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• v.37(16); 2022 Apr 25

A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

* Research Basics *

• Introduction

So What Do We Mean By “Formal Research?”

• Guide License
• Types of Research
• Secondary Research | Literature Review
• Developing Your Topic
• Using and Evaluating Sources
• Ethics & Responsible Conduct of Research
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A good working definition of research might be:

Research is the deliberate, purposeful, and systematic gathering of data, information, facts, and/or opinions for the advancement of personal, societal, or overall human knowledge.

Based on this definition, we all do research all the time. Most of this research is casual research. Asking friends what they think of different restaurants, looking up reviews of various products online, learning more about celebrities; these are all research.

Formal research includes the type of research most people think of when they hear the term “research”: scientists in white coats working in a fully equipped laboratory. But formal research is a much broader category that just this. Most people will never do laboratory research after graduating from college, but almost everybody will have to do some sort of formal research at some point in their careers.

Casual research is inward facing: it’s done to satisfy our own curiosity or meet our own needs, whether that’s choosing a reliable car or figuring out what to watch on TV. Formal research is outward facing. While it may satisfy our own curiosity, it’s primarily intended to be shared in order to achieve some purpose. That purpose could be anything: finding a cure for cancer, securing funding for a new business, improving some process at your workplace, proving the latest theory in quantum physics, or even just getting a good grade in your Humanities 200 class.

What sets formal research apart from casual research is the documentation of where you gathered your information from. This is done in the form of “citations” and “bibliographies.” Citing sources is covered in the section "Citing Your Sources."

Formal research also follows certain common patterns depending on what the research is trying to show or prove. These are covered in the section “Types of Research.”

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• Last Updated: Jul 24, 2024 4:33 PM
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Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research

(48 reviews)

Cheryl Lowry, Ohio State University

Copyright Year: 2016

Publisher: Ohio State University Libraries

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Elbert Davis, Assistant Professor, Marshall University on 10/24/21

The author does an incredible job in explaining the research process, from choosing a research question to how to search for sources (and citing those sources), and more. There are relevant self-check quizzes throughout the book to check for... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

The author does an incredible job in explaining the research process, from choosing a research question to how to search for sources (and citing those sources), and more. There are relevant self-check quizzes throughout the book to check for understanding, along with other supplemental resources. As the book was published through The Ohio State University, some of the sources are only available to OSU students, but the author makes it clear when this is the case.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The author did an excellent job with the accuracy of the book, Two specific examples that stood out: taking care to mention that Wikipedia is a great as a starting point, but not as an endpoint for research. Lowry also clearly explained that educational use did not automatically mean fair use, which seems to be an issue with students and faculty alike.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The book should remain relevant in years to come, as academic research seems to follow the same basic pattern. The only issue would be if The Ohio State University changes the links used in the book, although I expect these to be easy to update. The book would still be able to be used without the supplemental links though.

Clarity rating: 5

The book seems to be targeting an introductory audience. Lowry does a great job of breaking down the jargon of academic research into plain English for the beginning researcher.

Consistency rating: 5

I thought the author used approprate terminology for a student learning about academic research.

Modularity rating: 5

The book is designed into specific chapters for the different aspects of choosing a source. While there are specific sections devoted to The Ohio State University library, I would not expect to have any trouble assigning the other chapters in my courses.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The author started at the beginning, with how to design a research question before going into choosing a source, which gave good background knowledge.

Interface rating: 5

The contents of the book were clean and crisp. No distortions were noted. Navigation from the table of contents was easy.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

No grammatical errors were noted.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

Nothing offensive was in the book.

I have a difficult time in getting beginning graduate student to understand the different types of sources and fair use. I think using most chapters of this book would help a great deal in that comprehension.

Reviewed by Kelly LeFave, Instructor, Portland Community College on 6/15/21

This student friendly overview of academic research, including a strong focus on information literacy, covers many of the salient points that college level writing and writing for research classes curricula contain, making it a strong choice as a... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This student friendly overview of academic research, including a strong focus on information literacy, covers many of the salient points that college level writing and writing for research classes curricula contain, making it a strong choice as a comprehensive and useful overview. Chapters include enough depth of coverage to make the leap from information to practice for students; self-directed activities are provided to check knowledge, work through concept applications, and offer more specifics. The book provides an easy-to-navigate Table of Contents, but an Index and Glossary do not seem to be available.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

Some errors appear that a thorough proofread would catch. Some resources may need to be updated since information practices and modes change so quickly; some references and links direct students to OSU information that would not apply to all readers.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

The book’s topic – academic research – necessarily demands constant updating given our fast-changing digital landscape and the shifting paradigms we are witnessing for locating and evaluating information in our times. Resources can become obsolete fairly quickly in this environment. The book’s content is largely up-to-date, though a thorough review of linked resources, perhaps annually, would be beneficial. For instance, a video on RSS mentioned a Google feature that looks to be no longer available, though finding alternatives proves simple when searched online. The book’s organization makes updating or replacing linked resources easy, so keeping the content relevant would be straightforward with regular review.

