3, Track 6) in 1999, The Buzz (CD 3, Track 7) in 2001, Jonkanoo (CD 3, Track 8) in 2005, and Cashly (CD 3, Track 9) in 2006 show this variety in dancehall style. The Jonkanoo riddim, produced by Donovan “Vendetta” Bennett, was a success, the riddim getting its name from the early music form. Interesting to note is that a huge song on the riddim, Vybz Kartel’s “I Never” (CD 3, Track 8), actually is influenced by the chorus of Toots and the Maytals’ song “Never Grow Old” (CD 1, Track 5). Socially conscious themes remained relevant such as Bounty Killer’s son “Look” on the Bug riddim (CD 3, Track 6). Also popular were the typical themes of sex, weed, and general warring between artists to see who was better. Dancing tunes have been highly successful, especially after the influence of Elephant Man who is notorious for making dancing songs like 2004’s “Dance Di Chaka” (CD 3, Track 10) (which actually sounds like it has Pocomania and earlier music influences). Other popular songs include Ding Dong’s “Badman Forward, Badman Pull Up” (CD 3, Track 11) in 2005 (popular amongst the men) and Tony Matterhorn’s “Dutty Wine” (CD 3, Track 12) in 2006 (exclusively for the women). In these ways, dancehall became a popular music form in Jamaica yet is not the only genre on the island. Roots reggae also plays its part.

Culture, which is essentially like roots reggae of the 70s, began to surface in the late 90s right into the new millennium. Riddims such as Drop Leaf (CD 3, Track 13) and Seasons (CD 3, Track 14) (both of which became huge one drop songs in 2004) with artists such as Sizzla and the newly reformed Capelton and Buju Banton become just as popular as dancehall tunes. Through culture music and lovers’ rock , which is essentially a derivative of roots reggae that focuses mostly on love, reggae has continued to be a dominant force alongside the upbeat, digitally influenced dancehall. These styles possess the moderate tempo and one-drop theme of reggae music.

Over the past few decades, from mento all the way up to current dancehall vibes (CD 3, Tracks 15-20), Jamaican music has continued to evolve as evidenced by significant changes in the lead instruments, rhythmic development, and singing/DJing styles. Music itself may very well be the heart of Jamaica, and it is the creative drive of the artists, producers, musicians and engineers that provide the pulse that sustain it. In 2004, Dalton stated,

The island has produced some 100,000 records over the last 45 years – an extraordinary output for a population of little more than two million. Although few of these recordings have crossed over to audiences beyond the Jamaican community, it’s hard to think of any genre of popular music that has had a greater influence in the past couple of decades (Dalton X).

No matter what the genre, Jamaican music has continued to prove itself with unique, creative sounds worthy of praise. No matter what the year or riddim, the music remains a unique combination of innovation and creativity. The island is notorious for producing massive amounts of music each year, and the creativity never seems to stop. It is not simply the hit singles that make an impact, but also the persistency of the artists, many of them releasing music for years on end. Although the rest of the world forms its own opinion about Jamaican music, Jamaica makes it very clear that the music is not defined by outside views. Despite reggae’s internationalization, the music is a localized sound that remains rooted in the souls of the Jamaican people. Where will the music head in the future? It’s hard to tell, yet based on the way things are going, one can expect nothing short of excellence.

Works Cited

• Barrow, Steve. The Story of Jamaican Music . United Kingdom: Island Records, 2004.
• Barrow, Steve, and Peter Dalton. The Rough Guide to Reggae . 3 rd ed. London: Penguin Books Ltd., 2004.
• Cooper, Carolyn. Sound Clash: Jamaican Dancehall Culture at Large . New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2004.
• Hal Leonard Corporation. Ultimate Reggae: 42 of the Best . Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2005.
• Jackson, Leon. The Jolly Boys . All Music Guide. 19 March 2007. < http://www.artistdirect.com/nad/music/artist/bio/0,,450142,00.html#bio >.
• Music Notes: Linstead market. 20 March 2007. < http://www.musicnotes.com/sheetmusic/scorch.asp?ppn=SC0010206>.
• Riddimbase. 23 March 2007. <http://riddimbase.net/statistics.php#> (site no longer available).
• Stolzoff, Norman. Wake the Town and Tell the People: Dancehall Culture in Jamaica . Durham: Duke University Press, 2000.
• Thompson, Dave. Reggae and Caribbean Music . San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2002.
• White, Timothy. Catch a Fire: The Life of Bob Marley . New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2000.
• Lord Messam & The Calypsonians – “Linstead Market”
• The Jolly Boys – “Touch Me Tomato”
• Bob Marley & The Wailers – “Simmer Down”
• Desmond Dekker & The Aces – “007 Shanty Town”
• Toots & The Maytals – “Never Grow Old”
• Toots & The Maytals – “5446, That’s My Number”
• The Ethiopians – “Train To Skaville”
• The Jamaicans – “Ba Ba Boom”
• Ken Boothe – “Everything I Own”
• The Mighty Diamonds – “I Need a Roof”
• Phyllis Dillon – “Touch Me Tomato”
• Burning Spear – “Marcus Garvey”
• Bob Marley & The Wailers – “Mr. Brown”
• Toots & The Maytals – “Do The Reggay”
• Eric Donaldson – “Cherry Oh Baby”
• Dennis Brown and U Roy – “Money In My Pocket”
• Bob Marley & The Wailers – “No Woman No Cry” (Remix)
• The Abyssinians – “Satta Massagana”
• Jimmy Cliff – “Vietnam”
• Bob Marley – “Buffalo Soldier”
• Studio One – “Real Rock” (Real Rock Riddim)
• Cocoa Tea – “She Loves Me Now” (Real Rock Riddim)
• Dennis Brown – “Stop the Fussing and Fighting” (Real Rock Riddim)
• Cornell Campbell – “Rope In” (Real Rock Riddim)
• Half Pint – “Greetings” (Heavenless Riddim)
• Super Cat – “Under Pressure” (Heavenless Riddim)
• Tenor Saw – “Ring the Alarm” (Stalag Riddim)
• Sister Nancy – “Bam Bam” (Stalag Riddim)
• U Roy – “Crashie Sweep” (I Need a Roof Riddim)
• Augustus Pablo, Lee Perry & King Tubby – “Splash Out Dub”
• Dawn Penn – “You Don’t Love Me”
• Dawn Penn – “No, No, No, No” (Saxon Dubplate)
• Yellowman – “Zunguzung”
• Dennis Brown – “Revolution”
• Wayne Smith – “Under Me Sleng Teng”
• Spragga Benz – “Things a Gwan” (Pepper Seed Riddim)
• Wayne Wonder & Baby Cham – “Joyride” (Joyride Riddim)
• Shabba Ranks – “Wicked Inna Bed”
• Beenie Man – “Kette Drum” (Kette Drum Riddim)
• Shabba Ranks – “Flex”
• Garnett Silk – “Oh Me, Oh My”
• Singing Melody – “Say What”
• Beres Hammond & Marcia Griffiths – “If You See Me Crying”
• Beenie Man – “Who Am I?”
• General Degree – “Traffic Blocking” (Filthy Riddim)
• Bounty Killer – “Look” (Bug Riddim)
• Mad Cobra – “Press Tiger” (The Buzz Riddim)
• Vybz Kartel – “I Never (Jonkanoo Riddim)
• Buju Banton – “Try Off A Yu” (Cashly Riddim)
• Elephant Man – “Dance Di Chaka”
• Ding Dong –“Badman Forward, Badman Pull Up”
• Tony Matterhorn – “Dutty Wine”
• Jah Cure – “Longing For” (Drop Leaf Riddim)
• Wayne Wonder – “I Still Believe” (Seasons Riddim)
• Sean Paul – “Get It Right” (Power Cut Riddim)
• Vybz Kartel and Nuclear – “Sipping Sizzurp” (Sizzurp Riddim)
• Buju Banton – “Crazy Talk” (Bad Dog Riddim)
• Future Fambo – “Nuh Dress Like Man” (Drop Draws Riddim)
• Movado – “Dreaming” (Dreaming Riddim)
• Shaggy – “Church Heathen” (Church Heathen Riddim)

