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What links aging and disease? A growing body of research says it’s a faulty metabolism

Assistant Professor of Biochemistry, Penn State

Disclosure statement

Melanie R. McReynolds receives funding from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute Hanna H. Gray Fellows Program Faculty Phase and the Burroughs Welcome Fund PDEP Transition to Faculty.

Penn State provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation US.

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Aging is a biological process that no one can avoid. Ideally, growing old should be a time to relax and enjoy the fruits of your labor. Aging also has a darker side, however, often linked to disease.

Every second, your cells perform billions of biochemical reactions that fuel essential functions for life, forming a highly interconnected metabolic network . This network enables cells to grow, proliferate and repair themselves, and its disruption can drive the aging process .

But does aging cause metabolic decline, or does metabolic disruption accelerate aging? Or both?

To address this chicken-or-egg question, you first need to understand how metabolic processes break down during aging and disease. I am a scientist and researcher , and my lab focuses on exploring the complex relationship between metabolism, stress and aging. Ultimately, we hope this work will provide strategies to promote healthier aging and more vibrant lives.

Link between metabolism and aging

Aging is the most significant risk factor for many of society’s most common diseases , including diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease and neurodegenerative disorders. A key factor behind the onset of these health issues is the disruption of cellular and metabolic homeostasis, or balance . Disrupting homeostasis destabilizes the body’s internal environment, leading to imbalances that can trigger a cascade of health issues, including metabolic disorders, chronic diseases and impaired cellular functions that contribute to aging and other serious conditions.

Disrupted metabolism is linked to many hallmarks of aging cells, such as telomere shortening , which is damage to the protective ends of chromosomes, and genomic instability , the tendency to form genetic mutations.

A dysfunctional metabolism is also linked to poorly functioning mitochondria ; cellular senescence , or when cells stop dividing; imbalances in gut microbes ; and cells’ reduced ability to detect and respond to different nutrients .

Neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease, are prime examples of age-related conditions with a strong link between dysregulated metabolism and functional decline. For example, my research team previously discovered that in aging mice, the ability of bone marrow cells to produce, store and use energy is suppressed due to increased activity from a protein that modulates inflammation. This energy-deficient state leads to an increase in inflammation that’s worsened by these aging cells’ reliance on glucose as their main fuel source.

Experimentally inhibiting this protein in the bone marrow cells of aging mice, however, revitalizes the cells’ ability to produce energy, reduces inflammation and improves plasticity of an area of the brain involved in memory. This finding suggests that some cognitive aging could be reversed by reprogramming the glucose metabolism of bone marrow cells to restore immune functions.

Repurposing drugs to treat Alzheimer’s

In our newly published research, my team and I discovered a new connection between disrupted glucose metabolism and neurodegenerative disease. This led us to identify a drug originally designed for cancer that could potentially be used to treat Alzheimer’s.

We focused on an enzyme called IDO1 that plays a critical role in the first step of breaking down amino acid tryptophan. This pathway produces a key compound called kynurenine, which fuels additional energy pathways and inflammatory responses. However, excessive kynurenine can have detrimental effects , including increasing the risk of developing Alzheimer’s.

We found that inhibiting IDO1 can recover memory and brain function in a range of preclinical models, including in cell cultures and mice. To understand why, we looked at the metabolism of brain cells. The brain is one of the most glucose-dependent tissues in the body. An inability to properly use glucose to fuel critical brain processes can lead to metabolic and cognitive decline.

High levels of IDO1 reduce glucose metabolism by producing excess kynurenine. So IDO1 inhibitors – originally designed to treat cancers such as melanoma, leukemia and breast cancer – could be repurposed to reduce kynurenine and improve brain function.

Using a range of lab models, including mice and cells from Alzheimer’s patients, we also found that IDO1 inhibitors can restore glucose metabolism in brain cells . Furthermore, we were able to restore glucose metabolism in mice with both amyloid and tau accumulation – abnormal proteins involved in many neurodegenerative disorders – by blocking IDO1. We believe repurposing these inhibitors could be beneficial across various neurodegenerative disorders.

Promoting healthier cognitive aging

The effects of neurological disorders and metabolic decline weigh heavily on individuals, families and the economy.

While many scientists have focused on targeting the downstream effects of these diseases, such as managing symptoms and slowing progression, treating these diseases earlier can improve cognition with aging. Our findings suggest that targeting metabolism has the potential to not only slow neurological decline but also to reverse the progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and dementia.

Discovering new insights at the intersection of stress, metabolism and aging can pave the way for healthier aging. More research can improve our understanding of how metabolism affects stress responses and cellular balance throughout life.

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What Does It Mean to Mortify the Sins of the Body?

“If ye by the Spirit do mortifie the deeds of the flesh, ye shall live” (Rom. 8:13)

The Duty: Mortify Your Deeds

The duty itself, “Mortify the deeds of the body,” is next to be remarked upon. Three things are here to be inquired into:

(1) What is meant by the body? (2) What by the deeds of the body? (3) What by mortifying of them?

(1) “The body” in the close of the verse is the same with “the flesh” in the beginning: “If ye live after the flesh ye shall dye,” but if ye “mortifie the deeds of the body”—that is, of the flesh. It is that which the apostle has all along discoursed of under the name of “the flesh,” which is evident from the prosecution 1 of the antithesis between the Spirit and the flesh, before and after. “The body,” then, here is taken for that corruption and depravity of our natures whereof the body, in a great part, is the seat and instrument, the very members of the body being made servants unto unrighteousness thereby (Rom. 6:19). It is indwelling sin, the corrupted flesh or lust, that is intended. Many reasons might be given of this metonymical expression 2 that I shall not now insist on. The “body” here is the same with παλαιὸς ἄνθρωπος and σῶμα τῆς ἁμαρτίας, the “old man” and the “body of sin” (Rom. 6:6); or it may synecdochically 3 express the whole person considered as corrupted, and the seat of lusts and distempered affections.

Sin and Temptation

John owen , kelly m. kapic , justin taylor.

Volume 15 of The Complete Works of John Owen includes 4 edited and formatted treatises on the mortification of sin, the power of temptation, indwelling sin, and God’s grace. 

(2) The deeds of the body. The word is πράξεις, 4 which, indeed, denotes the outward actions chiefly, “the works of the flesh,” as they are called, τὰ ἔργα τῆς σαρκὸς (Gal. 5:19); which are there said to be “manifest” and are enumerated. Now, though the outward deeds are here only expressed, yet the inward and next causes are chiefly intended; the “axe is to be laid to the root of the tree” 5 —the deeds of the flesh are to be mortified in their causes, from whence they spring. The apostle calls them deeds, as that which every lust tends unto; though they do but conceive and prove abortive, they aim to bring forth a perfect sin.

Having treated indwelling lust and sin as the fountain and principle of all sinful actions, he here mentions its destruction under the name of the effects which it does produce. Πράξεις τοῦ σώματος 6 are, as much as φρώνημα τῆς σαρκός 7 (Rom. 8:6), the “wisdom of the flesh,” by a metonymy of the same nature with the former; or as the παθήματα 8 and ἐπιθυμίαι, 9 the “passions and lusts of the flesh” (Gal. 5:24), whence the deeds and fruits of it do arise; and in this sense is “the body” used: “The body is dead because of sin” (Rom. 8:10).

(3) To mortify. Εἰ θανατοῦτε—“if ye put to death”—[is] a metaphorical expression, taken from the putting of any living thing to death. To kill a man, or any other living thing, is to take away the principle of all his strength, vigor, and power, so that he cannot act or exert or put forth any proper actings of his own; so it is in this case. Indwelling sin is compared to a person, a living person, called “the old man,” with his faculties and properties, his wisdom, craft, subtlety, strength; this, says the apostle, must be killed, put to death, mortified—that is, have its power, life, vigor, and strength to produce its effects taken away by the Spirit. It is, indeed, meritoriously, and by way of example, utterly mortified and slain by the cross of Christ; and the “old man” is thence said to be “crucified with Christ” (Rom. 6:6), and ourselves to be “dead” with him (Rom. 6:8), and really initially in regeneration (Rom. 6:3–5), when a principle contrary to it and destructive of it (Gal. 5:17) is planted in our hearts; but the whole work is by degrees to be carried on toward perfection all our days. Of this more in the process of our discourse.

The intendment 10 of the apostle in this prescription of the duty mentioned is that: the mortification of indwelling sin remaining in our mortal bodies, that it may not have life and power to bring forth the works or deeds of the flesh, is the constant duty of believers.

The Promise: You Shall Live

The promise unto this duty is life: “ye shall live.” The life promised is opposed to the death threatened in the clause foregoing, “If ye live after the flesh, ye shall die”; which the same apostle expresses, “Ye shall of the flesh reap corruption” (Gal. 6:8), or destruction from God. Now, perhaps the word may not only intend eternal life, but also the spiritual life in Christ, which here we have; not as to the essence and being of it, which is already enjoyed by believers, but as to the joy, comfort, and vigor of it: as the apostle says in another case, “now I live if ye stand fast” (1 Thess. 3:8)—“Now my life will do me good; I shall have joy and comfort with my life”—“You shall live, lead a good, vigorous, comfortable, spiritual life while you are here, and obtain eternal life hereafter.”

Supposing what was said before of the connection between mortification and eternal life, as of means and end, I shall add only, as a second motive to the duty prescribed, that:

The vigor, and power, and comfort of our spiritual life depends on the mortification of the deeds of the flesh.

• I.e., carrying out; execution.
• I.e., figure of speech in which one term is substituted for another term closely associated with it. For example, we might say “wheels” to refer to an automobile, “Crown” to refer to a monarchy, or “Washington” to refer to the U.S. government.
• I.e., a figure of speech (in which, among other uses, the part stands for the whole or the whole stands for the part). In this case, Owen is suggesting that “body” stands for the whole person.
• Matt. 3:10.
• Gk. “works of the body.”
• Gk. “mind of the flesh.” Novum Testamentum Graece reads, φρόνημα. Novum Testamentum Graece, ed. B. Aland et al., 28th rev. ed. (Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2012); hereafter cited as NA28.
• NA28 reads, παθήμασιν.
• NA28 reads, ἐπιθυμίαις.
• I.e., intention.

This article is adapted from Sin and Temptation (Volume 15) by John Owen.

John Owen  (1616–1683) was vice-chancellor of Oxford University and served as advisor and chaplain to Oliver Cromwell. Among the most learned and active of the Puritans in seventeenth-century England, he was accomplished both in doctrine and practical theology.

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What links aging and disease? A growing body of research says it’s a faulty metabolism

Aging is the most significant risk factor for many of society’s most common diseases. A key factor behind the onset of these health issues is the disruption of cellular and metabolic balance,

Aging is a biological process that no one can avoid. Ideally, growing old should be a time to relax and enjoy the fruits of your labor. Aging also has a darker side, however, often linked to disease.

Every second, your cells perform billions of biochemical reactions that fuel essential functions for life, forming a highly interconnected metabolic network . This network enables cells to grow, proliferate, and repair themselves, and its disruption can drive the aging process .

But does aging cause metabolic decline, or does metabolic disruption accelerate aging? Or both?

To address this chicken-or-egg question, you first need to understand how metabolic processes break down during aging and disease. I am a scientist and researcher , and my lab focuses on exploring the complex relationship between metabolism, stress, and aging. Ultimately, we hope this work will provide strategies to promote healthier aging and more vibrant lives.

Link between metabolism and aging

Aging is the most significant risk factor for many of society’s most common diseases , including diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. A key factor behind the onset of these health issues is the disruption of cellular and metabolic homeostasis, or balance . Disrupting homeostasis destabilizes the body’s internal environment, leading to imbalances that can trigger a cascade of health issues, including metabolic disorders, chronic diseases, and impaired cellular functions that contribute to aging and other serious conditions.

Disrupted metabolism is linked to many hallmarks of aging cells, such as telomere shortening , which is damage to the protective ends of chromosomes, and genomic instability , the tendency to form genetic mutations.

Metabolism can be divided into two broad processes: anabolism, or building up molecules, and catabolism, or breaking down molecules.

A dysfunctional metabolism is also linked to poorly functioning mitochondria ; cellular senescence , or when cells stop dividing; imbalances in gut microbes ; and cells’ reduced ability to detect and respond to different nutrients .

Neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease, are prime examples of age-related conditions with a strong link between dysregulated metabolism and functional decline. For example, my research team previously discovered that in aging mice, the ability of bone marrow cells to produce, store, and use energy is suppressed due to increased activity from a protein that modulates inflammation. This energy-deficient state leads to an increase in inflammation that’s worsened by these aging cells’ reliance on glucose as their main fuel source.