Content is presented in a style engaging for students, using the “you” pronoun address to walk readers through a thinking process that applies and links ideas to practice; this effective approach is used for many of the book’s concepts. The writing strikes a good stylistic balance between engaging the student reader and informing/challenging that same reader by modeling research brainstorming or methods. The style seems appropriate for college level readers and college level curricula. The topic of academic research does include some technical terms at times, but the book’s approach is to define and explain such terms a part of its content.

Stylistically and organizationally, the content is consistent and easy-to-follow. A user begins to anticipate knowledge check activities or “try it out” activities at particular points in each section. The knowledge check quizzes, which are simplified multiple choice questions, seem at odds with the highly contextualized concept explanations in much of the book’s prose; perhaps a different approach to knowledge check quizzing, which as an element can be helpful, would work better.

Modularity rating: 4

Headings and subheadings follow a logical organization and are easy to navigate in the book. Some sections do refer to—and link to—other book sections, but most would work as stand-alone modules. An instructor or course designer could pick and choose sections and adapt them for their own purposes. As a whole, the book remains self-referential to the context of a specific university, which limits the easy adaptation of the book, and perhaps even sections, for faculty and course designers at other educational institutions.

The book’s organization is easy to navigate and coheres with the overall focus on presenting academic research and information literacy in a way that invites students toward a practical and fuller understanding. Topic order makes sense and is organized via headings and subheadings well.

Overall, no significant navigation issues or interface distractions.

A few errors that look like typos remain in the book. Otherwise, grammatical errors are not an issue for readability.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

A more nuanced and inclusive awareness of cultural relevance and diversity is worth considering for the book. The choice of some example topics, such as school shootings, might be distracting or traumatic for some student populations, while adding more examples that showcase interests or topics related to non-dominant cultural ideas would widen the sense of inclusivity throughout the book. Choices might be contingent on the demographics of the Ohio State University population, but more awareness of this aspect of the book might also make it more appealing as a resource for others to adapt

Reviewed by Nell McCabe, Associate Professor, Berkshire Community College on 6/15/21

This text is very-student friendly and covers all aspects of writing a student research paper, including steps that students frequently overlook such as the value of preliminary research and the different ways to incorporate different kinds of... read more

This text is very-student friendly and covers all aspects of writing a student research paper, including steps that students frequently overlook such as the value of preliminary research and the different ways to incorporate different kinds of information in a paper.

This text provides a well-balanced, research-driven approach to guiding students through the process of writing an academic research paper. Spelling mistakes, flaw grammar and usage, and factual errors are few and far between (as in I didn't find any during the course of this review).

Kinds of sources and the means of evaluating them are broad enough to be long-lasting, but the examples and other supporting details are timely and relevant.

This text uses student-friendly language and avoids jargon and other symptoms of academia run amok, while still maintaining high standards and expectations for students. Connections between the different stages of conducting research and developing an argument are well laid out and clear.

Terms associated with locating, evaluating, and incorporating a range of different kinds of sources are clear and consistent throughout the text.

The chapters do stand alone and I could image someone using bits and pieces or leaving out bits and pieces, but since the text is primarily focused on supporting the needs of a college research throughout the research process, it is hard to image much need for separating it into discrete modules. You could certainly rearrange the order of the chapters too if that worked better for your approach to teaching student research.

The flow of one chapter into the next is well-integrated and smooth. The order of the chapters

I had no issues with the interface; everything worked as expected.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

The book does not go out of its way to make obviously inclusive examples. Increasing the cultural perspectives represented in the examples would enhance the overall value of this text.

Reviewed by Darci Adolf, Director of Library & Media Services, Oregon Coast Community College on 6/11/21

I found "Choosing and Using Sources" to be quite comprehensive and included the major areas that I cover in my LIB 101 Research skills class. In my class I like to cover each area of Eisenberg's Big6 Research model: Task definition, information... read more

I found "Choosing and Using Sources" to be quite comprehensive and included the major areas that I cover in my LIB 101 Research skills class. In my class I like to cover each area of Eisenberg's Big6 Research model: Task definition, information seeking strategies, location and access, use of information, synthesis, and evaluation. I was pleased to find the subject of synthesis covered under the writing chapter-- many research textbooks leave this out. I did not find anything that talked about Evaluation of the process and product. Also, I would've liked to have seen social justice and equity issues in information publishing and access addressed as a chapter or portion of a chapter. The textbook has a great Table of Contents, but no index.

This textbook seems to contain accurate and error-free content. I spot-checked most of the chapters and didn't find anything I didn't believe to be true, and links weren't broken. Because this book is mostly factual in nature, there aren't areas where an author's opinion was used over facts, and opinions seem to be be appropriate and unbiased. For example, the author remarks on the use of blogs in research: "Blogs – Frequently updated websites that do not necessarily require extensive technical skills and can be published by virtually anyone for no cost to themselves other than the time they devote to content creation." This is a wide-held belief among librarians.