Last updated: 2007

hi there! I’m not sure but I’m intrigued by the challenge! I’ll let you know if I find anything :)

I heard the best instrumental version of ” Greensleeves” on flute on a reggae radio station a few years ago and can’t remember who it was. I even called up the DJ and he couldn’t remember either.I suppose it might be ska or mento and not reggae but it was beautiful. When I Google reggae or ska Greensleeves, of course all that comes up is the record label Greensleeves (lol) Who would that’ve been. Any clue? Thanks

Excellent breakdown of the evolution of reggae and analysis of Jamaican music theory. The only addition I would make would be a reference the Alpha Boys School in Jamaica. Thank you.

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Exploring the Richness and Diversity of Jamaica through Music

May 31, 2011

Mixing the rhythms of Africa with the melodies of Europe , the evolution of Jamaican music has been influenced as much by Jamaica’s cultural heritage as by the social conditions on the island itself. Until its rise to global popularity in the 1970s, Jamaican music made a journey all of its own.

After the English seized control of Jamaica from Spain in the 17th century, they encouraged new settlers to come to the island through gifts of land, and soon the economy was booming through the business of the vast sugarcane plantations. During this time, many Africans were brought to the island as slaves, who in turn brought with them new languages, new religions, new music, different cultures, beliefs and ways of life.

The eventual mix of cultures led to what are probably the earliest forms of Jamaican folk music, which were generally sung in a local Creole that came about through the interaction between Europeans and Africans. These folk songs can be placed in two broad categories: European-influenced forms such as nursery songs and ring games, and other forms like Kumina and Tambo, where the influence is clearly African.

It was between these forms that a uniquely Jamaican sound started to emerge in the form of Mento. Mento draws heavily from these folk forms, featuring acoustic instruments such as acoustic guitar, banjo, hand drums and rhumba box, and also incorporates pan-Caribbean influences. As Jamaica entered the 20th century, mento melded with American popular music, resulting in further influence from jazz and dance-band styles.

By the mid-1950s, Jamaica had transitioned from a rural society into an urban one. Parties gathered around mobile sound systems, and a new beat-driven music gained popularity. This was known as Ska, and combined elements of Jamaican mento with American rhythm and blues. The drums were taken from traditional Jamaican drumming and marching styles, and the guitar emphasized the offbeats, flipping the R&B shuffle beat and giving rise to the new sound.

In the 1960s, ska gave way to the less jazzy and more relaxed Rocksteady, characterized by a slower tempo and bass-heavy sound. This sound dominated for two years until the rise of Reggae, a term which emerged around 1968 and is now sometimes used to refer to all popular Jamaican music. There are, however, many popular sub-genres such as Dub, Dancehall and Ragga, which all find their roots in the reggae sound.

During the 1970s and 1980s, reggae achieved true international acclaim with the success of groups like The Wailers, and movies like Jimmy Cliff’s The Harder They Come. When Eric Clapton’s version of Bob Marley’s I Shot the Sheriff became a hit worldwide, it was a sign that this small Caribbean crossroads had made its mark at a global level.

Jamaican music remains today a truly global phenomenon, with fans and artists all over the world, some of who may never have the chance to visit the birthplace of this great music. Min-On now presents a unique opportunity for music lovers to experience the diversity and richness of Jamaica’s music culture. Through these concerts, which bring a great variety of Jamaican artists to Japan, audiences will be treated to an up-close encounter with Jamaican culture at its finest.

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• Sound Culture Series

A Reader on Jamaican Music and Culture

Edited by Sonjah Stanley Niaah

Contributions by Bibi Bakare-Yusef , Zachary J.M. Beier , Louis ChudeSokei , Carolyn Cooper , Joshua Chamberlain , Robin Clarke , Lena Delgado de Torres , Nadia Ellis , Julian Henriques , Audene S. Henry , Ray Hitchins , Andrea Hollington , Donna P. Hope , Dennis Howard , Kate Lawton , Erin MacLeod , Larisa Kingston Mann , Peter Manuel , Wayne Marshall , Bruno Muniz , Andrea Shaw Nevins , “H” Patten , Joseph Pereira , Anna Kasafi Perkins , Agostinho Pinnock , Tracey Skelton , Norman Stolzoff , Krista Thompson , Marvin D. Sterling and Garth White

Series: Sound Culture Series

• 9789766407506
• Published: October 2020
• Buying Options
• Description

Dancehall: A Reader on Jamaican Music and Culture contextualizes the emergence of the globally popular dancehall genre, while tracing the complex and often contradictory aspects of its evolution, dispersion and politics. This collection of foundational essays places dancehall in context with cutting-edge analyses of performance modes and expression, genre development, and impact in the wider local, regional and international socio-political milieu of struggles by black Jamaicans in particular and cultural adherents more broadly.

Dancehall is one of eight musical genres created in Jamaica and, in the past two decades, it has become one of the most influential Jamaican cultural exports since reggae. The impact of dancehall extends far beyond Jamaica and is evident in music genres (such as hip hop, trip hop, jungle, reggaeton, South African kwaito and Nigerian Afrobeats) and international fashion, film and dance.

This interdisciplinary volume documents various aspects of dancehall’s global impact, evolution and influence in gender, political economy, geography, ethnomusicology, spirituality, music production, fashion and language. Each selection interrogates the range of meanings ascribed to dancehall culture, a phenomenon which has been seen to be associated with violence, crime and debauchery. This collection exposes the immense cultural work towards self-expression and identity in post-colonial Jamaica which takes shape through dancehall and the contributors apply a new level of seriousness, depth and academic rigour to dancehall studies.