Experimentally inhibiting this protein in the bone marrow cells of aging mice, however, revitalizes the cells’ ability to produce energy, reduces inflammation, and improves plasticity of an area of the brain involved in memory. This finding suggests that some cognitive aging could be reversed by reprogramming the glucose metabolism of bone marrow cells to restore immune functions.

Repurposing drugs to treat Alzheimer’s

In our newly published research, my team and I discovered a new connection between disrupted glucose metabolism and neurodegenerative disease. This led us to identify a drug originally designed for cancer that could potentially be used to treat Alzheimer’s.

We focused on an enzyme called IDO1 that plays a critical role in the first step of breaking down amino acid tryptophan. This pathway produces a key compound called kynurenine, which fuels additional energy pathways and inflammatory responses. However, excessive kynurenine can have detrimental effects , including increasing the risk of developing Alzheimer’s.

We found that inhibiting IDO1 can recover memory and brain function in a range of preclinical models, including in cell cultures and mice. To understand why, we looked at the metabolism of brain cells. The brain is one of the most glucose-dependent tissues in the body. An inability to properly use glucose to fuel critical brain processes can lead to metabolic and cognitive decline.

High levels of IDO1 reduce glucose metabolism by producing excess kynurenine. So IDO1 inhibitors — originally designed to treat cancers such as melanoma, leukemia, and breast cancer — could be repurposed to reduce kynurenine and improve brain function.

Using a range of lab models, including mice and cells from Alzheimer’s patients, we also found that IDO1 inhibitors can restore glucose metabolism in brain cells . Furthermore, we were able to restore glucose metabolism in mice with both amyloid and tau accumulation — abnormal proteins involved in many neurodegenerative disorders — by blocking IDO1. We believe repurposing these inhibitors could be beneficial across various neurodegenerative disorders.

Promoting healthier cognitive aging

The effects of neurological disorders and metabolic decline weigh heavily on individuals and families, and even the economy.

While many scientists have focused on targeting the downstream effects of these diseases, such as managing symptoms and slowing progression, treating these diseases earlier can improve cognition with aging. Our findings suggest that targeting metabolism has the potential to not only slow neurological decline but also to reverse the progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and dementia.

Discovering new insights at the intersection of stress, metabolism, and aging can pave the way for healthier aging. More research can improve our understanding of how metabolism affects stress responses and cellular balance throughout life.

Melanie R. McReynolds is an assistant professor of biochemistry at Penn State University.

Republished from The Conversation .

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Priority Updates from the Research Literature (PURLs) is a product of the Family Practice Inquiries Network (FPIN) designed to alert practicing primary care clinicians about new discoveries that could cause them to change their practice. 1 The purpose of PURLs is to leverage an organized surveillance system to rapidly scan a large amount of medical literature relevant to primary care, identify the small percentage of that literature that represents a potential change in practice, complete a thorough review process to determine if it should change practice, and succinctly summarize that evidence for busy clinicians. 2 The purpose of this article is to illuminate the rigorous process by which FPIN identifies, evaluates, and publishes a PURL.

• The PURLs Surveillance Team

The identification of a potential PURL starts with the PURLs Surveillance Team. This team is a group of highly motivated primary care clinicians interested in new research that could represent practice-changing findings. The team is led by an FPIN staff member and the PURLs Editor-in-Chief (EIC). Volunteers from this group agree to monitor over 20 medical journals that are likely to publish findings relevant to practicing family physicians. With a relatively small number of volunteers, a large amount of new primary care literature can be monitored on a regular basis. When one of these volunteers, or any member of the Surveillance Team, identifies a new article that they believe may represent a potential change in practice, they can nominate the article by posting the abstract along with their reasoning behind nominating it. The nomination is then commented on by the individual members of the PURLs Surveillance Team where members share their opinion on whether the article is a potential PURL. Based on the robust discussion by the PURLs Surveillance Team, the PURLs EIC makes a final determination as to whether the nominated article should continue forward in the process. If it is determined that it should move forward, it is noted as a potential PURL and prepared for an in-depth review by a PURL Jam Site.

• PURL Jam Sessions

Potential PURLs are assigned to one of a handful of family medicine residencies (PURL Jam Sites) for systematic review at events called “PURL Jam Sessions.” PURL Jam Sites are members of FPIN who have gone through an application process with the PURLs EIC and have been approved based on their significant critical appraisal experience, faculty availability, and program buy-in. A PURL Jam Session is a highly structured and rigorous journal club. PURL Jams are led by a local expert in evidence-based medicine and include a small number of faculty and residents. In addition to a thorough evaluation of the article in question, PURL Jams represent a valuable learning experience for the participants as they practice critical appraisal of the literature. The PURL Jam Site utilizes a structured Potential PURL Review Form (PPRF) to evaluate each article. There are different PPRFs, with tailored questions to address the nuances of various study designs. The PPRF form provides a series of structured critical appraisal questions for the PURL Jam Site to consider, with the goal of determining whether or not the article is a “PURL.” An article can only be declared a PURL if it meets all 6 PURLs criteria, which are explained in Table 1 . Once the PPRF is completed, the PURL Jam Site prepares a Diving for PURL (DfP) manuscript that summarizes the article and includes an explanation for each PURL criteria. Both the PPRF and DfP manuscript are submitted to FPIN.

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PURLs Criteria

• First Round of Peer and Editorial Review

The PURLs EIC reviews the first draft and may request edits from the author team. Once the EIC is satisfied with the DfP manuscript, it is sent to the local expert at another PURL Jam Site for peer review. The PURLs EIC then reviews the peer reviewer’s feedback and asks the authors to incorporate pertinent feedback from the reviewer. If the author states the article met all 6 PURLs criteria, and the peer reviewer or PURLs EIC disagrees, the PURLs EIC makes the determination as to whether the manuscript will proceed as a PURL. If the PURLs EIC does not agree with the author that it is a PURL, the author will be asked to revise. If the manuscript does not meet all 6 PURLs criteria, it then proceeds to publication as a DfP in Evidence-Based Practice so readers can understand why the particular article may not result in a change in practice.

• Second Round of Peer and Editorial Review

Once the PURLs EIC has approved the DfP manuscript and agrees the article is a PURL, the PURL Jam Site expands the DfP manuscript into a PURL manuscript and completes Speaker Notes. The PURL manuscript has additional components including the practice change, an illustrative case, clinical context, caveats, and potential challenges. Speaker Notes are a critical appraisal worksheet utilized in FPIN’s Journal Club product. Once the PURL Jam Site submits the PURL manuscript, it goes through an additional peer review. A PURL Deputy Editor then edits the manuscript, incorporates peer review feedback into the manuscript, and requests that the authors revise. If the peer reviewer does not agree that the article meets all 6 PURLs criteria, the PURLs Deputy Editor reviews their reasoning and determines whether they believe it meets all 6 PURLs criteria. If the PURL Deputy Editor does not think the article is a PURL, it is sent to FPIN’s Vice President of Publications to decide if the manuscript will continue as a PURL, or if the DfP will be published in Evidence-Based Practice instead. If the Vice President of Publications states it is a PURL, the manuscript will be revised by the authors and continue in the editorial review process. The PURL Deputy Editor reviews the authors’ revision and either requests additional edits or approves the PURL manuscript for publication.

• Publication

Finalized PURL manuscripts are sent to a family medicine journal for publication. The PURLs format provides an easy-to-read synthesis of the standardized review process. Published PURLs review the evidence and explain why the findings are compelling enough to warrant providers changing their practice. The finalized PURL has been reviewed by at least 4 experts in the PURL methodology before the manuscript completing an additional round of peer review with the journal before final publication, which is represented by Figure 1 . The final product then has completed a rigorous evaluation process that includes the scrutiny of many PURL experts resulting in a brief, easy-to-read synopsis of the evidence for an immediate impact on patient care.

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PURL decision workflow.

• Acknowledgments

The authors thank Dean Seehusen, MD, MPH and Corey Lyon, DO for their contributions to developing the PURLs methodology.

This article was externally peer reviewed.

This is the Ahead of Print version of the article.

Funding: None.

Conflict of interest: None.

To see this article online, please go to: http://jabfm.org/content/00/00/000.full .

• Received for publication November 9, 2023.
• Accepted for publication February 26, 2024.
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St. Teresa of Ávila’s body remains incorrupt after almost 5 centuries

By Walter Sánchez Silva

ACI Prensa Staff, Aug 29, 2024 / 14:09 pm

The Diocese of Ávila in Spain reported Aug. 28 that the body of St. Teresa of Ávila , a doctor of the Church, remains incorrupt after her death on Oct. 4, 1582, almost five centuries ago.

“Today the tomb of St. Teresa was opened and we have verified that it is in the same condition as when it was last opened in 1914,” said the postulator general of the Discalced Carmelite Order, Father Marco Chiesa of the Carmelite Monastery of Alba de Tormes, where the remains of the revered Spanish saint rest.

Father Miguel Ángel González, the Carmelite prior of Alba de Tormes and Salamanca of the Diocese of Ávila, explained how the procedure was carried out: “The community of Discalced Carmelite mothers together with the postulator general of the order, the members of the ecclesiastical tribunal, and a small group of religious moved the reliquaries with stringency and solemnity to the place set up for study. We did it singing the Te Deum with our hearts full of emotion.”

The diocese explained that the event took place as part of the canonical recognition of the remains of St. Teresa of Ávila, requested from the Vatican on July 1 by the bishop of Salamanca, Luis Retana, with authorization granted by Pope Francis through the Dicastery for the Causes of Saints.

The process of studying the body, the heart, an arm, and a hand, the latter of which is preserved in the Spanish town of Ronda and which has been taken to Alba de Tormes for research, is taking place Aug. 28–31.

The diocese said that, in order to get to the body of St. Teresa, the marble slab of the sepulcher was first removed. Then — in the room set up for the studies and now only in the presence of the scientific medical team and the members of the ecclesiastical court — the silver coffin was opened.

The tribunal is made up of the Carmelite provincial of the Iberian Province of St. Teresa of Jesús in Spain, Father Francisco Sánchez Oreja; González; and the superior of the Daughters of Charity of Alba de Tormes, Sister Remigia Blázquez Martín.

The silver coffin was opened with the help of the goldsmiths Ignacio Manzano Martín and Constantino Martín Jaén, who will also be present on the last day of the work.

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The Diocese of Ávila also revealed that 10 keys were used to open the tomb: “The three that are kept in Alba de Tormes, the three that the Duke of Alba lent them, and the three that the father general [a Discalced Carmelite] keeps in Rome, in addition to the king’s key. Three of these keys are to open the outer grille, three are to open the marble tomb, and the other four are to open the silver coffin.”

Chiesa pointed out that the images preserved from the 1914 examination are in black and white, so “it is difficult to make a comparison,” although “the parts uncovered, which are the face and the foot, are the same as they were in 1914.”

“There is no color, there is no skin color, because the skin is mummified, but you can see it, especially the middle of the face,” he noted. “The expert doctors can see Teresa’s face almost clearly.”

Three stages of the process 

The first stage, opening and recognition, will take place until Aug. 31. In this phase, a team led by Dr. José Antonio Ruiz de Alegría from Madrid will take photos and X-rays as well as properly clean the reliquaries.

The second stage will be in laboratories in Italy for a few months, to then draw up the scientific conclusions. Finally, as a third stage, some interventions will be proposed to better preserve the remains.

(Story continues below)

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Before the final closure, an appropriate time will be set aside so that the relics of St. Teresa can be venerated.

The 1914 opening

The previous opening of the tomb of St. Teresa of Jesús took place from Aug. 16–23, 1914. At that time the Diocese of Ávila stated that the body remained “completely incorrupt,” as occurred at the opening in 1750.

According to Carmelite Father Daniel de Pablo Maroto, the tomb was opened in 1914 because the superior general of the Discalced Carmelites, Father Clemente de los Santos, wanted to take advantage of his visit to Spain to see the bodies of the founding saints: St. John of the Cross in Segovia and St. Teresa in Alba de Tormes.

The study that is now underway with the remains of St. Teresa of Ávila will be similar to that carried out in 1991 with those of St. John of the Cross in Segovia on the occasion of the fourth centenary of his death.

Who was St. Teresa of Ávila?

The website of the general curia of the Discalced Carmelites explains that they recognize as their mother and founder St. Teresa of Jesús, also known as St. Teresa of Ávila, the first woman to become a doctor of the Church, who wanted to “preserve the continuity of Carmel” with the desire that “a new style of religious life would be born,” always “in fidelity to the Church.”

Born in Spain in 1515, St. Teresa of Ávila was also a mystic and writer of Jewish descent, recognized both for her contribution to Catholic spirituality and to Spanish literature.

A famous saying of hers is: “Let nothing trouble you, let nothing frighten you. Everything passes, God does not change. Patience achieves everything. Whoever has God lacks for nothing. God alone is enough.”

This story was first published by ACI Prensa, CNA’s Spanish-language news partner. It has been translated and adapted by CNA.