The content appeared to be up-to-date throughout the book. The area that might change the quickest is the types of sources, Chapter 2 in the book. They did a good job including an overview of all of the major source types and should stay relevant for a good period of time. Because they've listed these source types in a single chapter, updates to the text should be fairly straight forward and easy to do without disturbing much of the rest of the book.

Clarity rating: 4

The text was clear to me, a seasoned librarian. But I think there were terms used throughout the textbook that might not be familiar to a student first starting out in library research. So I would add some clarification around some of the language if I were using this textbook for a lower-level class. For example: There are several types of specialized databases listed including: Bibliographic, Full-text, Multimedia, etc. Many first year students wouldn't know those terms, or others such as "circulation, World-cat, discharge, InterLibrary Loan" and so forth.

The text was consistent throughout in terms of terminology and the overall frame. As I mentioned previously, some of the terms might need to be defined for the first-year student, either in-text or in a separate glossary. The framework is well-done, with clear chapters and sections--it was definitely written by those who teach research at the college level.

The textbook has 13 chapters that are again sub-divided into six or more sub-topics. This makes it very easy for an instructor to pick and choose which topics to cover. The thirteen broader subjects makes it easy to use the entire textbook for a term-- or just choose the pieces you want to use. For example, I would use the "Ethical Use and Citing Sources" chapter if I were doing a one-shot in a classroom, but might choose to use most of the chapters for an online class.

The structure was easy to follow. If I were setting it up myself, I'd probably combine the chapters on Ethical Use of Sources (Ethical Use and Citing Sources, Why Cite Sources, and Challenges in Citing Sources) with the chapter on "How to Cite Sources," but it's easier to have them separate and combine them for a class than to have a big block of text that would make it difficult to work through.

The textbook online version was done in Wordpress, and was easy to view and navigate. There were several other choices for students, including a PDF that could be viewed off line. There were charts, graphs, and links throughout that added to the content, but not so much as to be distracting. Any visuals were simple and enough white space was left as to not overwhelm, with colors that were contrasting visually.

I spot-checked throughout the text in each chapter and did not find any grammatical errors.

The textbook seemed to be inclusive of all races, ethnicities, and backgrounds.

Ohio State University has included a lot of links to their own pages, handouts, and resources that would need to be changed or omitted by a new user. For example, they have a handout from the OSU Writing Center, and they link to the OSU World Cat platform. These would need to be changed by the adopter.

Reviewed by Kaia Henrickson, Assistant Professor of Library & Information Science, Information Literacy Librarian, University of Alaska, Southeast on 11/4/20, updated 12/16/20

This text does a good job highlighting the steps in the research process, from formulating a strong research question, to finding and evaluating sources, to incorporating ideas from research into writing, and finally, to citing and using sources... read more

This text does a good job highlighting the steps in the research process, from formulating a strong research question, to finding and evaluating sources, to incorporating ideas from research into writing, and finally, to citing and using sources properly. Each chapter can stand on its own as useful content for a research-based course, or the entire text could be used to walk students through the entire research and writing process. Based on tutorials created for Ohio State University Libraries, some sections, like Chapter 5 on search tools as well as some of the activities, are fairly specific to OSU. Still, much of the text and many of the activities are applicable to all student researchers. This would be a great base text for someone who wanted to remix and add in information from their own university library and student service supports to replace the OSU-focused sections.

The material is accurate overall.

Text content, as well as videos and activities, are fairly current. Sections are small, so making updates should be fairly easy.

While the text is generally clear, there are sections that are a bit cumbersome or wordy. The Evaluating Sources section, especially, seems overly complicated.

References and links to other helpful sections within the text are appropriate and useful. Key concepts and ideas are repeated and built upon as the text progresses.

Each chapter is divided into manageable sections, and there are few sections which require a lot of scrolling. Those that are longer are broken up by subheadings. Embedded video content, visuals, and boxes are used to break up the text for easier reading and more visual appeal.

The text clearly progresses through the steps in the research and writing process from start to finish, but it can also be accessed by section if a particular subtopic is all that is needed. Each chapter stands on its own, as well as being integrated into the whole.

Interface rating: 3

The web version of the text has no paragraph indents or lines of space between paragraphs, which makes it a bit difficult to read, especially when there are longer blocks of text. There are many videos included that only have automatically-created closed captions (and a few with no closed captions available at all). A few of the graphics are blurry, but most visual and audiovisual content is clear and easy to read. With some of the linked activities, it is unclear what to do when you have selected an incorrect answer, and there is not much feedback for students who answer questions incorrectly.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

There are a few typos and other minor issues here and there in the text. Some of the linked activities have more significant errors.