Acknowledgements and Permissions

Introduction SONJAH STANLEY NIAAH

Part 1: Early Reflections

The Development of Jamaican Popular Music GARTH WHITE

Slackness Hiding from Culture: Erotic Play in the Dancehall CAROLYN COOPER

Murderation: The Question of Violence in the Sound System Dance NORMAN C. STOLZOFF

Gun Talk and Girls’ Talk: The DJ Clash JOSEPH PEREIRA

Part 2: Negotiation, Urban Space and Experience

Post-Nationalist Geographies: Rasta, Ragga and Reinventing Africa LOUIS CHUDE-SOKEI

An Archaeology of Dancehall: Garrison Life at Fort Rocky ZACHARY J.M. BEIER

Sampling City: Kingston in the Social Imaginary of Jamaican Popular Music ANNA KASAFI PERKINS

Tommy Lee as “Uncle Demon”: Contemporary Cultural Hybridity in Jamaican Dancehall ROBIN CLARKE

Dancehall Political Patronage and Gun Violence: Political Affiliations and the Glorification of Gun Culture DENNIS HOWARD

Part 3: Engagement, Spectacle and the Language of Performance

Video Light: Dancehall and the Aesthetics of Spectacular Un-visibility in Jamaica KRISTA THOMPSON

“Spar wid Me” and Other Stories of Civic Engagement in the Sound Clash Arena JOSHUA CHAMBERLAIN

Death before Dishonour: Language and the Jamaican Sound System Clash AUDENE S. HENRY

Part 4: Sexual Politics and Aesthetics

Out and Bad: Toward a Queer Performance Hermeneutic in Jamaican Dancehall NADIA ELLIS

Fashion Ova Style: Dancehall’s Masculine Duality DONNA HOPE

Ghetto Girls/Urban Music: Jamaican Ragga Music and Female Performance TRACEY SKELTON

“A Uman Wi Niem!” Sexual Desire and the Poetics of “Badness” in the Works of Lady Saw and Tanya Stephens AGOSTINHO PINNOCK

Part 5: Sound System, Riddim and Practice

A Caribbean Taste of Technology: Creolization and the Ways of Making of the Dancehall Sound System JULIAN HENRIQUES

The Riddim Method: Aesthetics, Practice and Ownership in Jamaican Dancehall PETER MANUEL AND WAYNE MARSHALL

“‘Sleng Teng’ Dominate Bad, Bad”: Understanding Jamaica’s “Computerized” Riddim Craze ERIN C. MacLEOD

Sleng Teng: Redefining Jamaica’s Digital Riddims RAY HITCHINS

Part 6: Ritual, Celebration, Space

Ritual and Community in Dancehall Performance SONJAH STANLEY NIAAH

Egúngún in Disguise: The Jamaican Nine Night Ceremony LENA DELGADO DE TORRES

Representations of “Obeah” and “Bad-Mind” in Contemporary Jamaican Dancehall KATE LAWTON

Part 7: Adornment, Embodiment and Style

Fabricating Identities: Survival and the Imagination in Jamaican Dancehall Culture BIBI BAKARE-YUSUF

Dancehall Bodies: Performing In/Securities “H” PATTEN

Born in Chanel, Christen in Gucci: The Rhetoric of Brand Names and Haute Couture in Jamaican Dancehall ANDREA SHAW NEVINS

Part 8: The Dancehall Transnation

Music and Orality: Authenticity in Japanese Sound System Culture MARVIN D. STERLING

Zimdancehall: Jamaican Music in a Transatlantic and African Perspective ANDREA HOLLINGTON

Black Music, Popular Culture and Existential Capital: The Relationship between Appropriation and Originality BRUNO BARBOZA MUNIZ

White Faces in Intimate Spaces: Jamaican Popular Music in Global Circulation LARISA KINGSTON MANN

Part 9: Tribute to Bogle

“Bogle ah di Order fi di Day”: Dance and Identity in Jamaican Dancehall SONJAH STANLEY NIAAH

Contributors

Sonjah Stanley Niaah is Senior Lecturer in Cultural Studies and Director of the Institute of Caribbean Studies, the University of the West Indies at Mona, Jamaica. Her publications include the books Reggae Pilgrimages: Festivals and the Movement of Jah People and Dancehall: From Slave Ship to Ghetto.

Andrea Hollington  is a postdoc researcher at the University of Mainz, Germany.

DONNA P. HOPE is Senior Lecturer, Institute of Caribbean Studies and the Reggae Studies Unit, the University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica. Her publications include Inna di Dancehall: Popular Culture and the Politics of Identity in Jamaica and Man Vibes: Masculinities in the Jamaican Dancehall .

Anna Kasafi Perkins is Senior Programme Officer, Quality Assurance Unit, Office of the Board for Undergraduate Studies, the University of the West Indies, Vice Chancellery, Regional Headquarters, Jamaica. Her publications include Justice as Equality: Michael Manley’s Caribbean Theory of Justice and Justice and Peace in a Renewed Caribbean: Contemporary Catholic Reflections (co-edited with Donald Chambers and Jacqueline Porter).

INTRODUCTION

SONAH STANLEY NIAAH

THE ORIGINS OF WHAT IS TODAY REFERRED TO AS “DANCEHALL” go back to mid-nineteenth century Jamaica, before the international community had heard of reggae or any of the other musical genres that have made the island a worldwide musical juggernaut. The dance- hall has always been and continues to be a space of celebration (Stanley Niaah 2004). It is a location where communities come together to dance to music played by sound systems, the mobile discotheques which are the backbone of Jamaican music, providing entertainment in Kingston, throughout the countryside and increasingly in what can be referred to as the “dancehall diaspora”.

From these spaces a range of different musics have been developed, from mento to ska and rocksteady to reggae and dub to dancehall. Dancehall has moved from referencing a place for enjoyment to being both a genre of music as well as a culture. The Jamaican genre of reggae has received significant treatment in multiple works, be they scholarly books or more popular, non-academic publications. This anthology, however, is the first work to bring together thinking about this multifaceted concept of dancehall from the perspectives of history, sociology, cultural studies, geography, anthropology, ethnomusicology and more.

Dancehall culture is vibrant and dynamic, a demonstration of the richness and resilience that is Jamaican creativity. Over the past decades, it has presented the world with innovations in music production and fashion design and illustrated the expression of politics, sexuality, spirituality, community, and both sexual and gender identity. Dancehall is entertainment and competition, lifestyle and novelty. However, given that many of the prevailing sentiments about dancehall point to slackness (meaning vulgarity), violence and debased values, dancehall has been persecuted as much as it has been praised. There have been complaints in local papers over the years, with but one recent example being a 2015 article in one of Jamaica’s national newspapers, the Gleaner , stating “Dancehall Is the Source of Evil” (Thompson 2015). There have also been reactions and protests locally and internationally against moral codes expressed in dancehall’s lyrics, particularly around same-sex relationships. This has led to Time magazine’s infamous characterization of Jamaica as the “most homophobic place on earth” (Padgett 2006). While there are changing attitudes, what is clear is that dancehall music and culture have become easy avenues through which we can read the pulse of Jamaican sensibilities around a variety of everyday cultural norms.

So as to encompass the kaleidoscope of attitudes, opinions and ideas about dancehall, this collection brings together scholarship from the early days of analysis of the genre in the 1980s to recent work presented at the Global Reggae Conference under the theme “Dancehall, Music and the City” in 2017. The reggae studies conferences have been the source for published works, including Carolyn Cooper’s edited collection of work from the 2008 conference, Global Regga e (2013), and International Reggae: Current and Future Trends in Jamaican Popular Music (2013), edited by Donna Hope. This anthology takes account of what could be referred to as both positive and negative perspectives and does not shy away from discussions of controversies surrounding dancehall as space, genre and culture. In addition, this anthology has been divided into the following sections, each providing relevant focus on the many attributes of dancehall that will allow for a broad understanding.