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The Benefits of Donating Your Body to Medical Science

Columbia’s Anatomical Donor Program gives students the education of a lifetime — and donors some posthumous perks.

It’s not unusual for people to donate their bodies, or parts of their bodies, to science. In fact, almost 170 million Americans are registered organ donors, and people with specific medical conditions often donate their bodies for disease research. But giving your body to a medical school so that students can learn anatomy — the fundamental basis of medicine — is not an option you can check off while renewing your driver’s license. That may help explain why many institutions, including Columbia, are currently experiencing a body shortage.

This is an urgent problem, because for first-year medical students, a cadaver is the ultimate learning tool. “In a sense, that body is a student’s first patient,” says Paulette Bernd ’77GSAS, ’80VPS, director of the Anatomical Donor Program at CUIMC. Bernd, who runs the clinical gross-anatomy course at Columbia and gives most of the lectures, maintains that regardless of the increasing sophistication of 3D computer models, there is no better teacher than the human body itself. “An actual body is obviously more realistic,” she says. “The artery or the nerves or the muscles might not look like they do in the textbook, so there’s an act of discovery that students have to do on their own.”

At Columbia, all first-year medical, dental, and physical-therapy students take a human dissection course, and the rewards of studying real bodies can’t be overstated. “For those who are going into surgery — which is a pretty good number of medical students here — it’s invaluable,” says Louie Kulber, a second-year MD-PhD student. “They’re never going to have another opportunity to do a full-body dissection, where it’s OK to make mistakes.” Then there’s the human side: “You have to care for your cadaver and keep it properly covered. You have to make sure you’re being respectful.” 

Last spring, Kulber helped organize Columbia’s annual anatomical-donor memorial service, which dates to the 1970s. More than 150 students and faculty gathered in the Vagelos Education Center at CUIMC to honor the donors with whom they had become so powerfully connected. Bernd, along with University chaplain Jewelnel Davis and dean of students Jean-Marie Alves-Bradford, offered remarks, and then the students got up to talk about “the incredible selflessness of the donors,” Kulber says.

During Bernd’s course, which runs from August to December, two moments of silence are observed. One comes at the beginning, when the cadavers are first brought out. The other comes toward the end. “In the class, we start with the chest and then work our way to the arms and legs, then back to the chest and abdomen,” says Kulber. “The last thing we do is the head.” Up to that point, the head is covered with an opaque bag, and students take time to silently express their gratitude before the bag is removed. “As the semester goes on, little by little, the work becomes more mechanical,” explains Kulber. “But when you see the face, it all comes back: this is a person. So there’s this very emotional response.”

Because of the body shortage, and because dissection takes time, Bernd has two groups of students sharing one donor. “If the first group does the upper arm, then the next group will do the forearm,” Bernd says. “And they’ll learn from each other’s dissections.” And because the lab is open at all hours, students can return at night and on weekends to examine other cadavers. “You can see big people, small people, people of different ethnicities, people with different conditions or comorbidities and different causes of death,” Kulber says. “The lab is accessible to the entire class.”

To qualify as a donor, a person must be over eighteen at the time of death and within sixty miles of the University. The body cannot be morbidly obese or emaciated and cannot have had a communicable disease or recent major surgery. Columbia will pick up the body and bring it to the morgue at CUIMC. The embalming process takes six months, since the embalming fluid must diffuse through all the body’s systems and tissues. Once the body is prepared, it becomes available for Bernd’s lab.

Donors benefit in multiple ways, says Bernd. One is knowing that, after they die, they will provide an unparalleled training opportunity for future physicians; another is saving on the cost of burial. Columbia pays for the donor’s cremation, gets the death certificate, and returns the ashes to the family. Alternatively, the ashes can be interred, for free, in a Columbia plot at Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, the gentle-sloped, verdant resting place of Horace Greeley, Boss Tweed, Leonard Bernstein, and Jean-Michel Basquiat.

There, among the elms, a granite monument reads: In memory of those individuals whose bequeathal to Columbia University advanced medical science. IN LUMINE TUO VIDEBIMUS LUMEN. 

If you are interested in donating your body to medical science, visit the webpage of Columbia's  Anatomical Donor Program  for instructions and contact information. 

This article appears in the Fall 2024 print edition of Columbia Magazine with the title "Body of Knowledge." 

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Research: Israeli snack reduces chance of developing peanut allergy among children

The quintessential israeli snack bamba and its part in reducing peanut allergies remains a source of national pride; 2008 study found peanut allergies are far less common among israeli kids than their british peers.

Key takeaways:

• An allergic reaction does not automatically lead to an allergy: Some children had positive skin tests for peanuts at the study's start but could still consume peanuts. This indicates low specificity of these tests, and a positive skin test without a reaction history doesn’t necessarily mean an allergy to that food.
• Allergies can develop later in life: The largest difference in peanut allergy rates was between children with positive skin tests who avoided peanuts (34%) versus those who consumed them (0%). This highlights that, while waiting for a challenge test (about a year), there’s a high chance a child with a positive skin test may develop an allergy to that food, even if initially non-allergic.
• Testing children only for suspected allergenic foods is recommended: It’s not advisable to conduct skin tests for foods regularly consumed or not yet eaten. Similarly, blood tests for food-specific IgE antibodies should only be conducted for foods suspected of causing an allergic reaction, upon referral by an allergy and immunology specialist.

How to Write a Body of a Research Paper

The main part of your research paper is called “the body.” To write this important part of your paper, include only relevant information, or information that gets to the point. Organize your ideas in a logical order—one that makes sense—and provide enough details—facts and examples—to support the points you want to make.

Logical Order

Transition words and phrases, adding evidence, phrases for supporting topic sentences.

• Transition Phrases for Comparisons
• Transition Phrases for Contrast
• Transition Phrases to Show a Process
• Phrases to Introduce Examples
• Transition Phrases for Presenting Evidence

How to Make Effective Transitions

Examples of effective transitions, drafting your conclusion, writing the body paragraphs.

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• The third and fourth paragraphs follow the same format as the second:
• Transition or topic sentence.
• Topic sentence (if not included in the first sentence).
• Supporting sentences including a discussion, quotations, or examples that support the topic sentence.
• Concluding sentence that transitions to the next paragraph.

The topic of each paragraph will be supported by the evidence you itemized in your outline. However, just as smooth transitions are required to connect your paragraphs, the sentences you write to present your evidence should possess transition words that connect ideas, focus attention on relevant information, and continue your discussion in a smooth and fluid manner.

You presented the main idea of your paper in the thesis statement. In the body, every single paragraph must support that main idea. If any paragraph in your paper does not, in some way, back up the main idea expressed in your thesis statement, it is not relevant, which means it doesn’t have a purpose and shouldn’t be there.

Each paragraph also has a main idea of its own. That main idea is stated in a topic sentence, either at the beginning or somewhere else in the paragraph. Just as every paragraph in your paper supports your thesis statement, every sentence in each paragraph supports the main idea of that paragraph by providing facts or examples that back up that main idea. If a sentence does not support the main idea of the paragraph, it is not relevant and should be left out.

A paper that makes claims or states ideas without backing them up with facts or clarifying them with examples won’t mean much to readers. Make sure you provide enough supporting details for all your ideas. And remember that a paragraph can’t contain just one sentence. A paragraph needs at least two or more sentences to be complete. If a paragraph has only one or two sentences, you probably haven’t provided enough support for your main idea. Or, if you have trouble finding the main idea, maybe you don’t have one. In that case, you can make the sentences part of another paragraph or leave them out.

Arrange the paragraphs in the body of your paper in an order that makes sense, so that each main idea follows logically from the previous one. Likewise, arrange the sentences in each paragraph in a logical order.

If you carefully organized your notes and made your outline, your ideas will fall into place naturally as you write your draft. The main ideas, which are building blocks of each section or each paragraph in your paper, come from the Roman-numeral headings in your outline. The supporting details under each of those main ideas come from the capital-letter headings. In a shorter paper, the capital-letter headings may become sentences that include supporting details, which come from the Arabic numerals in your outline. In a longer paper, the capital letter headings may become paragraphs of their own, which contain sentences with the supporting details, which come from the Arabic numerals in your outline.

In addition to keeping your ideas in logical order, transitions are another way to guide readers from one idea to another. Transition words and phrases are important when you are suggesting or pointing out similarities between ideas, themes, opinions, or a set of facts. As with any perfect phrase, transition words within paragraphs should not be used gratuitously. Their meaning must conform to what you are trying to point out, as shown in the examples below:

• “Accordingly” or “in accordance with” indicates agreement. For example :Thomas Edison’s experiments with electricity accordingly followed the theories of Benjamin Franklin, J. B. Priestly, and other pioneers of the previous century.
• “Analogous” or “analogously” contrasts different things or ideas that perform similar functions or make similar expressions. For example: A computer hard drive is analogous to a filing cabinet. Each stores important documents and data.
• “By comparison” or “comparatively”points out differences between things that otherwise are similar. For example: Roses require an alkaline soil. Azaleas, by comparison, prefer an acidic soil.
• “Corresponds to” or “correspondingly” indicates agreement or conformity. For example: The U.S. Constitution corresponds to England’s Magna Carta in so far as both established a framework for a parliamentary system.
• “Equals,”“equal to,” or “equally” indicates the same degree or quality. For example:Vitamin C is equally as important as minerals in a well-balanced diet.
• “Equivalent” or “equivalently” indicates two ideas or things of approximately the same importance, size, or volume. For example:The notions of individual liberty and the right to a fair and speedy trial hold equivalent importance in the American legal system.
• “Common” or “in common with” indicates similar traits or qualities. For example: Darwin did not argue that humans were descended from the apes. Instead, he maintained that they shared a common ancestor.
• “In the same way,”“in the same manner,”“in the same vein,” or “likewise,” connects comparable traits, ideas, patterns, or activities. For example: John Roebling’s suspension bridges in Brooklyn and Cincinnati were built in the same manner, with strong cables to support a metallic roadway. Example 2: Despite its delicate appearance, John Roebling’s Brooklyn Bridge was built as a suspension bridge supported by strong cables. Example 3: Cincinnati’s Suspension Bridge, which Roebling also designed, was likewise supported by cables.
• “Kindred” indicates that two ideas or things are related by quality or character. For example: Artists Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin are considered kindred spirits in the Impressionist Movement. “Like” or “as” are used to create a simile that builds reader understanding by comparing two dissimilar things. (Never use “like” as slang, as in: John Roebling was like a bridge designer.) For examples: Her eyes shone like the sun. Her eyes were as bright as the sun.
• “Parallel” describes events, things, or ideas that occurred at the same time or that follow similar logic or patterns of behavior. For example:The original Ocktoberfests were held to occur in parallel with the autumn harvest.
• “Obviously” emphasizes a point that should be clear from the discussion. For example: Obviously, raccoons and other wildlife will attempt to find food and shelter in suburban areas as their woodland habitats disappear.
• “Similar” and “similarly” are used to make like comparisons. For example: Horses and ponies have similar physical characteristics although, as working farm animals, each was bred to perform different functions.
• “There is little debate” or “there is consensus” can be used to point out agreement. For example:There is little debate that the polar ice caps are melting.The question is whether global warming results from natural or human-made causes.

Other phrases that can be used to make transitions or connect ideas within paragraphs include:

• Use “alternately” or “alternatively” to suggest a different option.
• Use “antithesis” to indicate a direct opposite.
• Use “contradict” to indicate disagreement.
• Use “on the contrary” or “conversely” to indicate that something is different from what it seems.
• Use “dissimilar” to point out differences between two things.
• Use “diverse” to discuss differences among many things or people.
• Use “distinct” or “distinctly” to point out unique qualities.
• Use “inversely” to indicate an opposite idea.
• Use “it is debatable,” “there is debate,” or “there is disagreement” to suggest that there is more than one opinion about a subject.
• Use “rather” or “rather than” to point out an exception.
• Use “unique” or “uniquely” to indicate qualities that can be found nowhere else.
• Use “unlike” to indicate dissimilarities.
• Use “various” to indicate more than one kind.

Writing Topic Sentences

Remember, a sentence should express a complete thought, one thought per sentence—no more, no less. The longer and more convoluted your sentences become, the more likely you are to muddle the meaning, become repetitive, and bog yourself down in issues of grammar and construction. In your first draft, it is generally a good idea to keep those sentences relatively short and to the point. That way your ideas will be clearly stated.You will be able to clearly see the content that you have put down—what is there and what is missing—and add or subtract material as it is needed. The sentences will probably seem choppy and even simplistic.The purpose of a first draft is to ensure that you have recorded all the content you will need to make a convincing argument. You will work on smoothing and perfecting the language in subsequent drafts.

Transitioning from your topic sentence to the evidence that supports it can be problematic. It requires a transition, much like the transitions needed to move from one paragraph to the next. Choose phrases that connect the evidence directly to your topic sentence.