The text is not culturally insensitive, but it also doesn't present much in the way of diversity in examples or ideas. In addition, there is a noticeable amount content that is focused on Ohio State University resources and students, and this may not be relevant for readers from other universities.

Reviewed by Marybeth Beller, Associate Professor, Marshall University on 3/13/20

The book provides a thorough review of the research process; that said, a professor will have to add discipline-specific information and requirements, such as expected citation practices and research methods. read more

The book provides a thorough review of the research process; that said, a professor will have to add discipline-specific information and requirements, such as expected citation practices and research methods.

I found no errors in the text.

I will use this book for my undergraduate research course as it gives a very good introduction to research, from narrowing the topic to turning questions into hypotheses.

The book is very clear and provides graphs, links and videos for the reader to have additional information as needed.

Each chapter is organized similarly to the others and is written in the same easy-to-follow, technical-free language. It removes any inhibitions a reader might have.

Each chapter section has its own heading and link. The entire book could be assigned or sections of the book could be just as easily assigned. A drop-down table of contents menu allows the reader to move freely between topics.

This guide is beautifully organized for the beginning researcher but can easily be followed through the table of contents for students needed refreshers on particular elements of research.

I found no interface issues at all in navigating the book.

There were no grammatical errors in the text.

I believe the book would be welcomed by a diverse group of people. There is no insensitive language or use of poor examples in the book.

I really enjoyed the organization of the book and that the author takes the time to include links to additional information as well as videos for students who want to spend more time with a particular concept.

Reviewed by Racheal Rothrock, Assistant Professor, Miami University on 2/28/20

The text is comprehensive in its covering of topics related to choosing and using sources, though it does not go into great depth for each topic. Rather this text provides a broad overview around the topic of sources. This text seems to be written... read more

The text is comprehensive in its covering of topics related to choosing and using sources, though it does not go into great depth for each topic. Rather this text provides a broad overview around the topic of sources. This text seems to be written for an upper-level, undergraduate student audience. No glossary is provided.

This information is presented in an unbiased way that informs on the topic rather than presenting a strong bias or slant toward a particular type of source (though, there is cultural bias—see review comments in “cultural” section). The text does provide details on what approaches might be more helpful in certain situations. This provides a balance of usefulness for students trying to determine which sources to use, while also not assigning value to some sources over others or create a hierarchy.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

The text demonstrates a current understanding around the topic of sources, taking into account the shift away from paper and toward digital sources. While overall this text should be useful for several years, there are some areas that may require updating (e.g. links, OSU policies or statements, specifics about various citation styles, software options available, copyright laws, etc.). Throughout the text, the authors do depend on examples that are specific to OSU (e.g. a section on “WorldCat@OSU”), and this might provide less useful for non-OSU students.

The text is written with simple language and explanations are given for more technical terminology (e.g. peer-reviewed, quantitative, qualitative, etc.).

Little specialized terminology is used throughout the text, however, the language and terminology used is consistent throughout. The format, structure, and approach the authors use, is also consistent throughout the text and forms a cohesive narrative.

The text is broken up by main topics and then within each topic, subtopics are provided to support the main topic. The length of each subtopic is fairly brief and examples are provided throughout with graphical separation for clarity. While the topics and subtopics support each other, each subtopic could be assigned individually and would maintain usefulness.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

Overall, the organization is logical and clear. There are a few topics that might be shifted in their order, but this is not a critical need. For instance, moving the information about copyright closer to the section on ethical use of sources might make sense, but does not overly disrupt the general flow of the text.

There are no significant issues. A fixed bar at the bottom of the screen allows for navigation to pages directly preceding and proceeding the current page and a clickable contents button at the top right side of the page allows further navigation between sections. Overall, visuals do not appear to be distorted, however, many of the visuals are quite large, taking up the majority of the screen, and could be reduced in size without losing effectiveness. Additionally, on pages 9 and 11, a graphic is presented that contains text that is too small to read. While it is not necessary to read the text in the visual in order to understand the lesson of the section, because it is provided, it would be reasonable to make this large enough to be legible.

The text seems to be free of any major grammatical errors.

This text is written from an academic, western cultural perspective that is relevant to the particular topic and audience (i.e. “A guide to academic research”), but does not take into other ontological or epistemological scholarly perspectives (e.g. testimonios or oral histories as significant sources). The visuals and examples do privilege the U.S. and mainstream cultures, such as through a photo of a White woman using her Mac computer in a library, a photo of a football team, an illustration with the U.S. flag in it, an example question of “How has NASA helped America,” an example opinion of “George Clooney is the sexiest actor alive,” etc. The text is not overtly insensitive or offensive, but it also does not appear to take up or address non-dominant perspectives and cultures in any substantive way.

Reviewed by Audrey Besch, Temporary Faculty , East Tennessee State University on 10/31/19

This text is very comprehensive! From choosing sources to the final research project, this book does a wonderful job of providing all the steps. read more

This text is very comprehensive! From choosing sources to the final research project, this book does a wonderful job of providing all the steps.