EARLY REFLECTIONS

Though dancehall is the most recent development in Jamaica’s musical history, there has been scholarship on the subject since the early 1980s. Beginning with Garth White’s seminal 1984 essay, one that has not been widely available until this publication, the history of what is now referred to as dancehall is told. White provides an outline of dancehall’s predecessors and influences, not just musically but also in terms of dance itself. Carolyn Cooper, who was the first scholar to take the lyrics of dancehall seriously, demonstrates her approach and a means of reading the poetic significance in the music. For Cooper, slackness is not a barrier to cultural understanding, but actually part of the culture itself. In this section, there is also Norman C. Stolzoff, anthropologist and scholar, who completed ethnographic work on dancehall sound system culture. His chapter provides insight on the sound system dance and looks at the role of violence in the dancehall space. Complementing this is work on lyrical clashes from Joe Pereira. Pereira’s analysis of the “talk” of dancehall performers – alternately referred to as “DJs” or “deejays” – asks questions about lyrical content that edges toward violence and slackness.

NEGOTIATION, URBAN SPACE AND EXPERIENCE

As dancehall is an expression of a space, a space that is produced, as Henri Lefebvre would see it, by society and community (1991), this section deals with the creation and negotiation of the dancehall space, beginning with Louis Chude-Sokei’s “Post-Nationalist Geographies: Rasta, Ragga and Reinventing Africa” that looks at the shift from the universal themes of reggae in the 1970s (promoted internationally by Bob Marley) to the much more spatialized and individualized focus of dancehall. Instead of a complete move away from cultural consciousness, Chude-Sokei argues for the specificity of the Africanness of the dancehall space. Still focused on space, but from a different perspective, Zachary J.M. Beier provides an archaeological view of one specific space that has been transformed through dancehall music: Kingston’s historically significant Fort Rocky. This fort in the Port Royal region is the first declared entertainment zone in the Kingston Metropolitan Area, as part of the modern era of cultural industries’ regula- tory frameworks and reforms.

Anna Kasafi Perkins takes a wider view of Kingston as a whole, as expressed through Jamaican popular music, with specific focus on the ways in which dancehall has shaped Kingston and vice versa. The final two chapters in this section deal with other influences of dancehall and the negotiation of space and experience. Robin Clarke describes how dancehall artist Tommy Lee has brought together a range of influences to develop his Caribbean, urban-gothic character of “Uncle Demon”, and Dennis Howard illustrates the ways in which the reality of politics and crime impact and are described by dancehall artists.

ENGAGEMENT, SPECTACLE AND THE LANGUAGE OF PERFORMANCE

The interaction between dancehall artists and the interaction between sound systems and their audience, or “massive”, are key to the environment that is the dancehall. Notably, the dancehall is a space in which the “massive” is as much spectator as performer. One of the most significant elements of any sound system event in Kingston (and internation- ally) is the role of the “video man”, a person hired to record the proceedings. The camera takes into account not only performances but the entirety of the dancehall event, from fashion and dancing to the comments of the sound system MC and those in attendance. This section underlines this dynamic phenomenon, beginning with Krista Thompson’s work on the role of the video light and spectatorship.

The dancehall provides opportunities for audiences to involve themselves in many ways, and Joshua Chamberlain’s work on civic engagement and the sound clash demon- strates a different type of involvement on a broader, community-based level. Rival sound systems have competed using both the power of their sound as well as the content of the music they play. Chamberlain describes this phenomenon and how it also allows for the development of civic culture through the clash. Rounding out the section is Audene S. Henry’s look at the language of the sound clash: communication between sound systems as well as communication between audience and sound system.

SEXUAL POLITICS AND AESTHETICS

Given dancehall’s reputation for discussions of sex and sexuality, there is a need to include some of the important research and commentary on these topics, as well as the issue of gender. It is also important to review and expand the conception of dancehall as a simplistic and monolithically homophobic space. Nadia Ellis motions toward a different way of seeing the role of queerness in dancehall by thinking about how to interpret certain forms of masculinities in dancehall. So too does Donna Hope, who provides an analysis of male identity as it functions in the dancehall space. Hope’s contribution to this volume looks specifically at how dancehall shapes the image of the man in Jamaica. Turning to women’s identities, Tracey Skelton discusses the performance of femininity and Agostinho Pinnock focuses on Tanya Stephens to illustrate the discourse of and around women in the genre.

SOUND SYSTEM, RIDDIM AND PRACTICE

Of course, dancehall is music, and this music is heard, primarily on sound systems. This section looks at the actual sound of dancehall, beginning with Julian Henriques’s look at the sound system as creolized cultural form. Henriques is known for his analysis of the sound system and the dancehall as sound event. His work connects sound system practice with systems of understanding and discursive practices. This is complemented by the three other chapters in this section, including Peter Manuel and Wayne Marshall’s thorough analysis of the practice of making dancehall. They describe how the system of “riddims” (the instrumental foundations of dancehall music that are used and reused by vocalists and recreated by producers) is shaped by and shapes dancehall music. Both Erin C. MacLeod and Ray Hitchins discuss the phenomenon of riddims from the same starting point: the sleng teng. MacLeod looks at the derisive discourse surrounding the riddim and Hitchins takes a musicological look at the development of dancehall music, specifically the use of technology in the creation of riddim.

RITUAL, CELEBRATION, SPACE

Dancehall is rooted in history, but it is also rooted in spirituality. The three chapters in this section take the sacred as a starting point. Sonjah Stanley Niaah’s work, from the perspective of social and cultural geography, investigates dancehall event practice as ritual. Yes, the space is that of celebration, of music and dance and fashion – but there is a specific process to the dance. By enumerating different dance events, Stanley Niaah illustrates the commonalities and the ritualized nature of dancehall culture. Lena Delgado de Torres and Kate Lawton continue in this vein. De Torres turns to the funereal ritual of the Nine Night, underlining its relation to Yorùbá-based ancestral worship and the relationship of these older cultural practices to the present popular culture of dancehall. Lawton also connects ancestral practices with dancehall by drawing a comparison between the spiritual practice of obeah and the present-day conception of “bad mind”, a much discussed concept in dancehall lyrics.

ADORNMENT, EMBODIMENT AND STYLE

Fashion and style are huge elements of dancehall. There is some discussion of fashion in the section dealing with sexuality and gender identity, but these three chapters demonstrate how dress shapes both dancehall and its participants. Bibi Bakare-Yusuf views fashion as a survival tactic, a means of shoring up identity. “H” Patten’s work is on dance style and how it reflects both community and self-perception. Dealing with the pressure to sport international brands is Andrea Elizabeth Shaw. Her work on the discourse of luxury fashion brands in the dancehall and in dancehall lyrics illustrates how colonial hierarchies continue in dancehall.

THE DANCEHALL TRANSNATION

Dancehall is, of course, an international phenomenon, with artists from Africa to Europe to Asia to Australia and across the Americas all versioning and voicing riddims and attempting to express themselves in a dancehall style. All chapters in the section turn to dancehall sound, culture and practice in a difference space. Marvin Sterling provides insight into the role of the sound system in Japan and how Japanese culture has connected with dancehall. Andrea Hollington turns to the African continent to investigate the development of dancehall in Zimbabwe. Bruno Barboza Muniz, on the other side of the globe, draws connections between Jamaican sound system culture and Brazilian funk, asking questions about appropriation, authenticity and originality. The idea and impact of international audiences is discussed by Larisa Kingston Mann, who wonders about the result of dancehall’s circulation through the wide range of technological platforms now available.