• Consider this: (give an example or state evidence).
• If (identify one condition or event) then (identify the condition or event that will follow).
• It should go without saying that (point out an obvious condition).
• Note that (provide an example or observation).
• Take a look at (identify a condition; follow with an explanation of why you think it is important to the discussion).
• The authors had (identify their idea) in mind when they wrote “(use a quotation from their text that illustrates the idea).”
• The point is that (summarize the conclusion your reader should draw from your research).
• This becomes evident when (name the author) says that (paraphrase a quote from the author’s writing).
• We see this in the following example: (provide an example of your own).
• (The author’s name) offers the example of (summarize an example given by the author).

If an idea is controversial, you may need to add extra evidence to your paragraphs to persuade your reader. You may also find that a logical argument, one based solely on your evidence, is not persuasive enough and that you need to appeal to the reader’s emotions. Look for ways to incorporate your research without detracting from your argument.

Writing Transition Sentences

It is often difficult to write transitions that carry a reader clearly and logically on to the next paragraph (and the next topic) in an essay. Because you are moving from one topic to another, it is easy to simply stop one and start another. Great research papers, however, include good transitions that link the ideas in an interesting discussion so that readers can move smoothly and easily through your presentation. Close each of your paragraphs with an interesting transition sentence that introduces the topic coming up in the next paragraph.

Transition sentences should show a relationship between the two topics.Your transition will perform one of the following functions to introduce the new idea:

• Indicate that you will be expanding on information in a different way in the upcoming paragraph.
• Indicate that a comparison, contrast, or a cause-and-effect relationship between the topics will be discussed.
• Indicate that an example will be presented in the next paragraph.
• Indicate that a conclusion is coming up.

Transitions make a paper flow smoothly by showing readers how ideas and facts follow one another to point logically to a conclusion. They show relationships among the ideas, help the reader to understand, and, in a persuasive paper, lead the reader to the writer’s conclusion.

Each paragraph should end with a transition sentence to conclude the discussion of the topic in the paragraph and gently introduce the reader to the topic that will be raised in the next paragraph. However, transitions also occur within paragraphs—from sentence to sentence—to add evidence, provide examples, or introduce a quotation.

The type of paper you are writing and the kinds of topics you are introducing will determine what type of transitional phrase you should use. Some useful phrases for transitions appear below. They are grouped according to the function they normally play in a paper. Transitions, however, are not simply phrases that are dropped into sentences. They are constructed to highlight meaning. Choose transitions that are appropriate to your topic and what you want the reader to do. Edit them to be sure they fit properly within the sentence to enhance the reader’s understanding.

Transition Phrases for Comparisons:

• We also see
• In addition to
• Notice that
• Beside that,
• In comparison,
• Once again,
• Identically,
• For example,
• Comparatively, it can be seen that
• We see this when
• This corresponds to
• In other words,
• At the same time,
• By the same token,

Transition Phrases for Contrast:

• By contrast,
• On the contrary,
• Nevertheless,
• An exception to this would be …
• Alongside that,we find …
• On one hand … on the other hand …
• [New information] presents an opposite view …
• Conversely, it could be argued …
• Other than that,we find that …
• We get an entirely different impression from …
• One point of differentiation is …
• Further investigation shows …
• An exception can be found in the fact that …

Transition Phrases to Show a Process:

• At the top we have … Near the bottom we have …
• Here we have … There we have …
• Continuing on,
• We progress to …
• Close up … In the distance …
• With this in mind,
• Moving in sequence,
• Proceeding sequentially,
• Moving to the next step,
• First, Second,Third,…
• Examining the activities in sequence,
• Sequentially,
• As a result,
• The end result is …
• To illustrate …
• Subsequently,
• One consequence of …
• If … then …
• It follows that …
• This is chiefly due to …
• The next step …
• Later we find …

Phrases to Introduce Examples:

• For instance,
• Particularly,
• In particular,
• This includes,
• Specifically,
• To illustrate,
• One illustration is
• One example is
• This is illustrated by
• This can be seen when
• This is especially seen in
• This is chiefly seen when

Transition Phrases for Presenting Evidence:

• Another point worthy of consideration is
• At the center of the issue is the notion that
• Before moving on, it should be pointed out that
• Another important point is
• Another idea worth considering is
• Consequently,
• Especially,
• Even more important,
• Getting beyond the obvious,
• In spite of all this,
• It follows that
• It is clear that
• More importantly,
• Most importantly,

How to make effective transitions between sections of a research paper? There are two distinct issues in making strong transitions:

• Does the upcoming section actually belong where you have placed it?
• Have you adequately signaled the reader why you are taking this next step?

The first is the most important: Does the upcoming section actually belong in the next spot? The sections in your research paper need to add up to your big point (or thesis statement) in a sensible progression. One way of putting that is, “Does the architecture of your paper correspond to the argument you are making?” Getting this architecture right is the goal of “large-scale editing,” which focuses on the order of the sections, their relationship to each other, and ultimately their correspondence to your thesis argument.

It’s easy to craft graceful transitions when the sections are laid out in the right order. When they’re not, the transitions are bound to be rough. This difficulty, if you encounter it, is actually a valuable warning. It tells you that something is wrong and you need to change it. If the transitions are awkward and difficult to write, warning bells should ring. Something is wrong with the research paper’s overall structure.

After you’ve placed the sections in the right order, you still need to tell the reader when he is changing sections and briefly explain why. That’s an important part of line-by-line editing, which focuses on writing effective sentences and paragraphs.

Effective transition sentences and paragraphs often glance forward or backward, signaling that you are switching sections. Take this example from J. M. Roberts’s History of Europe . He is finishing a discussion of the Punic Wars between Rome and its great rival, Carthage. The last of these wars, he says, broke out in 149 B.C. and “ended with so complete a defeat for the Carthaginians that their city was destroyed . . . .” Now he turns to a new section on “Empire.” Here is the first sentence: “By then a Roman empire was in being in fact if not in name.”(J. M. Roberts, A History of Europe . London: Allen Lane, 1997, p. 48) Roberts signals the transition with just two words: “By then.” He is referring to the date (149 B.C.) given near the end of the previous section. Simple and smooth.

Michael Mandelbaum also accomplishes this transition between sections effortlessly, without bringing his narrative to a halt. In The Ideas That Conquered the World: Peace, Democracy, and Free Markets , one chapter shows how countries of the North Atlantic region invented the idea of peace and made it a reality among themselves. Here is his transition from one section of that chapter discussing “the idea of warlessness” to another section dealing with the history of that idea in Europe.

The widespread aversion to war within the countries of the Western core formed the foundation for common security, which in turn expressed the spirit of warlessness. To be sure, the rise of common security in Europe did not abolish war in other parts of the world and could not guarantee its permanent abolition even on the European continent. Neither, however, was it a flukish, transient product . . . . The European common security order did have historical precedents, and its principal features began to appear in other parts of the world. Precedents for Common Security The security arrangements in Europe at the dawn of the twenty-first century incorporated features of three different periods of the modern age: the nineteenth century, the interwar period, and the ColdWar. (Michael Mandelbaum, The Ideas That Conquered the World: Peace, Democracy, and Free Markets . New York: Public Affairs, 2002, p. 128)

It’s easier to make smooth transitions when neighboring sections deal with closely related subjects, as Mandelbaum’s do. Sometimes, however, you need to end one section with greater finality so you can switch to a different topic. The best way to do that is with a few summary comments at the end of the section. Your readers will understand you are drawing this topic to a close, and they won’t be blindsided by your shift to a new topic in the next section.

Here’s an example from economic historian Joel Mokyr’s book The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress . Mokyr is completing a section on social values in early industrial societies. The next section deals with a quite different aspect of technological progress: the role of property rights and institutions. So Mokyr needs to take the reader across a more abrupt change than Mandelbaum did. Mokyr does that in two ways. First, he summarizes his findings on social values, letting the reader know the section is ending. Then he says the impact of values is complicated, a point he illustrates in the final sentences, while the impact of property rights and institutions seems to be more straightforward. So he begins the new section with a nod to the old one, noting the contrast.

In commerce, war and politics, what was functional was often preferred [within Europe] to what was aesthetic or moral, and when it was not, natural selection saw to it that such pragmatism was never entirely absent in any society. . . . The contempt in which physical labor, commerce, and other economic activity were held did not disappear rapidly; much of European social history can be interpreted as a struggle between wealth and other values for a higher step in the hierarchy. The French concepts of bourgeois gentilhomme and nouveau riche still convey some contempt for people who joined the upper classes through economic success. Even in the nineteenth century, the accumulation of wealth was viewed as an admission ticket to social respectability to be abandoned as soon as a secure membership in the upper classes had been achieved. Institutions and Property Rights The institutional background of technological progress seems, on the surface, more straightforward. (Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity and Economic Progress . New York: Oxford University Press, 1990, p. 176)

Note the phrase, “on the surface.” Mokyr is hinting at his next point, that surface appearances are deceiving in this case. Good transitions between sections of your research paper depend on:

• Getting the sections in the right order
• Moving smoothly from one section to the next
• Signaling readers that they are taking the next step in your argument
• Explaining why this next step comes where it does

Every good paper ends with a strong concluding paragraph. To write a good conclusion, sum up the main points in your paper. To write an even better conclusion, include a sentence or two that helps the reader answer the question, “So what?” or “Why does all this matter?” If you choose to include one or more “So What?” sentences, remember that you still need to support any point you make with facts or examples. Remember, too, that this is not the place to introduce new ideas from “out of the blue.” Make sure that everything you write in your conclusion refers to what you’ve already written in the body of your paper.

Back to How To Write A Research Paper .

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Structuring your manuscript

Overview of article structure.

Details on the structure of manuscripts published in BMC journals can be found in the instructions for authors for each journal. The standard structure of the body of research articles (after the Title and Abstract) is:

The article structure:

• Gives a logical flow to the content
• Makes journal manuscripts predictable and easy to read
• Provides a "map" so that readers can quickly find content of interest in any manuscript
• Reminds authors what content should be included

BUT ... although the sections of the journal manuscript are published in the order: Title, Abstract, Background, Methods, Results, Discussion,and Conclusion, this is NOT the best order for writing the sections of a manuscript. One strategy is to write your manuscript in the following order:

• Materials and Methods

These can be written first, as you are doing your experiments and collecting the results.

• Introduction

Write these sections next, once you have decided on your target journal.

Write your Title and Abstract based on all the other sections

Following this order will help you write a logical and consistent manuscript. Use the different sections of a manuscript to 'tell a story' about your research and its implications.

Article Writing: Engage Your Readers

• Icon Calendar 14 June 2024
• Icon Page 6064 words
• Icon Clock 27 min read

An article contains information on a topic intended for a real publication in a newspaper, magazine, or journal. Authors of such compositions target a more extensive range of audiences, which makes it essential for them to attract the reader’s attention. They may include amusing stories or descriptions in their texts and give opinions, thoughts, and facts on a specific topic. This guideline on how to write an article outlines essential details and critical tips that students must grasp to produce a high-quality, intellectually stimulating text. The guideline begins by defining what an article is, its types, structure, and format, outlining possible topics students can choose from, and a sample outline and example of a written composition as a practical guide on how its content should appear. Moreover, the guideline highlights the technical details of starting and writing an article, following formatting styles students can adopt. In turn, potential writers should avoid making mistakes, including essential tips for producing a high-value document. Reading this guideline is valuable to college students and others who find writing an interesting exercise for social discourse and intellectual development. As a result, writing articles involves selecting an eye-catching title, an informative introduction, detailed body paragraphs, and an ending paragraph that gives the author’s reflection on the topic under discussion.

General Aspects

Reading guidelines on how to write different types of papers is recommendable for college students because it increases knowledge on what to do to produce a high-standard article. Writing is an academic and intellectual exercise because it allows students to apply what they have learned by carefully examining the literature and logically documenting evidence. In this sense, students should not view recommendations for writing various types of essays as an assessment protocol but as an opportunity to develop intellectually. The basis of this guideline is the understanding that academic texts have standards students should demonstrate, such as outline, thesis statement, evidence, citations, and formal language. Therefore, by reading this guideline, students should grasp critical details about how to write an eye-catching article that allows them to apply course content to produce persuasive information.