Information is accurate for the purposes of writing research and using sources.

Up-to-date and relevant, this text does a good job of outlining various types of sources that can be used and the appropriate ways in which to use them.

Very easy to read content that would be great for students, especially those who are just starting the academic writing process for research.

The text remained consistent in it's use of terminology and framework.

Text has an appropriate use of subheadings and includes activity sections that focus on concepts. Material was broken into easy to grasp ways that didn't seem too lengthy.

Content is well organized and in a logical format for the content provided.

Book did not have any navigation issues and all images were appropriately used for content.

To the extent of my knowledge, there were no grammatical errors in this text.

There were no culturally insensitive issues or offensive language in this text that I could find.

Reviewed by Kris Frykman, Community Faculty, Minnesota State University System on 10/18/19

Comprehensive overview, with examples, to punctuate learning. read more

Comprehensive overview, with examples, to punctuate learning.

Clear, accurate process in showcasing academic research.

Appropriate book for researchers of all levels.

Chapter follow-up questions and videos are included to further enhance clarity.

Terminology and examples are included to further make the content accessible for the reader.

The book is divided in sections so that students can study and apply one concept at a time.

Content is clearly organized.

Charts, diagrams, examples, and videos are highlighted to exemplify key contents.

No discernable grammatical errors.

Appropriately culturally sensitive.

Reviewed by TyRee Jenks, Research Librarian & Library Instruction Coordinator, Montana State University - Billings on 7/31/19

The text is very comprehensive and covers all the necessary aspects of information literacy and student research. There is no index or glossary included, but terms are well explained within the text. The extensive coverage of topics, like types... read more

The text is very comprehensive and covers all the necessary aspects of information literacy and student research. There is no index or glossary included, but terms are well explained within the text. The extensive coverage of topics, like types of sources and copyright, was thorough while not being so in-depth as to bore students. The activities, quizzes, and short videos reinforce the concepts covered in the chapters and add interest, however some quizzes would benefit from additional explanation as to why answers are right or wrong.

The content of the text seems to be accurate. Very minor spelling errors and a copy/paste duplicate. No apparent bias.

Content is up to date and relevant for students while being broad enough to be useful for a longer period of time. Updating information would be easy. The text contains a lot of hyperlinks that an instructor would need to stay on top of to keep the links current. In some cases the links were to very reliable sources that will remain stable for a long time (i.e. Purdue OWL) while others are more transient (i.e. YouTube videos).

In general the text is clear, including good explanations of terms and concepts. It contains very little jargon and the prose is accessible. In “The Details Are Tricky” section, the finer points of primary, secondary, or tertiary information could be confusing to students who are trying to comprehend the basics. The author’s inclusion of informative tables with sample responses as well as the blank template for students to use was helpful.

There is consistent use of terminology and layout throughout the text.

The book has good modularity, excellent graphics, and the text and/or activities can easily be used at the point of need in an information literacy class or one that is discipline specific. Chapters can be used individually or rearranged as needed.

Overall the organizational flow worked well, however the chapters on copyright and fair use might make more sense when grouped with the chapters on the ethical use of sources and how to cite sources.

The EPUB and web versions of the text are easy to navigate with a clickable table of contents and left/right arrow navigation at the bottom of each page. Other than some images that could be resized, the formatting lent itself to consistency throughout the text giving students a uniform experience. In some cases the URL links were just written text instead of hyperlinked which was a little inconsistent. Pleasant graphics added value, explained concepts, balanced out the text, and added visual interest. The inclusion of links that lead out to further explanations of concepts (i.e. the peer review process or how to read a scholarly article) are a nice addition.

There are no major grammatical errors that would be distracting to the reader.

The text is applicable to students in all disciplines, and there are no concerns about cultural relevance or insensitivity. The text is heavily OSU centric (i.e. referencing the OSU code of conduct and requiring students to log in to OSU resources for some activities and examples) and requires effort on the part of instructors at other institutions to make the necessary changes making the content applicable at their institution.

With modifications this text could be incorporated into a three credit information literacy course for undergraduates or into other disciplines. The fair use and copyright sections could be useful to instructors as well as students. Could easily integrate with the ACRL Framework. There is some great general information on writing and making an argument that are applicable across disciplines.

Reviewed by Eric Bradley, Research and Instruction Librarian, Goshen College on 5/31/19

The focus of the book is on published sources for college level research and writing. In this area it is comprehensive. It does not address other areas of academic research. read more

The focus of the book is on published sources for college level research and writing. In this area it is comprehensive. It does not address other areas of academic research.

The content is accurate, error-free, and politically neutral. The last piece makes this a excellent source in the current United States political climate.

Content reflects the current realities of the information landscape. Several of the chapters use up-to-date wording that may need to be updated more frequently, but the excellent modularity of the text allows for accommodation.