TRIBUTE TO BOGLE

As a final addition to the anthology, this tribute provides not only a fitting eulogy for the famed dancer Bogle but also an understanding of the importance of dance in the dancehall. The desire to remember those who have contributed to dancehall is also the purpose of this anthology. This tribute represents the first of what could be many tributes to those who have helped to develop dancehall, and this collection is itself a tribute to the many who have been at the foundation of dancehall practice and scholarship. But as dancehall – the space, music, style, dance and lifestyle – moves forward, there will always be a need to continue the analysis of this dynamic part of Jamaican culture. This is but one collection and a long overdue one.

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Music and Community in Jamaica: The Impact of Music Education in a Developing Nation

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Rhythmic Roots: Bob Marley’s Impact on Jamaican Culture

This essay about the rhythmic luminary, Bob Marley, explores his profound impact on Jamaican culture in the 20th century. From the resilient heart of Trench Town in Kingston, Marley emerged as more than a musical prodigy; he became an alchemist, transforming adversity into a symphony of perseverance. The essay details how reggae, synonymous with Marley, evolved into a universal language of resistance and unity, echoing the spirited energy of Jamaica. Marley’s lyrical anthems addressed societal struggles, and his influence extended beyond music into the economic and political landscapes of Jamaica. Despite complexities and political entanglements, Marley’s legacy endures, shaping Jamaican culture and inspiring generations to embrace their roots while championing social justice.

How it works

Amidst the vibrant landscapes of Jamaica, a cultural revolution blossomed in the 20th century, guided by the rhythmic luminary—Bob Marley. His influence on the tapestry of Jamaican culture transcends the commonplace bounds of music, intertwining with the very essence of the island nation’s collective spirit. Marley’s rhythmic roots don’t merely graze the surface of Jamaica’s cultural richness; they plunge deep, leaving an indelible mark on the people, their core, and their resolute journey for social justice.

Emerging from the resilient heart of Trench Town in Kingston, Bob Marley was more than a musical prodigy; he was an alchemist, transmuting the echoes of adversity into a symphony of perseverance. Born on February 6, 1945, Marley’s childhood bore the scars of struggle, yet his intrinsic musical brilliance and profound connection to life’s rhythms set him on a trajectory that would redefine the narrative of Jamaican culture. Within the lively pulse of Kingston’s music scene, Marley not only found his musical voice but also nurtured a profound social consciousness.

Reggae, the genre synonymous with Marley, wasn’t merely a musical genre—it became a rhythmic manifesto echoing the vibrant life force of a nation. The reggae beat, characterized by offbeat accents and syncopated rhythm, mirrored the spirited energy of Jamaica itself. Marley, alongside The Wailers, elevated this rhythm to global prominence, transforming reggae into a universal language of resistance and unity.

Marley’s lyrical compositions weren’t mere verses; they stood as anthems of empowerment and calls for societal metamorphosis. His songs resonated with the struggles of the Jamaican people, addressing issues of poverty, political corruption, and the relentless pursuit of freedom. Tracks like “Get Up, Stand Up” and “Redemption Song” weren’t just musical notes—they were rallying cries for justice and liberation. Marley’s lyrical prowess became a potent weapon, and reggae evolved into the anthem for a generation defiantly battling against oppression.

The roots of Jamaican culture, deeply intertwined with African traditions, found a fervent companion in Marley’s music. The Rastafarian movement, advocating spiritual consciousness, unity with nature, and resistance against oppressive systems, resonated profoundly with Marley’s philosophy. The iconic image of Marley with his cascading dreadlocks and the vibrant hues of the Rastafarian flag became a symbol of Jamaican identity, embodying a fusion of cultural pride and social awareness.

Bob Marley’s impact extended beyond the auditory realms, seeping into the economic and political landscapes of Jamaica. His international success not only brought global attention to the country but also attracted tourists, putting the spotlight on the island’s unique culture. The reggae movement transformed into a cultural export, influencing global fashion, art, and even linguistic expressions. Marley’s legacy acted as a bridge between Jamaica and the world, forging connections between diverse cultures through the universal language of music.

Yet, Marley’s influence wasn’t without its complexities. As he ascended to international acclaim, he became entangled in political machinations. The tumultuous political climate in Jamaica during the 1970s ensnared Marley in the crossfire of political rivalries. Despite the risks, he remained unwavering in his commitment to peace and unity, leveraging his influence to reconcile warring factions during the historic “One Love Peace Concert” in 1978.

Bob Marley’s untimely departure in 1981 didn’t diminish his influence; it solidified his status as a cultural luminary. The legend lives on through his timeless music and the enduring spirit of reggae. Marley’s legacy persists, molding Jamaican culture and inspiring new generations to embrace their roots while championing social justice.

In essence, Bob Marley’s rhythmic roots delve deep into the soul of Jamaica, intricately weaving into the cultural tapestry of the nation. His music, a dynamic force of resistance and unity, serves as a catalyst for societal metamorphosis and an emblem of Jamaican identity. Beyond the beats and verses, Marley’s impact permeates the economic, political, and global spheres, leaving an indelible mark on the island and its people. Today, as the echoes of reggae resonate through the Jamaican hills, Bob Marley’s legacy endures as a testament to the enduring power of music to shape culture and instigate transformative change.

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Home — Essay Samples — Entertainment — Bob Marley — The Development Of Reggae Music In The 1960’s-70’s

The Development of Reggae Music in The 1960’s-70’s

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Published: Nov 22, 2021

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Works Cited

• Aimers, Jim(2004) The Cultural Significance of Reggae https://www.units.miamioh.edu/ath/175/student/petersle/culture.html
• Lipsky, Jessica Down to the Roots: The Radical Politics of Reggae https://www.jlipsky.com/down-to-the-roots-the-radical-politics-of-reggae
• Cooper, Carolyn(Jan 10 2020) https://www.britannica.com/art/reggae  

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Few can argue that the life enjoyed by Jamaicans today was built on the backbone of many others who dared to make an impact. This generation owes a debt a gratitude to many pioneering Jamaicans who paved the way in several areas both here and abroad and, in doing so, demonstrated that they understood what it really means to be a ‘Jamaican smaddy’. Here are 7 Jamaicans whose influence reached beyond this small Caribbean island and has coloured the lives of people all over the world.

Robert Nesta ‘Bob’ Marley, the King of Reggae, has been given a voice to the oppressed and kept alive the spirit of a downtrodden nation. His contribution to universalizing Reggae music is undeniable, and today, his music continues to speak to people worldwide. His life chronicles the story of a man who spoke to the soul of individuals and encouraged unity and world peace through his lyrics, adopting an ardent following more than three decades after his death.

Who knew that the father of Hip Hop was born in Jamaica? The birth of this stylized rhythm music popular to the modern masses can be traced back to Jamaican Clive Campbell who became popularly known as DJ Herc or DJ Kool Herc. Although Hip Hop music has its roots in Reggae, Ska and Calypso, the turntable concept that DJ Herc used to woo the people was purely Jamaican. Trailblazer DJ Herc used Jamaican dancehall styles as he sought to please fans who gravitated towards this unique musical style.

Marcus Garvey

The name Marcus Garvey has been ascribed to buildings, schools and highways right across the globe and for well-deserved reasons. As a noted freedom fighter, Marcus Garvey epitomized what every black man should strive to be. He was the founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), Negro World newspaper, Negro Factories Company and the shipping company, Black Star Liner. More than just securing equal opportunity for people of African descent, he changed the path of history when he began lobbying for the black race to be proud of their heritage. His speeches continue to serve as motivation for Jamaicans and black people around the world.