What Is an Article and Its Purpose

From a simple definition, an article is a piece of writing in a newspaper, journal, magazine, or website, and its main purpose is to inform, educate, entertain, or engage readers. In this respect, its content can be print or digital, with the digital format having the widest reach because of the ubiquitous Internet and smart devices. The format of article writing includes an engaging title, a compelling introduction with a clear thesis statement, background information, well-developed body paragraphs with evidence and examples, smooth transitions, counterarguments, a conclusion that summarizes key points, and a call to action or suggestions for further reading (Barringham, 2023). Moreover, articles differ from essays, research papers, and reports, which means they disseminate information about political, economic, social, cultural, technological, and legal issues to specific audiences. For example, media houses use their online platforms to publish different texts about contemporary issues of great public concern, including costly healthcare, homelessness, and uncontrolled immigration (Flanagan, 2018). However, college students may write such compositions as an exercise to demonstrate their understanding of key issues. The product must convince the audience why the matter deserves intellectual discourse, such as explaining its causes and implications. Since a good article possesses clarity, engagement, accuracy, coherence, and originality, students should approach their writing with intellectual vigor, assuming that its content is publishable (Saleh, 2014). In terms of pages and words, the length of an article varies by academic complexities and specific requirements from teachers, professors, or publication standards, while general guidelines for each level are:

High School

• Pages: 1-4 pages
• Words: 250-1,000 words
• Pages: 4-8 pages
• Words: 1,000-2,000 words

University (Undergraduate)

• Pages: 8-12 pages
• Words: 2,000-3,000 words

Master’s

• Pages: 12-20 pages
• Words: 3,000-5,000 words
• Pages: 20-30+ pages
• Words: 5,000-10,000+ words

Types of Article Writing

Key Structure Features

Developing a title.

A typical structure of a good article consists of a captivating title, an engaging introduction, well-organized body paragraphs that explore the main points, and a concise conclusion that wraps up the discussion. Basically, the first structure feature is to select an attractive and informative essay title (Goh & Bourne, 2020). In this case, a good-written piece should have an eye-catching heading. Along these lines, the title of any composition should attract readers’ attention, covering the main theme of its content. In turn, readers should enjoy a particular content by starting to read through the title. Moreover, the title should summarize a key idea of its content or message to readers. Therefore, when writing articles, authors should select a specific title that catches the reader’s attention and summarizes its key message.

Introduction Section

The introduction paragraph of an article should provide a clear description of the content. For instance, writers should start by defining the topic clearly, including the choice of writing strategies and styles (Barringham, 2023). Besides, readers should understand the subject and the content of a written composition after reading the introductory paragraph, retaining the reader’s attention. As a result, a good cpomposition should have a clear and detailed opening paragraph. In turn, some examples of starting sentences for beginning an article are:

• Among the rapid technological advancements of the 21st century, one of the most transformative developments has been … .
• While there are numerous perspectives on [topic], it is essential to consider the complex implications of … .
• In the context of [historical event], the emergence of [phenomenon] has had long-lasting consequences for … .
• Despite a hot debate, there is a consensus among leading scholars that … .
• After examining the connections between [field 1] and [field 1], one cannot overlook the significance of … .
• The complex relationship between [factor 1] and [factor 2] has long been a subject of academic discourse, particularly in light of recent findings … .
• As society faces the challenges posed by [issue], it becomes increasingly important to explore the underlying causes and potential solutions … .
• Given high rates of change in [industry/field], understanding the drivers behind this transformation is crucial for … .
• Although [topic] is often viewed through a single lens, a more complex analysis reveals … .
• Even if initial observations suggest [outcome], a current analysis raises new questions about … .

Body Paragraphs

A well-organized article should have a body that expands the information about the topic. For instance, authors should write several body paragraphs that explain the main issue under analysis (Dhillon, 2022). In this case, body paragraphs should explain the main idea of such a composition in more detail, expounding on its introduction. In turn, people must start each body paragraph with a clear topic sentence since they need to explain a single idea in every section to make their texts clear and relevant. Thus, writing a good article should have clear body paragraphs that include more details on the title and opening paragraph.

Conclusion Section

The last part of article writing is a conclusion paragraph, which provides a summary of the information discussed in body paragraphs and provides the author’s final thoughts about a specific topic. For example, authors need to summarize the entire text in a single paragraph, restating the main points (Ecarnot et al., 2015). Besides, a good article should have the author’s understanding of the topic. In this case, people should provide their reflections or views on the subject in the closing paragraph. Some conclusion examples may provide recommendations or opinions toward the assigned topic. Therefore, when writing a closing paragraph of an article, it must contain a concise summary and author’s reflection.

Article Writing Format

Topic Examples

Doing an article aims to inform or educate people about an issue of great concern or implication to a group or society. Such an issue can be political, economic, social, cultural, technological, legal, or environmental. Therefore, students in higher learning institutions must know that course instructions require one to demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of issues across the above dimensions through historical, present, and future lenses (Barringham, 2023). The following are possible easy article topics because they require writers to use what they know to investigate the matter so that they can inform readers about its genesis, evolution, and potential:

• Global Warming and Its Relation to Climate Change
• Mental Health Effects of Internet Addiction
• Substance Use as Evidence of Societal Dysfunction
• Smart Boards in Enhancing Education Access
• How Accommodations Benefit Students in Special Education?
• Benefits of a Plant-Based Diet
• The Role of Technology in Modern Classrooms
• How Climate Change Is Affecting Global Biodiversity?
• Minimalism: The Art of Living With Less
• The Importance of Mindfulness in Everyday Life
• Economic Implications of Remote Work Post-Pandemic
• The Evolution of Women’s Soccer: Breaking Barriers
• Renewable Energy Sources: Solar vs. Wind Power
• The Cultural Significance of Traditional Festivals Around the World
• Essential Living Tips for Young Adults
• The Role of Women in STEM Fields
• Urban Farming: Benefits and Challenges in City Environments

Outline Template

• Write a title of an article.
• Provide a short author’s biography.
• Include a date when this composition is posted.

I. Introduction

• Start with a hook.
• Introduce the topic by establishing a background.
• Tell readers something that grabs their attention.
• Structure a text into 2, 3, or more paragraphs, each addressing a single aspect of the topic.

III. Conclusion

• Close writing an article by stating recommendations, anticipations, views, appeals, or any information that helps the audience to appreciate the author’s work.

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Example of a Written Article

Topic: Mental Health Effects of Internet Addiction

Andrew Thompson, a correspondent with New York Tribune on social issues.

August 02, 2023

I. Example of an Introduction

The ubiquitous Internet, coupled with a high penetration of smart devices in personal spaces, including homes, has increased young people’s interaction with platforms that trigger Internet addiction. Common platforms include social media and video games. While many people see this interaction as educational, there are growing concerns among psychologists that it is a potential ground for developing mental health problems.

II. Sample of 1st Body Paragraph

One of the effects of prolonged use of social media and video games is addiction, where a person develops a penchant for checking their status every passing minute. In this sense, people affected by Internet addiction always check their smartphones or sleep on their computers most of their idle time and write many messages daily. Psychologists are concerned that Internet addiction is no longer evident when people are idle. Furthermore, there are concerns among educators and parents that young individuals with symptoms of the problem can barely concentrate in class or family events like sharing dinner.

III. Sample of 2nd Body Paragraph

From a psychological perspective, Internet addiction leads to mental health disorders, including low self-esteem, depression, impulsiveness, mood disorders, suicide, and poor writing habits. According to Dr. Margaret Spencer, a psychologist working at the Hemper Medical Group, prolonged Internet use denies people an opportunity to develop critical relations that enhance psychological wellness. Low self-esteem develops in young individuals who are constantly playing video games or hooked on social media platforms because such activities expose them to abusive encounters that leave them vulnerable. Since they lack relationships that can help to deal with such aggression, most victims blame themselves for their awful experiences. Evidence of low self-esteem includes a lack of confidence in communication and a constant feeling of inadequacy.

IV. Sample of 3rd Body Paragraph

According to Dr. Spencer, Internet addiction is a powerful instinct that makes many vulnerable to severe psychological effects. Unlike moderate use of social media sites, addiction to them is dangerous because it becomes where people find solutions to their problems. For example, someone who does not like a bodily feature like the color of their eyes may seek the opinion of others in the same social media space. However, most users of these sites are not friendly and see others’ problems as an opportunity for sadism. Therefore, rather than getting help, a person may experience humiliation on social media, and psychologists identify humiliation as a powerful inducer of suicidal thoughts.

V. Sample of 4th Body Paragraph

Indeed, there is overwhelming evidence of how Internet addiction has affected many young people across the United States. Official data indicate that four out of every ten adolescents with a mental disorder present with Internet addiction symptoms. In other words, 40 percent of young individuals with a mental health disorder diagnosis, such as mood disorders, are addicted to the Internet. This statistic is a reason for worry for parents, educators, and mental health professionals because emerging trends indicate youth will continue consuming the Internet at increased rates.

VI. Example of Article’s Conclusion

Internet addiction is a potential and proven mental health disorders risk factor for young individuals. While the penetration of the Internet and the availability of smart devices are good for an enlightened community, they are dangerous without regulation. Parents, educators, and various stakeholders must realize that the young population’s future is at risk if they do not work together to institute measures regulating the youth’s time on the Internet. Arguably, adolescents’ Internet use and online writing are the only space where censorship makes sense.

4 Easy Steps for Starting and Writing a Great Article

While academic writing may sound simple, it is a complex process that demands intense intellectual focus and involvement. Moreover, every academic text requires students to demonstrate an in-depth understanding of the rules guiding such work (Dhillon, 2022). These rules include choosing a specific topic, developing an outline, finding credible sources, and avoiding grammatical, formatting, and logical flaws. Therefore, to write a good article, writers start with an engaging title and introduction, present a clear thesis statement, provide background information, develop the main points with evidence and examples in the body paragraphs, address counterarguments, use smooth transitions, conclude by summarizing the key points, and include a call to action or suggestions for further reading (Saleh, 2014). These details include preparation, developing the necessary attitude and mindset; stage set-up, making necessary arrangements to write an article; actual writing, producing an initial draft; and wrapping-up, perfecting a final draft. In practice, every technical step involves several tasks that students must accomplish to make their compositions meet standard expectations.

Step 1: Preparation

The first task in starting any article is preparation. Ideally, students should define a specific topic under their interest in this stage because it helps to shape their attitude and mindset for the rest of the article’s content. People should select a topic they are familiar with if the instructor has not specified one. The second task is to generate ideas by analyzing documents and brainstorming sessions with colleagues and peers. Students must understand that different topics they choose must align with the course content, meaning they must recognize what they have learned when deciding what to write about (Dhillon, 2022). Moreover, authors should consider the audience because it determines the language used when begining an article. Essentially, those who read such compositions are instructors for assessment purposes and fellow students and others seeking to be knowledgeable in the topical area.

Step 2: Stage Set-Up

The second step of developing an article is to set the stage. In this case, students should find reliable sources that help to generate ideas about the topic. As stated, reviewing course content and other literature is critical in developing knowledge about the topic. Typically, researching documents online, particularly journal article databases, helps writers to find verifiable information usable in defending arguments or making observations (Goh & Bourne, 2020). When conducting research, people should make notes to sustain a scholarly tone because they must cite the source of the information they use, such as professionals, leaders, and credible organizations. The next task is to create a clear outline for their article comprising four main sections: a heading followed by a byline and date, introduction, body, and conclusion.

Step 3: Actual Writing

The third step of making an article is actual writing, which focuses on producing an initial draft. The writer aims to combine all ideas to create a logical paper without worrying about quality (Saleh, 2014). When organizing any paper, students should assess if the ideas are sufficient. If they are, they should focus on making them logically coherent. However, if they are not, they add more academic sources to generate new ideas, and if they exceed the paper’s length requirement, one should delete some sources. Students may need to alter a simple outline to accommodate the final draft when adding or deleting sources. The most important task for the writer is to create a thesis because it guides the rest of the work. In short, a thesis statement summarizes the author’s aim in writing an article.

Introduction

This part of an article follows the byline and is where authors mention the purpose for crafting this document. Ideally, students begin actual writing by telling readers background information that enables them to understand the composition’s context. In most instances, authors begin by pointing at the evidence and then creating a narrative highlighting the need to address the issue (Ecarnot et al., 2015). While topics are often several words, they focus on one issue, such as homelessness, drug abuse, internet addiction, and its causes or effects. The last part of the paragraph outlines an article’s thesis, where this sentence tells the audience why they should read it.

This section is the most comprehensive part of an article because it is where writers concentrate their energy on telling readers about the issue in the topic. Because it is only possible to exhaust some information in a single paragraph, people use several paragraphs in the body section. Each paragraph addresses a single aspect of the topic without breaking a logical flow of ideas and thoughts (Dhillon, 2022). In this case, addressing the thesis when writing every paragraph is essential in making a local and intellectually solid document. The most important detail that students must demonstrate in organizing article’s body paragraphs is the evidence, mentioning what scholars, credible organizations, and governmental entities say about the issue. Evidence allows authors to demonstrate evidence-based writing, meaning one can use the work as a scholarly text.

This section is the last part of an article, where students need to make final remarks about the topic. Essentially, writers aim to make the audience appreciate the importance of the topic (Saleh, 2014). As such, when writing this part, students should focus on making recommendations, suggesting anticipations, constructing popular views, making appeals, or emphasizing truths to alert the audience about the topic and the relevance of the issue it addresses.