The book is straight forward and uses contemporary language of the information and academic landscapes.

The text follows a consistent framework throughout the book.

The text is divided in a way to teach across a course. While the text builds upon itself, many of the chapters stand alone well. I have skipped several chapters of the text and it has not caused any disruption with students.

Excellent organization. The text guides the reader step by step through the research process.

Interface rating: 4

The overall interface is strong. The images and charts are excellent, although the use of branded logos in some of the images may become dated.

No grammatical errors noted.

The text is focused on academic research practices for a North American context. While not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way, it does not take into consideration research practices of other cultures.

I use this text as a replacement of Booth et al.’s Craft of Research. Beside the benefits of being a open textbook, this text provides a more relevant guide to finding sources in the current academic environment.

Reviewed by Kathleen Murphy, Coordinator and Assistant Professor of Music Thearpy, Loyola University-New Orleans on 4/30/19

This book includes all relevant information to help students choose appropriate sources for an academic research paper. It clearly defines different types of sources that can be used, and the difference between primary and secondary sources. It... read more

This book includes all relevant information to help students choose appropriate sources for an academic research paper. It clearly defines different types of sources that can be used, and the difference between primary and secondary sources. It gives an overview of how to search various databases, and defines and describes boolean operators. The chapter on ethical uses of sources clearly defines plagiarism and how and when to cite so as to avoid plagiarizing. The chapter on copyright is an excellent addition; that information is not common in many texts related to academic writing. Each chapter contains extra activities students can work on independently to help with understanding and application of the material covered.

Overall, I found the book to be accurate. I did find one error in Chapter 7. In the section titled "Challenges in Citing Sources" the entry labeled "Running out of Time" was repeated. In regards to bias--I did not find the content to be biased; however, the majority of links where students could go to get extra information were connected to Ohio State University. The one notable exception were the links to the Perdue Online Writing Lab.

The content is up-to-date and relevant. Choosing and using sources for an academic paper has not changed much. What has changed is how to access and find the sources to choose and use. This book does a nice job of explaining how to find sources--databases, google scholar, and search engines. My only concern is the frequent suggestion to search Wikipedia. As an academic, I find this a little troubling. To the author's credit, they did not that one should not cite Wikipedia or use information from Wikipedia in an academic paper. I am not able to comment on ease of updating information, as that is a technical issue.

The book is written in clear, accessible language, with limited "jargon." At times I found the writing to be too simple, written more for high school students than college students. Definitions are provided for all relevant terms.

The book is internally consistent. It moves through the process of choosing and using sources in a linear fashion. However, to their credit, the authors note that writing an academic research paper is not always a linear process.

Each chapter is broken up into smaller units that cover a topic relevant to the chapter theme. Sections of this book could be assigned as individual assignments based on areas of difficultly students seem to be having. Alternatively, a professor could develop a class session or two around each of the chapters. These book seems to be very versatile; there are links to previous chapters that readers can click on to refresh their memories.

The topics in the text are presented in a logical and clear way. The book moves through each topic associated with choosing and using sources in sequence that most researchers would follow. The table of contents, with main headings and subtopics provide a step-by-step guide to help undergraduate students through the research process.

There are many links in throughout the book that students can click on to get more information or to practice skills. Navigation back to the main text is a little trickier. Sometimes, clicking on the back arrow will get the reader back to the page s/he was studying before clicking on the hyperlink. More often, however, the back arrow will take the reader back to the Table of Contents, or front cover of the book. Not all the links worked when I went through the book

I did not fine any grammatical or mechanical errors. I think the book is well-written and appropriate for high school students. I think the language may be too simplistic for most college students.

I did not come across anything that was culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

I think this book is an excellent resource for high school students, and maybe college freshman who need help in choosing and using sources for an academic paper. The book is logical, gives an overview of the process and provides excellent examples and extra activities to enhance learning. I think it also could be used as a self-study guide.

Reviewed by Miguel Valderrama, Adjunct Assistant Professor, New York City College of Technology on 4/7/19

This book is a great resource of all steps needed to be taken in an academic research process. The book's index clearly displays a suggested methodology to follow and makes it easier to comeback for the review of previous chapters. In general the... read more

This book is a great resource of all steps needed to be taken in an academic research process. The book's index clearly displays a suggested methodology to follow and makes it easier to comeback for the review of previous chapters. In general the book is easy to read and every time a new world or a particular terminology related to the topic comes up, it is clearly defined and put into context.

This book collects a series of methodologies that have been proven to be efficient when they are put into use during the process of academic research. These techniques are not only presented and described to the readers, they are also actively used in the various examples, pretty much in every chapter in the book. These techniques may not be the only way a person can start and develop a research process but they are certainly a clear and convenient way to do so for beginners. There may be complex terminology entered to the discussion which may slow down the reading process. However, this is effectively addressed by separated easy to access links; This provide more in detail definitions and exercises from a particular section.