Thanks to one man, Jamaica has quickly risen to stardom as the sprint capital of the world. Usain Bolt’s phenomenal success at the Olympic Games and World Championships has done more for the country’s image than any colourful tourist ads. Bolt is a fitting Ambassador not just on the track but wherever he makes an appearance. His major athletic achievements have left the world in awe and made Jamaicans at home and abroad very proud to share citizenship with him.

Louise Bennett- Coverly, affectionately called Miss Lou, is responsible for adding prestige to Jamaican Creole/ Patois. She is one of few icons who helped Jamaicans to take pride their language and not to be ashamed of how they spoke. Miss Lou proudly took Jamaican Patois to the world with her artistic poems and songs written in the native language, and aided the acceptance of the dialect as a creative language.

Grace Jones

As she rightly stated herself, modern day pop stars Lady Gaga, Annie and Rihanna were all inspired by trendsetter, Grace Jones.  As a Jamaican singer, lyricist, supermodel and actress, Jones certainly tested the waters with her creative costumes and head turning appearances. If it weren’t for Grace Jones, the world might have never seen models, superstars and musicians dare to explore the heights of creativity. With a personality that evoked a question mark and several international queer appearances, Grace set the stage for the appreciation of her style in the entertainment world.

Millie Small

History-making “My Boy Lollipop” was the first song that Millicent Dolly May ‘Millie’ Small used to stun the music industry back in 1961. The teenage Jamaican singer and songwriter catapulted from being just a famous record star in Jamaica to international fame when she introduced the Ska music to the world with the chart topping single. Donning the British and US charts, her first hit was a welcomed success that exposed the world to the unique flavour of Jamaican music.

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Jamaica’s cultural development has been deeply influenced by British traditions and a search for roots in folk forms. The latter are based chiefly on the colourful rhythmic intensity of the island’s African heritage.

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Jamaican culture is a product of the interaction between Europe and Africa. Terms such as “Afro-centred” and “Euro-centred,” however, are often used to denote the perceived duality in Jamaican cultural traditions and values. European influences persist in public institutions, medicine, Christian worship, and the arts. However, African continuities are present in religious life, Jamaican Creole language, cuisine, proverbs, drumming, the rhythms of Jamaican music and dance, traditional medicine (linked to herbal and spiritual healing), and tales of Anansi, the spider-trickster.

Family life is central to most Jamaicans, although formal marriages are less prevalent than in most other countries. It is common for three generations to share a home. Many women earn wages, particularly in households where men are absent, and grandmothers normally take charge of preschool-age children. Wealthier Jamaican families usually employ at least one domestic helper.

The main meal is almost always in the evening, because most people do not have time to prepare a midday meal and children normally eat at school. Families tend to be too busy to share most weekday dinners, but on Sundays tradition dictates that even poor families enjoy a large and sociable brunch or lunch, usually including chicken, fish, yams, fried plantains, and the ubiquitous rice and peas (rice with kidney beans or gungo [pigeon] peas). One of Jamaica’s most popular foods is jerk (spiced and grilled) meat.

Clothing styles vary. Rastafarians , who account for a tiny part of the population, typically wear loose-fitting clothing and long dreadlocks .

Jamaican independence from Great Britain (August 6, 1962) is commemorated annually. The government sponsors Festival as part of the independence celebrations. Although it has much in common with the region’s pre-Lenten Carnivals, Festival is much wider in scope, including street dancing and parades, arts and crafts exhibitions, and literary, theatrical, and musical competitions. Since the late 20th century, Jamaicans have also celebrated Carnival, typically with costumed parades, bands, and dancing. Emancipation Day is celebrated on August 1.

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Music In Jamaican Music

Jamaican music, vibrant and diverse, holds a significant place in the global cultural landscape. Rooted in a rich history of struggle, resilience, and cultural fusion, Jamaican music transcends borders, resonating with audiences worldwide. From its origins in traditional folk music to the revolutionary sounds of reggae and dancehall, the music of Jamaica reflects the island's complex social, political, and cultural dynamics.

Origins and Influences

The roots of Jamaican music run deep, drawing from a diverse array of influences that reflect the island's history of colonization, slavery, and migration. African rhythms and melodies intertwined with European harmonies and instruments during the colonial era, giving rise to genres like mento and ska. The rhythms of mento, characterized by its syncopated beats and lively instrumentation, provided the foundation for later forms of Jamaican music.

Revolutionary Sounds: Reggae and Dancehall

Reggae, perhaps the most iconic of Jamaican musical genres, emerged in the late 1960s, fusing elements of ska, rocksteady, and rhythm and blues. Known for its pulsating basslines, offbeat rhythms, and socially conscious lyrics, reggae became a powerful voice for the marginalized and oppressed. Artists like Bob Marley, Peter Tosh, and Jimmy Cliff brought reggae to the world stage, using their music to advocate for peace, justice, and equality.

In the 1980s, dancehall emerged as a new and electrifying sound, characterized by its rapid-fire lyrics, digital rhythms, and infectious beats. Dancehall music reflected the urban realities of Jamaica, addressing themes of violence, poverty, and political corruption. Artists like Shabba Ranks, Buju Banton, and Beenie Man became synonymous with the genre, pushing its boundaries and influencing contemporary music worldwide.

Impact and Legacy

The influence of Jamaican music extends far beyond the shores of the island, shaping genres ranging from hip-hop and electronic music to punk and pop. Reggae's message of unity and liberation resonates with listeners across generations and cultures, inspiring social movements and cultural exchange. Meanwhile, dancehall continues to evolve, blending with other musical styles to create fresh sounds and trends.

In conclusion, Jamaican music stands as a testament to the power of creativity, resilience, and cultural expression. From its humble beginnings in the sugarcane fields and dancehalls of Jamaica to its global influence today, Jamaican music continues to captivate and inspire audiences around the world. Whether through the revolutionary sounds of reggae or the pulsating beats of dancehall, the music of Jamaica remains a vibrant and vital force in the world of music.

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Musical Music Vs Musical Movies

Music and movies have long been intertwined art forms, each with its unique way of storytelling and engaging audiences. When it comes to musical music and musical movies, both mediums offer distinct experiences that cater to different senses and emotions. Musical music, in its purest form, relies solely on auditory stimulation to convey emotions, tell stories, and evoke feelings in listeners. From classical symphonies to modern pop hits, musical music has the power to transport listeners to different worlds, evoke memories, and stir emotions through the power of sound alone. On the other hand, musical movies combine the auditory experience of music with the visual storytelling of cinema to create a multi-sensory extravaganza. Musical movies use songs, choreography, and visual elements to enhance the storytelling, create memorable moments, and immerse viewers in a world where music plays a central role in driving the narrative forward. From iconic musicals like "The Sound of Music" to contemporary hits like "La La Land," musical movies offer a unique blend of music and visual storytelling that captivates audiences and leaves a lasting impression. One of the key differences between musical music and musical movies lies in their modes of consumption and engagement. Musical music is primarily enjoyed through listening, whether it's through streaming platforms, live performances, or personal music collections. Listeners can immerse themselves in the sounds, lyrics, and melodies of musical music, allowing their imagination to take flight and interpret the music in their unique way. In contrast, musical movies require viewers to engage not only with the music but also with the visual storytelling, character development, and cinematic elements that shape the overall experience. In conclusion, both musical music and musical movies offer unique and compelling ways to experience the magic of music and storytelling. Whether you prefer the immersive auditory experience of musical music or the visual spectacle of musical movies, both mediums have their own charm and appeal. Ultimately, the choice between musical music and musical movies comes down to personal preference and the kind of experience you seek - whether it's getting lost in the melodies of a song or being swept away by the grandeur of a musical on the silver screen....