Step 4: Wrapping-Up

The final step of writing an article is to wrap up the work by perfecting the final document. At this stage, students should read texts themselves and even request their colleagues to do the same to identify mistakes. As such, the first task is to revise a first draft of an entire article to correct grammatical mistakes, missing punctuation, formatting errors, and wrong citations. The next task is to edit a composition to correct logical inconsistencies. Typically, this task involves adding or deleting words and sentences to create a clearer sense for readers. In turn, writers should confirm that the body of an article has topic sentences, evidence used, some explanations, and concluding sentences with transitions to abide by academic writing conventions (Flanagan, 2018). Finally, to format articles properly, authors should incorporate citations to give credit to scholars who provide incredible information to strengthen the intellectual and logical focus of the text.

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Tips for Writing an Article Faster

While considering technical and structural details above, students should learn how to write an article as quickly as possible. The benefit of finishing a whole text faster is having sufficient time for other activities. More importantly, it helps students to meet deadlines without worrying about quality. Therefore, people should learn 10 tips for writing a great article faster, not losing quality.

1️⃣ Develop a List of Possible Topics

Students should create a list of possible topics and continuously populate it throughout the course. When the lecturer issues instructions about writing an article, one would easily choose the topic from the list. However, people should ensure the list aligns with the course to avoid irrelevancy.

2️⃣ Incubate Ideas

Incubating ideas makes generating them easier when beginning to write an article. Students should continuously read course content and research what scholars say about different issues or topics in the course material. Idea incubation allows learners to develop an intellectual perspective necessary to produce a logical discourse. Therefore, when the time to write any text arrives, one can easily know what to tell readers.

3️⃣ Edit Ideas Before Writing

When learners receive instructions to write an article, they should begin by choosing a specific topic and editing ideas they have incubated over time. Ideally, one should review each idea and drop those misaligning the main theme. Doing so saves time in completing an article because there would be fewer revisions.

4️⃣ Use Paragraphs to Organize Ideas

Students need to organize ideas in paragraphs because they may have several ideas that cannot fit in one paragraph. A single idea should inform the content when writing one paragraph. Typically, topic sentences are ideal for introducing ideas in each paragraph. When authors have a clear idea as the basis of what they say in one paragraph, it is easier to find evidence to back up their claims.

5️⃣ Keep It Short

Unless the professor instructs otherwise, students should always keep their articles short. However, learners must ensure the body has at least one to two paragraphs to make their work scholarly and intellectually valid. At a minimum, a short article must allow writers to point out two ideas and defend them through scholarly material by other authors. The important thing students should note is that a college essay length is different from its quality.

6️⃣ Avoid Distraction

Distractions are the biggest and most common events that undermine one’s ability to accomplish a task, and they make students lose focus. Therefore, when writing an article, learners should set time to concentrate on their work with minimal distractions. These distractions come in various forms, including unnecessary brainstorming sessions, constant reference to sources, and multitasking.

7️⃣ Pre-Determine Writing Time Intervals

Because any assignment accompanies other academic tasks and critical personal activities, students must organize their article writing. Basically, writing in time intervals is the most effective approach that helps to avoid distractions. In this case, one can write a college essay introduction in the evening, the body early in the morning of the next day, and the conclusion in the afternoon. While this technique does not translate into finishing an article in one sitting, it ultimately helps students to complete the text in under one hour when taking all the time spent. An advantage of this approach is it helps students to think over their ideas and drop those that do not make logical sense.

8️⃣ Avoid Overthinking

Students tend to overthink when the task requires an in-depth demonstration of knowledge. While doing so is ideal for writing an analytical essay, it does not work for articles. The focus of such compositions is to address an issue without complicating details for the audience. As such, writers should only spend a little time thinking about ideas and their implications. The earlier task of idea incubation is vital at this stage because one can identify ideas that align with an article faster. More importantly, it prevents one from second-guessing ideas because they have already validated them.

9️⃣ Learn to Save Writing for Later

Sometimes, one does not want to write for various reasons, including mental fatigue. In such instances, students should not force themselves to type words that do not make sense. Instead, they should save what they have already written as a Word document on their computer and return to writing once refreshed and alert. In short, sobriety is critical because it determines if one is vulnerable to distractions.

🔟 Do not Save a Good Idea for Later

Because of the list of possible topics and incubated ideas, students may look over good themes, trying to get better ones. While this feature is essential for enthusiasm in writing, it wastes time. Since writers have verified and validated these details over time, they should choose the topic and ideas they come across first to save time. The writer’s focus should not be to write an exciting article but an informative text.

Typical Mistakes

• Selecting a complex topic.
• Presenting an unnecessarily long introduction.
• Adding explanations without evidence to back them up.
• Using the passive voice.
• Covering too many words to explain a single idea.
• Providing a conclusion that does not conclude an article.
• Failing to conclude a composition and leaving the audience hanging or with questions.
• Including too many grammatical errors, missing punctuation, confusion between colons and semicolons, and misunderstanding of double and single quotations.
• Misusing words that have similar meanings but with different spellings.
• Having too many repetitions where the same ideas or words are evident in different paragraphs.

Common Formatting Styles & Other Aspects

All academic texts must reflect a formatting style out of the five common: APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago/Turabian, and IEEE. Therefore, when writing a professional article, students should identify the applicable format the professor often specifies in assignment instructions. Each style is unique because it requires writers to incorporate certain features, even though some aspects have a certain similarity in the format or essay outline of these features.

When using APA style, article writers should pay attention to the essential features and how they should appear. Essentially, citations are in two forms: in-text and references. Writers incorporate the former in the body paragraphs by indicating the author’s surname, the source’s year of publication, and the page or paragraph number. In the References page, students should capture the following details for a book: the author’s surname, first and second names, the source’s publication year, the italicized title in the sentence case, and the publisher.

When writing an article in MLA, one should consider in-text citations and the Works Cited page. All in-text citations should indicate the author’s surname and the page number from where they got the information they are citing. In the Works Cited page, students should indicate the following details for a book: author’s surname, first and second names, the italicized title in the title case, the publisher, and the year of publication.

The Harvard style is similar to APA in some aspects. When using this style, article writers should focus on in-text citations and the Reference List page. In-text citations should capture the author’s surname, the year of publication, and the page or paragraph number. In the References List page, the following information should appear for a book: author’s surname, first and second names, the year of publication, the italicized title in the sentence case, the publisher, and the publisher’s location.

📕 Chicago/Turabian

The Chicago/Turabian format has some similarities with MLA. Article writers should consider in-text citations and the Bibliography page when following this format. In-text citations appear as footnotes and capture full details as the Bibliography, the only difference being that the author’s name begins with the first name and ends with the surname in the footnotes. The footnote entry should capture the author’s first, second, and last name, the italicized title in the title case, the publisher’s location, name, date of publication in brackets, and the page from where writers have lifted the information they are citing. The information on the Bibliography page should read as follows for a book: the author’s surname, first and second names, the italicized title in the title case, the publisher’s location, the publisher, and the publication year.

Besides the above common formatting styles, students should familiarize themselves with the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) format most applicable to scientific and engineering documents. While the outline of an article does not differ between an IEEE and a paper after the four styles above, citations are not similar. When writing an article as a scientific paper, students should follow the IEEE format, where they number in-text citations in square brackets, capturing all the details as on the References List page. In the end, writers should adopt a numerical and not an alphabetical organization as is in the four formats above.

📕 Writing and Formatting Blog Posts

Blogs are now common platforms, like newspapers and magazines, for discussing political, economic, social, technological, legal, and environmental issues. Therefore, it is essential for students to know how to write and format blog articles. The major difference between blogs and other platforms is that the language need not be formal (Barringham, 2023). As such, students can be informal and use visuals when writing blog posts but ensure clear and precise communication. While they can use passive voice, they cannot use slang to communicate ideas. Some unique aspects of blog articles include headings and subheadings, extra lines between paragraphs, an abstract to capture attention, and a byline with the author’s credentials (Barringham, 2023). Other features are citations and headings. Instead of in-text citations, as in the other platforms, blogs only need writers to use hyperlinks to indicate the source of information.

Crucial Information to Grasp for Article Writing

• Know the audience to determine the kind of content they consume and the language to use.
• Choose a specific topic that triggers interest and keep it short and simple.
• Write a short but precise introduction.
• Structure the body into paragraphs to enhance a logical order of ideas.
• Ensure there is a conclusion that sums up an article.
• Follow the right format and incorporate all its essential features.

Writing an article has four significant parts that include a title, introduction, body, and conclusion. Students start the work by developing the title as an attention-getter, which helps to catch the attention of readers. The first paragraph should give a clear description of the central topic under discussion. In this case, people should understand the content of any composition after reading through the first paragraph. Moreover, the body should provide more details about the theme under discussion, while the last section must include a summary of the content and the author’s opinion on the subject. Based on the preceding sections, article writing is intellectually demanding, and writers should grasp important tips:

• Create an interesting title that triggers interest in the target audience.
• Write a compelling introduction by contextualizing the topic and using a hook, such as a question, to capture the readers’ attention.
• Adopt a well-organized outline that allows the use of bullet points or paragraphs for easy use and support of ideas.
• Research the topic by reading documents on the main theme to incubate ideas.
• Adopt simplistic writing by avoiding complex language, technical words, and long sentences.
• Consider the target audience’s perspective when making any composition.
• Read and reread a first draft of an article to identify and eliminate grammatical and formatting errors and illogical sentences.
• Proofread a final draft before presentation for assessment or publication.

Barringham, R. (2023). How to write an article in 15 minutes or less including research, proofreading and editing . Cheriton House Publishing.

Dhillon, P. (2022). How to write a good scientific review article. The FEBS Journal , 289 (13), 3592–3602. https://doi.org/10.1111/febs.16565

Ecarnot, F., Seronde, M.-F., Chopard, R., Schiele, F., & Meneveau, N. (2015). Writing a scientific article: A step-by-step guide for beginners. European Geriatric Medicine , 6 (6), 573–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurger.2015.08.005

Flanagan, K. (2018). Writer’s digest guide to magazine article writing . Writer’s Digest Books.

Goh, H.-H., & Bourne, P. (2020). Ten simple rules for writing scientific op-ed articles. PLOS Computational Biology , 16 (9), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008187

Saleh, N. (2014). The complete guide to article writing: How to write successful articles for online and print markets . Writer’s Digest.

To Learn More, Read Relevant Articles

Research Paper Outline Template

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Anatomy of a Scholarly Article

Presented by ncsu libraries.

Presented here are the first and last pages of a scholarly article. Click on the highlighted areas of the article to learn about clues to look for when identifying scholarly articles.