This book is a guide that presents many particularities of research methods and techniques that have been used for long time. These methodologies have been proven to be very effective in academic research. This book not only collects many of these techniques but carefully relate them to new searching tools that are part of the communication era we live in nowadays. This was not the case just couple of decades ago. I anticipate long life to the methodologies presented in this text with years or decades before they could become obsolete. Within this context, the searching tools may keep changing but the methodologies that are used here could keep working efficiently; at least as a way to approach to a research process for an undergrad student.

The author uses a clear and easy way to understand the language and terminology that makes part of a research process. Without getting too deep into technical terminology the book marks clearly words that deserve more understanding and usually provides separate links which connects the reader with a deeper explanation. The text doesn't have very large paragraphs all around which to me allows readers to keep a good and dynamic paste. Links to previous discussed topics presents a quick way to review previous content without loosing the paste.

Consistency rating: 4

Through out the entire text it is consistent that at the beginning of every chapter there's a statement related to what the previous set of contents was, also in several parts of the book this first paragraph makes a point about how this relates to what it is about to be presented in that chapter. This is why several words allusive to the subject of research are reuse constantly in different chapters. This makes lots of sense to me as a way to keep the reader's familiarity with these terms which will also ended up increasing retentivity levels in the subject. Since the book is clearly broken down into steps they all seemed to be well placed in order to present a cohesive structure that guides the process of research.

Academic research it is a process that should be flexible by nature in many ways. Even though some parts of the process could be done simultaneously to others, this will definitely not apply to all of them. This book brings up an interesting way to order this process which even though may look rigid at times it tries to make sure that some parts are developed before others in the research. It is presented that way so that there's enough understanding of the bases before there can be any progression or even conclusions. This is mostly reflected in the techniques that are presented, where some of then have as their main job to detonate creative thinking. For example: the importance of the set of questions that are asked at the beginning is that the answers will be used mostly to clarify the end goals of a research.

This text is organized following a clear and efficient way to develop an academic research process. It is well distributed in chapters that are all connected to each other in one or other way. The book is efficient at establishing this connections, specially at the beginning and end of every chapter where there's mentioning of the previous and following topic's main ideas. This helps readers to keep track with the overall content.

This book presents an excellent graphic approach to expose its content. The electronic version has the really nice feature of having the index accessible at any point of the reading process. This text is full of links that are either deeper explanations of a particular topic or a set of exercises that are directly related to what the reader is learning. If the idea was to present the information in a format that doesn't look congested to the eyes and that it is not distracting the reader from the important ideas, the editors made an excellent job. This book can't be easier to read, follow through and understand.

Besides a couple of punctuation spaces here and then I was not able to perceive any major grammatical errors. The book is well written all around. Punctuation is pretty much excellent and its composition keeps the reader in track with the content effectible.

Particularly the topics used as examples were very diverse in therms of gender allusion, cultural backgrounds and specialized fields. Research is a process that apply to all disciplines and the professionals working in them. This makes the research process a particularly broad one. The book makes efforts to present this idea by using numerous examples that connect with different segments of the population at numerous levels.

This books is an excellent tool available to anyone who wishes to start a serious research process in almost any particular professional area or field, even amateur researchers can benefit from its content. The book was written to merge the topic content with a series of exercises, tests and examples using a cohesive testing dynamic that helps to increase retention. This dynamic becomes the most efficient way to understand what it takes to start a professional research. The steps to follow the process are laid out clearly in this guide and the important things that need to be taking in account during the research process are highlighted and deconstructed to obtain a deeper overall understanding by the reader or researcher. The fact that the reader is being quizzed constantly during the entire book generates a stronger connection with the important subjects and a good way to evaluate the reader's understanding in real time as well. Highly recommended to undergrad and graduate students and perhaps even amateur researchers becoming familiar with the process of research as well.

Reviewed by Cindy Gruwell, Professor/Research Librarian, Minnesota State on 1/11/19

Choosing and Using Sources does a very good job of covering the topic of Academic Research. Each chapter focuses on an aspect of the research process and thoroughly covers the content with easy to read text and examples/activities for student... read more

Choosing and Using Sources does a very good job of covering the topic of Academic Research. Each chapter focuses on an aspect of the research process and thoroughly covers the content with easy to read text and examples/activities for student practice. Most importantly first-year students through seniors should find the content informative and presented in a collegial format.

All of the content is accurate and explained in a manner that is easy to grasp. There are some minor typos in some of the activities, but they do not confuse the reader. The text is bias-free and includes interesting examples that students can relate to.

The overall content is highly relevant and will age very well. Updates would definite be easy to handle and manipulate. By breaking down each chapter into a variety of content areas, readers will be able to focus and review areas of concern.