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Kpop Music : The Culture Of Music And South Korean Music

Kpop Music: The Culture of Music Korean pop music, more commonly known as Kpop, has surged in popularity worldwide, captivating audiences with its catchy melodies, synchronized choreography, and visually stunning music videos. Originating in South Korea, Kpop has evolved into a global phenomenon, transcending linguistic and cultural barriers to become a dominant force in the music industry. This essay explores the cultural impact of Kpop music and its influence on the global entertainment landscape. One of the defining characteristics of Kpop is its emphasis on performance and visual storytelling. Kpop groups undergo rigorous training in singing, dancing, and stage presence, resulting in polished performances that leave audiences mesmerized. From intricate dance routines to elaborate costumes, Kpop artists strive to create a captivating visual experience that complements their music. This focus on aesthetics has helped Kpop gain traction not only as a musical genre but also as a form of visual entertainment, with music videos often garnering millions of views on platforms like YouTube. Furthermore, Kpop's international appeal can be attributed to its diverse range of musical styles and genres. While Kpop is often associated with upbeat, catchy tunes, the genre encompasses a wide spectrum of sounds, including hip-hop, R&B, EDM, and ballads. This versatility allows Kpop artists to cater to a diverse audience, appealing to fans of different musical tastes and preferences. Additionally, Kpop's incorporation of elements from various musical traditions, such as traditional Korean instrumentation or Western pop influences, adds depth and richness to the genre, further enhancing its global appeal. Moreover, Kpop's influence extends beyond the realm of music, shaping fashion trends, beauty standards, and youth culture worldwide. Kpop idols are not only admired for their musical talents but also revered as fashion icons and trendsetters. Their bold fashion choices, experimental hairstyles, and flawless beauty inspire fans to emulate their style, driving demand for Kpop-inspired fashion and beauty products. Additionally, Kpop's emphasis on teamwork, discipline, and perseverance resonates with audiences worldwide, serving as a source of inspiration for young people striving to achieve their goals. In conclusion, Kpop music represents more than just a musical genre; it embodies a cultural phenomenon that has captivated audiences around the globe. With its emphasis on performance, visual storytelling, and musical diversity, Kpop has transcended boundaries to become a dominant force in the global entertainment industry. By shaping fashion trends, influencing beauty standards, and inspiring youth culture, Kpop continues to leave an indelible mark on the world stage, solidifying its status as a cultural powerhouse in the 21st century....

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Music: My Music and the Joy Of Music holds a profound significance in my life, weaving its melodies through the fabric of my experiences and emotions. From the soothing strains of classical compositions to the pulsating rhythms of modern pop, each note resonates with a unique power to evoke memories, stir feelings, and transport me to different realms of existence. In this essay, I will delve into the role that music plays in shaping my identity, influencing my mood, and enriching my daily life. First and foremost, music serves as a deeply personal expression of my innermost self. Through the songs I listen to and the artists I admire, I find a reflection of my own thoughts, beliefs, and aspirations. Whether it's the introspective lyrics of a singer-songwriter or the energetic beats of a hip-hop anthem, I am drawn to music that speaks to my soul and resonates with my experiences. In this way, my musical preferences become an extension of my identity, serving as a soundtrack to my life's journey. Moreover, music has the remarkable ability to affect my mood and emotions in profound ways. When I am feeling downcast or weary, a soulful ballad can provide solace and comfort, wrapping me in its melodic embrace and offering a sense of catharsis. Conversely, when I am in need of motivation or inspiration, an upbeat tune can infuse me with energy and optimism, propelling me forward with its infectious rhythm and lyrics of empowerment. Thus, music serves as a versatile tool for emotional regulation, helping me navigate the highs and lows of everyday life with grace and resilience. Beyond its personal significance, music also fosters a sense of connection and community with others. Whether it's bonding over shared musical interests with friends or attending live concerts and festivals, music has a unique ability to bring people together and forge meaningful relationships. In these moments of collective enjoyment and celebration, the barriers of age, race, and background seem to dissolve, leaving only the universal language of melody and harmony to unite us in joyous harmony. In conclusion, music occupies a central place in my life, serving as a source of self-expression, emotional resonance, and communal belonging. From the intimate moments of solitary reflection to the communal gatherings of shared celebration, music weaves its magic thread through the tapestry of my existence, enriching each day with its timeless melodies and boundless beauty. Truly, the joy of music knows no bounds, and I am grateful for the privilege of experiencing its transformative power in all its myriad forms....

Music : The Meaning Of Music And Music

Music: The Meaning and Influence Music holds a profound significance in human culture, serving as a universal language that transcends borders, languages, and generations. From ancient civilizations to modern society, music has played a pivotal role in shaping human emotions, thoughts, and behaviors. Its influence extends beyond mere entertainment, touching upon various aspects of human life, including social, cultural, and emotional domains. At its core, music serves as a means of expression, allowing individuals to convey emotions, ideas, and experiences in ways that words alone cannot capture. Through melody, rhythm, and harmony, music has the power to evoke a wide range of feelings, from joy and exhilaration to sadness and introspection. Whether through classical symphonies, folk tunes, or contemporary pop songs, music has the ability to resonate with listeners on a deeply personal level, providing solace during times of difficulty and inspiration in moments of triumph. Beyond its emotional impact, music also plays a significant role in shaping cultural identities and fostering social cohesion. Throughout history, different cultures have developed unique musical traditions that reflect their values, beliefs, and collective experiences. From the rhythmic beats of African drums to the intricate melodies of Indian ragas, music serves as a vehicle for preserving cultural heritage and fostering a sense of belonging within communities. Moreover, music has the power to bridge cultural divides, bringing people from diverse backgrounds together through shared experiences of rhythm and melody. In addition to its cultural and emotional significance, music has practical applications in various fields, including education, therapy, and even medicine. Research has shown that music can enhance cognitive functions, improve academic performance, and alleviate stress and anxiety. In educational settings, incorporating music into curriculum can stimulate creativity, enhance learning retention, and promote social interaction among students. Similarly, music therapy has emerged as a valuable tool for addressing mental health issues, helping individuals cope with trauma, depression, and other psychological disorders. In conclusion, music serves as a multifaceted phenomenon that holds deep meaning and influence in human society. From its ability to evoke emotions and foster cultural identities to its practical applications in education and therapy, music plays a central role in enriching our lives and connecting us to one another. As we continue to explore the intricate interplay between sound and human experience, it becomes increasingly clear that music is not merely an art form but a fundamental aspect of the human condition....

How Did Medieval Music Influence Modern-Day Music?