[X] The title of a scholarly article is generally (but not always) an extremely brief summary of the article's contents. It will usually contain technical terms related to the research presented. The abstract is a brief summary of the contents of the article, usually under 250 words. It will contain a description of the problem and problem setting; an outline of the study, experiment, or argument; and a summary of the conclusions or findings. It is provided so that readers examining the article can decide quickly whether the article meets their needs. Scholarly articles frequently contain charts, graphs, equations, and statistical data related to the research. Pictures are rare unless they relate directly to the research presented in the article. The body of an article is usually presented in sections, including an introduction , a literature review , one or more sections describing and analyzing the argument , experiment or study . Scientific research articles typically include separate sections addressing the Methods and Results of the experiment, and a Discussion of the research findings. Articles typically close with a conclusion summarizing the findings. The parts of the article may or may not be labeled, and two or more sections may be combined in a single part of the text. The text itself is typically highly technical, and assumes a familiarity with the topic. Jargon , abbreviations , and technical terms are used without definition. A scholarly article will end with a conclusion , where the authors summarize the results of their research. The authors may also discuss how their findings relate to other scholarship, or encourage other researchers to extend or follow up on their work. Research Guides Reading for Research: Social Sciences Structure of a research article. Structural Read Guide Acknowledgements How to Read a Scholarly Article from the Howard Tilton Memorial Library at Tulane University Strategic Reading for Research   from the Howard Tilton Memorial Library at Tulane University Bridging the Gap between Faculty Expectation and the Student Experience: Teaching Students toAnnotate and Synthesize Sources Librarian for Sociology, Environmental Sociology, MHS and Public Policy Studies Academic writing has features that vary only slightly across the different disciplines. Knowing these elements and the purpose of each serves help you to read and understand academic texts efficiently and effectively, and then apply what you read to your paper or project. Social Science (and Science) original research articles generally follow IMRD: Introduction- Methods-Results-Discussion Introduction Introduces topic of article Presents the "Research Gap"/Statement of Problem article will address How research presented in the article will solve the problem presented in research gap. Literature Review. presenting and evaluating previous scholarship on a topic.  Sometimes, this is separate section of the article.  ​Method & Results How research was done, including analysis and measurements.   Sometimes labeled as "Research Design" What answers were found Interpretation of Results (What Does It Mean? Why is it important?) Implications for the Field, how the study contributes to the existing field of knowledge Suggestions for further research Sometimes called Conclusion You might also see IBC: Introduction - Body - Conclusion Identify the subject State the thesis  Describe why thesis is important to the field (this may be in the form of a literature review or general prose) Body   Presents Evidence/Counter Evidence Integrate other writings (i.e. evidence) to support argument  Discuss why others may disagree (counter-evidence) and why argument is still valid Summary of argument Evaluation of argument by pointing out its implications and/or limitations  Anticipate and address possible counter-claims Suggest future directions of research Next: Structural Read >> Last Updated: Jan 19, 2024 10:44 AM URL: https://researchguides.library.vanderbilt.edu/readingforresearch Journal Article Basics What, Why, & Where Peer Review What is an abstract? Publication, introduction, charts, graphs, etc., article text, methods or methodology. Identification Reading an Article Types of Articles Knowing about the different sections of a scholarly article and the type of information presented in each section, will make it easier to understand what the article is about. Also, reading specific parts or sections of an article can help save you time as you decide whether an article is relevant. Anatomy of a Scholarly Article [NCSU Interactive Tutorial] Excellent interactive tool for learning about the sections of a scholarly article. The title of a scholarly article is generally (but not always) an extremely brief summary of the article's contents. It will usually contain technical terms related to the research presented. Authors and their credentials will be provided in a scholarly article. Credentials may appear with the authors' names, as in this example, or they may appear as a footnote or an endnote to the article. The authors' credentials are provided to establish the authority of the authors, and also to provide a point of contact for the research presented in the article. For this reason, authors' e-mail addresses are usually provided in recent articles. On the first page of an article you will usually find the journal title, volume/issue numbers, if applicable, and page numbers of the article. This information is necessary for you to write a citation of the article for your paper. The information is not always neatly outlined at the bottom of the first page; it may be spread across the header and footer of the first page, or across the headers or footers of opposite pages, and for some online versions of articles, it may not be present at all. The abstract is a brief summary of the contents of the article, usually under 250 words. It will contain a description of the problem and problem setting; an outline of the study, experiment, or argument; and a summary of the conclusions or findings. It is provided so that readers examining the article can decide quickly whether the article meets their needs. The introduction to a scholarly article describes the topic or problem the authors researched. The authors will present the thesis of their argument or the goal of their research. The introduction may also discuss the relevance or importance of the research question. An overview of related research and findings, called a literature review, may appear in the introduction, though the literature review may be in its own section. Scholarly articles frequently contain charts, graphs, equations, and statistical data related to the research. Pictures are rare unless they relate directly to the research presented in the article. The body of an article is usually presented in sections, including an  introduction , a  literature review , one or more sections describing and analyzing the argument, experiment or study. Scientific research articles typically include separate sections addressing the methods  and results  of the experiment, and a discussion  of the research findings. Articles typically close with a conclusion  summarizing the findings. The parts of the article may or may not be labeled, and two or more sections may be combined in a single part of the text. The text itself is typically highly technical, and assumes a familiarity with the topic. Jargon, abbreviations, and technical terms are used without definition. The methods section of a scholarly article generally outlines the experimental design, the materials, and the methods (procedures) of the experiment.  The results section of a scholarly article is generally devoted to discussing the type of analysis conducted regarding the data as well as the results.  A scholarly article will end with a conclusion, where the authors summarize the results of their research. The authors may also discuss how their findings relate to other scholarship, or encourage other researchers to extend or follow up on their work. The discussion of a scholarly article generally includes a description of how the study contributes to the existing body of research, an analysis of the research questions and hypotheses, and a discussion of the research in connection to the real world.  Most scholarly articles contain many references to publications by other authors. You will find these references scattered throughout the text of the article, as footnotes at the bottom of the page, or endnotes at the end of the article. Most papers provide a list of references at the end of the paper. Each reference listed there corresponds to one of the citations provided in the body of the paper. You can use this list of references to find additional scholarly articles and books on your topic. << Previous: Peer Review Next: Identification >> Last Updated: Aug 23, 2024 11:04 AM URL: https://libguides.pittcc.edu/journal-articles Have a language expert improve your writing Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free. Knowledge Base Methodology How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023. What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic . There are five key steps to writing a literature review: Search for relevant literature Evaluate sources Identify themes, debates, and gaps Outline the structure Write your literature review A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject. Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes Table of contents What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction. Quick Run-through Step 1 & 2 When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to: Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic. Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below. Don't submit your assignments before you do this The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students. Free citation check included. Try for free Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write. Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.) Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.) Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.) Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.) You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below. Download Word doc Download Google doc Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic . If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions . Make a list of keywords Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search. Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth Search for relevant sources Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include: Your university’s library catalogue Google Scholar Project Muse (humanities and social sciences) Medline (life sciences and biomedicine) EconLit (economics) Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science) You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search. Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources. You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question. For each publication, ask yourself: What question or problem is the author addressing? What are the key concepts and how are they defined? What are the key theories, models, and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach? What are the results and conclusions of the study? How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research? Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research. You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download. Take notes and cite your sources As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review. It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process. Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on: Academic style Vague sentences Style consistency See an example To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for: Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time? Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature? Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree? Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field? Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed? This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge. Most research has focused on young women. There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media. But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research. There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically). Chronological The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred. If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access. Methodological If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example: Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources Theoretical A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research. Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review. The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach. As you write, you can follow these tips: Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance. When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services ! This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review. Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes. Open Google Slides Download PowerPoint If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples. Sampling methods Simple random sampling Stratified sampling Cluster sampling Likert scales Reproducibility  Statistics Null hypothesis Statistical power Probability distribution Effect size Poisson distribution Research bias Optimism bias Cognitive bias Implicit bias Hawthorne effect Anchoring bias Explicit bias A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question . It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge. There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project: To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address To develop your theoretical framework and methodology To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute. The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology . A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .   Cite this Scribbr article If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator. McCombes, S. (2023, September 11). How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved August 29, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/ Is this article helpful? Shona McCombes Other students also liked, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is a research methodology | steps & tips, how to write a research proposal | examples & templates, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..". I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes” Hirsh Health Sciences Webster Veterinary Guide to Scholarly Articles What is a Scholarly Article? Scholarly vs. Popular vs. Trade Articles Types of Scholarly Articles Anatomy of Articles in the Sciences and Social Sciences Anatomy of articles in the arts and humanities, why does this matter. Tips for Reading Scholarly Articles Most original research articles or empirical studies in the sciences and social sciences  are made up of the same basic parts. Understanding each of these parts will help you be a better reader of these kinds of articles. The abstract provides a summary of the entire article. It will provide the research question, hypothesis or thesis, methods, and conclusion. Key words may also be included by the abstract. Abstracts are usually written by the author(s) of the article, but not always. Introduction The introduction will provide context for the research question, state the purpose of the article, and explain why the question is important. Importantly, the introduction will also state the hypothesis or thesis of the article. Literature Review Not all scholarly articles will contain a formal literature review. In this section the author(s) will discuss and contextualize related studies and scholarly literature. Methodology The methodology section contains the "how" of the research, by what means was the research accomplished. In a scientific article, this section should provide enough information for the study to be repeated and the results verified. The results section explains what happened in the study. This section will often contain tables, charts, and graphs. The discussion section contains an analysis of the study. Here the author(s) explain the meaning or importance of the results. Note that in some cases the discussion and results sections are combined. The conclusion section contains the final thoughts of the author(s) on the study. This may include an additional summary and evaluation of the study such as strengths and weaknesses of the methods or data. This section lists complete information about the the scholarly literature the author(s) utilized throughout the study.  Articles in the arts and humanities are often less formulaic than articles in the sciences and social sciences. However, the following parts can be usefully distinguished. The discussion section is the main body of the article in the arts and humanities. In this section the author will make an argument in support of their thesis by drawing on primary sources, careful argumentation, and engagement with other scholars. The discussion section is subdivided according to the internal logic of the article. The conclusion section contains the final thoughts of the author(s) on the study. This may include an additional summary and evaluation of the study such as strengths and weaknesses of the methods or data. Additionally, the conclusion may suggest avenues for further research. Works Cited / Bibliography This section lists complete information about the the sources utilized throughout the study. Often, this section will be omitted because the relevant information is contained in the footnotes.  Scholarly articles are structured to make them predictable and therefore easier to read. It is not always necessary to read an article from start to finish. Instead, you may find it more useful to focus on an articles results or methodology depending on your needs as a researcher. In any event, understanding the anatomy of a scholarly article will allow you to make the most if it according to your own purposes. << Previous: Types of Scholarly Articles Next: Tips for Reading Scholarly Articles >> Last Updated: Aug 23, 2023 8:53 AM URL: https://researchguides.library.tufts.edu/scholarly-articles Scientific and Scholarly Writing PubMed and other NLM Literature Databases Tracking and Citing References Parts of a Scientific & Scholarly Paper Introduction. Writing Effectively Where to Publish? Avoid Plagiarism Different sections are needed in different types of scientific papers (lab reports, literature reviews, systematic reviews, methods papers, research papers, etc.). Projects that overlap with the social sciences or humanities may have different requirements. Generally, however, you'll need to include: INTRODUCTION (Background) METHODS SECTION (Materials and Methods) What is a title? Titles have two functions: to identify the main topic or the message of the paper and to attract readers. The title will be read by many people. Only a few will read the entire paper, therefore all words in the title should be chosen with care. Too short a title is not helpful to the potential reader. Too long a title can sometimes be even less meaningful. Remember a title is not an abstract. Neither is a title a sentence. What makes a good title? A good title is accurate, complete, and specific. Imagine searching for your paper in PubMed. What words would you use? Use the fewest possible words that describe the contents of the paper. Avoid waste words like "Studies on", or "Investigations on". Use specific terms rather than general. Use the same key terms in the title as the paper. Watch your word order and syntax. Avoid abbreviations, jargon, and special characters. The abstract is a miniature version of your paper. It should present the main story and a few essential details of the paper for readers who only look at the abstract and should serve as a clear preview for readers who read your whole paper. They are usually short (250 words or less). The goal is to communicate:  What was done?  Why was it done?  How was it done?  