How Did Medieval Music Influence Modern Day Medieval music, often overlooked in the grand narrative of music history, played a pivotal role in shaping the musical landscape of modern times. Despite its distant origins and seemingly archaic nature, medieval music continues to exert its influence on contemporary musical genres, techniques, and even cultural perceptions of music itself. By examining the characteristics, innovations, and cultural contexts of medieval music, it becomes evident how its legacy persists and resonates in the modern-day musical milieu. One of the most profound ways in which medieval music has influenced modern-day practices is through its impact on musical theory and notation. The development of polyphony, or the simultaneous combination of multiple melodic lines, during the medieval period laid the foundation for complex harmonies and textures that define much of contemporary music. Techniques such as organum and early forms of counterpoint paved the way for the intricate harmonies found in various genres ranging from classical to jazz and beyond. Moreover, the system of musical notation pioneered in the medieval era provided a standardized means of preserving musical compositions, facilitating their dissemination and preservation over time—a practice that remains fundamental in today's music industry. Furthermore, the religious and cultural significance of medieval music continues to reverberate in modern compositions and performance practices. Many modern choral and vocal traditions trace their roots back to the sacred music of the medieval church, where monophonic chant and elaborate polyphony were integral parts of religious ceremonies and liturgical worship. Even secular music owes a debt to the troubadours and trouveres of medieval Europe, whose lyrical poetry and courtly melodies laid the groundwork for the troubadour tradition, influencing subsequent folk and popular music traditions. In addition to its direct influence on musical styles and techniques, medieval music has also left an indelible mark on the cultural perception of music and its role in society. During the medieval period, music was regarded not only as entertainment but also as a powerful tool for expressing spiritual devotion, conveying emotions, and fostering communal identity. This holistic view of music as both an art form and a social practice continues to inform contemporary attitudes towards music, shaping how individuals engage with and interpret musical experiences in diverse cultural contexts. In conclusion, the legacy of medieval music reverberates throughout the corridors of musical history, leaving an enduring imprint on the soundscape of modern times. From its innovations in musical theory and notation to its influence on religious and secular musical traditions, medieval music continues to inspire and inform contemporary composers, performers, and listeners alike. By recognizing and appreciating the profound impact of medieval music on the evolution of musical expression, we gain a deeper understanding of the rich tapestry of human creativity that spans across centuries and civilizations....

• Cultural Heritage and Preservation

Music, Ethics, And The Music Industry

Ethics play a crucial role in the music industry, shaping the behaviors and decisions of artists, producers, record labels, and other stakeholders. Music ethics encompass a range of principles and values that guide ethical conduct within the industry, including issues such as copyright infringement, artist exploitation, and fair compensation. In today's digital age, where music is easily accessible and shared online, ethical considerations are more important than ever in ensuring the integrity and sustainability of the music ecosystem. One of the central ethical concerns in the music industry is copyright infringement and intellectual property rights. Artists and creators invest significant time, effort, and resources into producing music, and copyright laws protect their rights to control the use and distribution of their work. However, in an age of online piracy and illegal downloading, copyright infringement remains a pervasive issue, depriving artists of rightful compensation and undermining the value of their creative output. Ethical behavior in the music industry requires respect for copyright laws and a commitment to supporting artists by consuming music through legal channels. Another ethical issue in the music industry is the fair treatment and compensation of artists and other music professionals. Historically, the music industry has been criticized for exploiting artists through unfair contracts, deceptive accounting practices, and unequal distribution of profits. Ethical conduct within the industry involves promoting transparency, accountability, and fairness in business dealings, ensuring that artists receive proper compensation for their work and are treated with respect and dignity. This includes advocating for fair royalty rates, transparent accounting practices, and equitable distribution of revenue generated from music sales and streaming. Additionally, ethical considerations extend to the social and cultural impact of music. Music has the power to shape attitudes, influence behavior, and reflect the values of society. As such, artists and industry professionals have a responsibility to consider the ethical implications of their music and its potential impact on listeners. This includes promoting diversity, inclusivity, and social justice through music, and avoiding content that perpetuates harmful stereotypes, promotes violence, or incites hate. By upholding ethical standards in their creative output and professional conduct, artists and industry stakeholders can contribute to a more ethical and socially responsible music industry....

Music And Harmony In Music

Music is a universal language that transcends cultural boundaries and connects people from all walks of life. It has the power to evoke emotions, trigger memories, and create a sense of unity among listeners. At the heart of music lies harmony, a fundamental element that gives depth and richness to musical compositions. Harmony is the combination of different musical notes played or sung simultaneously to create a pleasing sound. It is the backbone of music, providing structure and coherence to a piece. In music, harmony is achieved through the use of chords, which are a combination of three or more notes played together. Chords are the building blocks of harmony, and they create tension and resolution within a piece of music. By combining different chords in various sequences, composers can create a wide range of emotions and moods in their music. Whether it's a joyful and uplifting melody or a melancholic and introspective tune, harmony plays a crucial role in shaping the overall feel of a musical composition. One of the most beautiful aspects of harmony in music is its ability to create a sense of balance and unity. When different musical elements come together in perfect harmony, they create a cohesive and harmonious whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. This sense of unity is what makes music so powerful and captivating to listeners. It allows them to connect with the music on a deeper level and experience a range of emotions that words alone cannot express. In conclusion, music and harmony go hand in hand, creating a magical and transformative experience for both musicians and listeners alike. Through the use of chords, composers can weave together a tapestry of sounds that evoke a wide range of emotions and moods. Harmony is the glue that holds music together, providing structure and coherence to musical compositions. So next time you listen to your favorite song, take a moment to appreciate the harmony that lies at the heart of the music, and let it transport you to a world of beauty and emotion....

The Music Of Music Sampling

Music sampling is a practice deeply entrenched in contemporary music production, spanning across various genres and styles. It involves taking a portion, or sample, of one sound recording and reusing it in a different song or piece. While some argue that sampling is a form of artistic expression and innovation, others criticize it for its potential copyright infringement and lack of originality. However, delving deeper into the intricacies of music sampling reveals a multifaceted landscape that contributes significantly to the evolution of music. One of the most notable aspects of music sampling is its ability to bridge the gap between different musical genres and eras. By incorporating samples from diverse sources, artists can create hybrid compositions that blend elements of hip-hop, jazz, rock, electronic, and classical music, among others. This fusion not only appeals to a wide audience but also challenges traditional notions of musical categorization, fostering creativity and experimentation within the industry. Furthermore, music sampling serves as a means of paying homage to past artists and recordings, effectively preserving and revitalizing musical history. Through sampling, contemporary musicians can resurrect forgotten melodies, rhythms, and vocal performances, introducing them to new generations of listeners. In doing so, they honor the legacy of pioneering artists and acknowledge the influence of their work on the current musical landscape. However, the practice of music sampling is not without its controversies. Copyright issues surrounding the unauthorized use of samples have led to numerous legal battles and debates within the music industry. While some argue that sampling constitutes transformative artistry protected under fair use laws, others contend that it infringes upon the intellectual property rights of original creators. As a result, the legality and ethics of music sampling remain hotly contested topics among musicians, producers, and legal scholars alike. In conclusion, the music of music sampling embodies both the creative potential and ethical dilemmas inherent in contemporary music production. As a dynamic and ever-evolving practice, sampling continues to shape the soundscape of popular music while raising important questions about artistic integrity, cultural appropriation, and intellectual property rights. Whether celebrated as a form of artistic expression or scrutinized for its legal implications, music sampling remains a fascinating and integral aspect of modern musical creativity....

• Discrimination and Prejudice

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