What was found? A good abstract is specific and selective. Try summarizing each of the sections of your paper in a sentence two. Do the abstract last, so you know exactly what you want to write. Use 1 or more well developed paragraphs. Use introduction/body/conclusion structure. Present purpose, results, conclusions and recommendations in that order. Make it understandable to a wide audience. What is an introduction? The introduction tells the reader why you are writing your paper (ie, identifies a gap in the literature) and supplies sufficient background information that the reader can understand and evaluate your project without referring to previous publications on the topic. The nature and scope of the problem investigated. The pertinent literature already written on the subject. The method of the investigation. The hypothesized results of the project. What makes a good introduction? A good introduction is not the same as an abstract. Where the abstract summarizes your paper, the introduction justifies your project and lets readers know what to expect. • Keep it brief. You conducted an extensive literature review, so that you can give readers just the relevant information. • Cite your sources using in-text citations. • Use the present tense. Keep using the present tense for the whole paper. • Use the same information that you use in the rest of your paper. What is a methods section? Generally a methods section tells the reader how you conducted your project.  It is also called "Materials and Methods". The goal is to make your project reproducible. What makes a good methods section? A good methods section gives enough detail that another scientist could reproduce or replicate your results. • Use very specific language, similar to a recipe in a cookbook. • If something is not standard (equipment, method, chemical compound, statistical analysis), then describe it. • Use the past tense. • Subheadings should follow guidelines of a style (APA, Vancouver, etc.) or journal (journals will specify these in their "for authors" section). For medical education writing, refer to the AMA Manual of Style .   What is a results section? The results objectively present the data or information that you gathered through your project. The narrative that you write here will point readers to your figures and tables that present your relevant data. Keep in mind that you may be able to include more of your data in an online journal supplement or research data repository. What makes a good results section? A good results section is not the same as the discussion. Present the facts in the results, saving the interpretation for the discussion section. The results section should be written in past tense. • Make figures and tables clearly labelled and easy to read. If you include a figure or table, explain it in the results section. • Present representative data rather than endlessly repetitive data . • Discuss variables only if they had an effect (positive or negative) • Use meaningful statistics . • Describe statistical analyses you ran on the data. What is a discussion section? The discussion section is the answer to the question(s) you posed in the introduction section. It is where you interpret your results. You have a lot of flexibility in this section. In addition to your main findings or conclusions, consider: • Limitations and strengths of your project. • Directions for future research. What makes a good  discussion section? A good discussion section should read very differently than the results section. The discussion is where you interpret the project as a whole. • Present principles, relationships and generalizations shown by the results. • Discuss the significance or importance of the results. • Discuss the theoretical implications of your work as well as practical applications • Show how your results agree or disagree with previously published works. << Previous: Tracking and Citing References Next: Writing Effectively >> Last Updated: Aug 5, 2024 2:28 PM URL: https://libraryguides.umassmed.edu/scientific-writing SpringerLink shop Structuring your manuscript Once you have completed your experiments it is time write it up into a coherent and concise paper which tells the story of your research. Researchers are busy people and so it is imperative that research articles are quick and easy to read. For this reason papers generally follow a standard structure which allows readers to easily find the information they are looking for. In the next part of the course we will discuss the standard structure and what to include in each section. Overview of IMRaD structure IMRaD refers to the standard structure of the body of research manuscripts (after the Title and Abstract): I ntroduction M aterials and Methods D iscussion and Conclusions Not all journals use these section titles in this order, but most published articles have a structure similar to IMRaD. This standard structure: Gives a logical flow to the content Makes journal manuscripts consistent and easy to read Provides a “map” so that readers can quickly find content of interest in any manuscript Reminds authors what content should be included in an article Provides all content needed for the work to be replicated and reproduced Although the sections of the journal manuscript are published in the order: Title, Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion, this is not the best order for writing the sections of a manuscript. One recommended strategy is to write your manuscript in the following order: 1. Materials and Methods These can be written first, as you are doing your experiments and collecting the results. 3. Introduction 4. Discussion 5. Conclusion Write these sections next, once you have had a chance to analyse your results, have a sense of their impact and have decided on the journal you think best suits the work 7. Abstract Write your Title and Abstract last as these are based on all the other sections. Following this order will help you write a logical and consistent manuscript. Use the different sections of a manuscript to ‘tell a story’ about your research and its implications. Back │ Next How to Write a Research Paper #scribendiinc The research paper writing process In the first article of this two part series, we discussed how to research a term paper . In this article, we will discuss how to write a term or research paper. Write your thesis statement After you have spent some time finding your sources and absorbing the information, you should then be able to come up with a thesis statement that tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter. This statement is a road map for the research paper, telling the reader what to expect. It usually consists of a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph and makes a claim that others might later dispute! For optimal organization, take the time to write an outline that indicates the main aspects to be discussed. This includes deciding on the order of your sub-topics and which key points you will use as evidence to support your position. Keep the body of your research paper in good shape The body is the largest part of a research paper; in it you collect and arrange evidence that will persuade the reader of your argument. It should, therefore, have a logical organization. If the paper is long, it is a good idea to partition the body into sections using headings and sub-headings. This includes using parenthetical citations when referencing another author's work in the body of your text. Sometimes the beginning isn't the best place to start... Write the introduction and conclusion of your research paper last in order to ensure accuracy. The introduction is the key to letting your readers know where you are headed and what you hope to accomplish. Remember that while the organization of your research paper may be clear to you, it may not necessarily be clear to your readers. Therefore, the introduction should acquaint them with the journey ahead, making it easier for them to understand what follows and helping to improve their evaluation of your work. Tell your readers in concise terms what the subject of the paper is, what it is that you hope to find out, and how you will go about doing so. Encapsulating your findings in the conclusion is not the only place in the research paper where you make your voice heard. Your analysis should appear throughout. A common ESL mistake is reciting facts in the body of their essay and then waiting until the conclusion to say what they mean. Good research papers bring data, events, and other material together, interpreting the facts throughout. The conclusion should summarize what you have said in the body and should stress the evidence that supports your analysis. Don't forget your references Once your research paper is finished, compile your reference list. This is an alphabetical listing of all the sources you referenced in the body of your paper. If you made notes about your sources, this task should be straightforward. Be sure to follow whatever style guide your professor or school recommends. We have an example APA Reference page and an example MLA Works Cited for your reference. Edit your research paper to ensure clarity Once you have the pieces of your research paper in place, it's time to polish, polish, polish! Double-check everything. Ensure you have correctly cited your sources, checked your spelling and grammar, and re-read your paper several times, checking for sense, logical structure, and organization. Readers will judge your paper not only on the quality of research, but also on the quality of the writing. Ta da! You've done it—your research paper is complete! Just think about what you've learned: not just about your subject, but about the whole investigative process. Image source: Patrik Goethe/Stocksnap.io Perfect Your Paper Prior to Submission Hire an expert academic editor , or get a free sample. Have You Read? "The Complete Beginner's Guide to Academic Writing" Related Posts Essay Writing: Traffic Signals for the Reader How to Research a Term Paper How to Write a Great Thesis Statement Upload your file(s) so we can calculate your word count, or enter your word count manually. We will also recommend a service based on the file(s) you upload. File Word Count   Include in Price?   English is not my first language. I need English editing and proofreading so that I sound like a native speaker. I need to have my journal article, dissertation, or term paper edited and proofread, or I need help with an admissions essay or proposal. I have a novel, manuscript, play, or ebook. 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This research includes several large, long-term epidemiological studies—such as the Framingham Heart Study, Nurses' Health Study, and Adventist Health Studies—that have ... What links aging and disease? A growing body of research says it's a A growing body of research says it's a faulty metabolism Published: August 22, 2024 2:00pm EDT ... Write an article and join a growing community of more than 189,000 academics and researchers ... What Does It Mean to Mortify the Sins of the Body? "The body," then, here is taken for that corruption and depravity of our natures whereof the body, in a great part, is the seat and instrument, the very members of the body being made servants unto unrighteousness thereby (Rom. 6:19). It is indwelling sin, the corrupted flesh or lust, that is intended. ... Meditation and Mindfulness: Effectiveness and Safety In a 2012 U.S. survey, 1.9 percent of 34,525 adults reported that they had practiced mindfulness meditation in the past 12 months. Among those responders who practiced mindfulness meditation exclusively, 73 percent reported that they meditated for their general wellness and to prevent diseases, and most of them (approximately 92 percent) reported that they meditated to relax or reduce stress. ERIC Globally, teacher professional development is heralded as a key mechanism for educational reform. With governments investing heavily in PD programs, the aim of these interventions is not only enhanced teacher knowledge and practice but, ultimately, improved student outcomes. A substantial body of research has attempted to identify characteristics of effective PD, generating a growing list of ... What links aging and disease? A growing body of research says it's a Aging is the most significant risk factor for many of society's most common diseases, including diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders.A key factor behind the onset of these health issues is the disruption of cellular and metabolic homeostasis, or balance.Disrupting homeostasis destabilizes the body's internal environment, leading to imbalances that can ... The Relationship Between Body Image Dissatisfaction, Psychopathological Research article. First published online August 31, 2024. The Relationship Between Body Image Dissatisfaction, Psychopathological Symptoms, Social Comparisons With Peers and Celebrities, and Self-Compassion in Men ... Huang X., Wan B. (2022). Research on sleep status, body mass index, anxiety and depression of college students during the post ... The Priority Updates from the Research Literature (PURLs) Methodology PURLs. Priority Updates from the Research Literature (PURLs) is a product of the Family Practice Inquiries Network (FPIN) designed to alert practicing primary care clinicians about new discoveries that could cause them to change their practice. 1 The purpose of PURLs is to leverage an organized surveillance system to rapidly scan a large amount of medical literature relevant to primary care ... Acupuncture: Effectiveness and Safety NCCIH funds research to evaluate acupuncture's effectiveness for various kinds of pain and other conditions and to further understand how the body responds to acupuncture and how acupuncture might work. Some recent NCCIH-supported studies involve: Evaluating the feasibility of using acupuncture in hospital emergency departments. St. Teresa of Ávila's body remains incorrupt after almost 5 centuries The Diocese of Ávila in Spain reported Aug. 28 that the body of St. Teresa of Ávila, a doctor of the Church, remains incorrupt after her death on Oct. 4, 1582, almost five centuries ago ... The Benefits of Donating Your Body to Medical Science In fact, almost 170 million Americans are registered organ donors, and people with specific medical conditions often donate their bodies for disease research. But giving your body to a medical school so that students can learn anatomy — the fundamental basis of medicine — is not an option you can check off while renewing your driver's ... Research: Israeli snack reduces chance of developing peanut allergy The quintessential Israeli snack Bamba and its part in reducing peanut allergies remains a source of national pride; 2008 study found peanut allergies are far less common among Israeli kids than ... NIH cancels 'Havana syndrome' research, citing unethical ... The National Institutes of Health said Friday that it is stopping its research of what's commonly known as Havana syndrome, a mysterious illness experienced by a number of spies, soldiers and ... Water buffalo rescue body camera footage shows animal stuck in a ditch Body camera footage of a loose water buffalo near Pleasant Hill shows police and animal experts teaming up to lift the more than 1,0o0 pound animal from a ditch after four days on the run ... How to Write a Body of a Research Paper The main part of your research paper is called "the body.". To write this important part of your paper, include only relevant information, or information that gets to the point. Organize your ideas in a logical order—one that makes sense—and provide enough details—facts and examples—to support the points you want to make. Structuring your manuscript The standard structure of the body of research articles (after the Title and Abstract) is: The article structure: BUT ... although the sections of the journal manuscript are published in the order: Title, Abstract, Background, Methods, Results, Discussion,and Conclusion, this is NOT the best order for writing the sections of a manuscript. PDF The Structure of an Academic Paper The argument stays relatively narrow and focused on the thesis throughout the body, or the middle paragraphs. Like an hourglass, the conclusion broadens once more, reinforcing connections to the larger context. This model is standard in the U.S. social sciences and at HGSE, so we will focus on it for the rest of the tutorial. How to Write an Article: From Title to Conclusion Writing an article has four significant parts that include a title, introduction, body, and conclusion. Students start the work by developing the title as an attention-getter, which helps to catch the attention of readers. The first paragraph should give a clear description of the central topic under discussion. Anatomy of a Scholarly Article: NCSU Libraries The body of an article is usually presented in sections, including an introduction, a literature review, one or more sections describing and analyzing the argument, experiment or study.Scientific research articles typically include separate sections addressing the Methods and Results of the experiment, and a Discussion of the research findings. Structure of a Research Article How research presented in the article will solve the problem presented in research gap. Literature Review. presenting and evaluating previous scholarship on a topic. Sometimes, this is separate section of the article. ... Body . Presents Evidence/Counter Evidence; Integrate other writings (i.e. evidence) to support argument ; Structure of a Scholarly Article The scholarly articles or publications used to inform the research are listed at the end of the article as its references or works cited. ... The new findings then can be added to its subject's body of knowledge. When a repeated study has different results than its initial study, it may signify that a gap still remains in that area of knowledge ... Article Sections The body of an article is usually presented in sections, including an introduction, a literature review, one or more sections describing and analyzing the argument, experiment or study. Scientific research articles typically include separate sections addressing the methods and results of the experiment, and a discussion of the research findings ... Body of Research: Impetus, Instrument, and Impediment In this article, we lift the veil, striving to flesh out the body of research on reflexivity by examining how our own researcher bodies have figured into our work. Specifically, we narrate and reflect on ways we have experienced our bodies as (presumed) impetus for, instrument of, and impediment to qualitative research concerning birthing ... Research Paper Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are: To contribute to the body of knowledge: Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They ... How to Write the Body of an Essay The body is always divided into paragraphs. You can work through the body in three main stages: Create an outline of what you want to say and in what order. Write a first draft to get your main ideas down on paper. Write a second draft to clarify your arguments and make sure everything fits together. This article gives you some practical tips ... How to Write a Literature Review Examples of literature reviews. Step 1 - Search for relevant literature. Step 2 - Evaluate and select sources. Step 3 - Identify themes, debates, and gaps. Step 4 - Outline your literature review's structure. Step 5 - Write your literature review. Anatomy of Scholarly Articles The introduction will provide context for the research question, state the purpose of the article, and explain why the question is important. Importantly, the introduction will also state the hypothesis or thesis of the article. Discussion. The discussion section is the main body of the article in the arts and humanities. Parts of the paper Different sections are needed in different types of scientific papers (lab reports, literature reviews, systematic reviews, methods papers, research papers, etc.). Projects that overlap with the social sciences or humanities may have different requirements. Generally, however, you'll need to include: TITLE. ABSTRACT. INTRODUCTION (Background) Structuring your manuscript IMRaD refers to the standard structure of the body of research manuscripts (after the Title and Abstract): Introduction; Materials and Methods; Results; Discussion and Conclusions; Not all journals use these section titles in this order, but most published articles have a structure similar to IMRaD. This standard structure: Gives a logical flow ... How to Write a Research Paper The body is the largest part of a research paper; in it you collect and arrange evidence that will persuade the reader of your argument. It should, therefore, have a logical organization. If the paper is long, it is a good idea to partition the body into sections using headings and sub-headings. This includes using parenthetical citations when ... essay homework paper phd project resume review study thesis