Having read several print and online texts of a similar nature, it was a pleasure to come across a text that is clean, consistent, and concise. Each topic has an appropriate amount of information to get the point across as well as tips that lead the reader to additional information. The presentation is consistent throughout without any bloating often found in print texts.

The authors of the text did an excellent job of producing an online text that is consistent and easy to use. No tricks that make it difficult to navigate or confusing to read.

One aspect of the text that I especially like is the modularity that allows for the use of a particular chapter or page(s). Too often texts have chapters that make readers feel like there is no end in sight. The concise nature of this work blends extremely well with the modularity of the complete text.

What makes this text easy to adapt is the layout from beginning to end. Each chapter and section scaffolds upon the other which will allow students to build their skills in a natural manner. Knowledge attained will easily transfer from one topic to another as they move through the book.

While I believe that the text is excellent and I have adopted it for my class, I do find myself frustrated by not being able to move from one section to another within a chapter without having to go back to the contents list. This surprised me because most books and tutorials have forward and backward links, especially within chapters.

There are a few grammatical (spelling) errors in several of the exercises, however, they do not interfere or confuse the reader.

This is definitely a professional work that has no cultural issues and is an excellent example of a non-biased text.

While looking for an OER text I was delighted to come across this book. The content and flow fit in with my class content extremely well and is an excellent resources for courses in the liberal arts, general research, and library-centric classes.

Reviewed by Kathy Moss, Clinical Professor, University of Missouri on 11/27/18

The hyperlinks and examples include a wide range of topics that include cooking, surgery, architecture and sports. read more

The hyperlinks and examples include a wide range of topics that include cooking, surgery, architecture and sports.

Credit is given to an editor, production and design specialists, as well as several content contributors. No additional information is provided to support inference regarding author credibility.

The open textbook Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research presented material that is relevant to my current issues course, including Background reading, Developing a complex research question, Classifying sources, and Evaluating sources.

The topics are presented clearly, using an engaging conversational style and frequent tips and activities. A reader who has no background in information science may be hampered by some terms used in the book (e.g., blog, podcast, Wikipedia, browser, database, Gawker, Reddit). The book does give intentional attention to the technology-naïve audience with some skills (Control-F) and topics (brief description of LexisNexis Academic, Lantern Online).

Terms and organizational framework are consistent throughout the text.

I plan to assign particular chapters of this text that are most relevant to my course's goals. The consistency of the text's terminology and organization should permit this reading plan with minimal distraction to the reader.

The information is clearly organized with a contents listing, chapter numbers and section headers. This organization facilitates easy access for learners with a specific interest in a single topic.

The author’s frequent use of hyperlinks invites students to explore topics more in-depth.

I note a few minor typographical errors that did not adversely affect my ability to comprehend the text.

The book includes examples of non-Western sources such as the allAfrica news database. Some of the links and examples are only available to individuals who have accounts with The Ohio State University. Though the book includes examples in audio and video formats, it could be improved by giving specific attention to topics related to accessibility.

The book provides the opportunity for readers to apply the topics by analyzing its frequent examples.

Reviewed by Lori Meier, Associate Professor, East Tennessee State University on 11/8/18

This text is exceedingly comprehensive. It addresses all elements of academic research (i.e. choosing questions, exploring and selecting sources, searching strategies, citation issues, copyright) as well as providing abundant links for student... read more

This text is exceedingly comprehensive. It addresses all elements of academic research (i.e. choosing questions, exploring and selecting sources, searching strategies, citation issues, copyright) as well as providing abundant links for student use. It is lacking an index or glossary - although many concepts are defined in the various chapters.

This book is accurate and comprehensive. I would not hesitate to use this resource with undergraduate or graduate students as a beginning primer for research.

The book is relevant and timely in regards to the various resources and tech tools it mentions (Google Scholar, EndNote, Ref Works). Given the subject matter I suspect that this book will have longevity to users.

The text is clear and provides definitions for jargon/technical terminology that is used. It is very comprehensive which might be a bit intimidating for the first time reader, but all elements needed for cogent research are included and therefore necessary. I appreciate the use of student scenarios as a way to step-by-step show the thinking process of choosing research questions.

Very consistent and thorough.

This text would be ideal for use as single chapters in courses where the content is needed. While the content is crafted with Ohio State University students in mind it is still very relevant for use by students and scholars. I am already thinking how I might use this next semester with an undergraduate honor's thesis student - both as modules to be read but also as a reference source.

The book is organized in a logical manner but spends only a brief amount of time about qualitative and quantitative research as peer-reviewed sources and only gives basic definitions for those two terms. I would perhaps suggest an additional section on qual/quant/mixed methods research methodology and perhaps a quick overview of research methods or samples via discipline. Additionally, a mention of the common IRB process for Human Subject Research might be helpful to those students using academic sources that discuss that process. It is a very clear text and this could be added with just a few pages of information that might be beneficial to students.

Navigation links worked well for me. The book is easy to read and the display features are not troublesome to me.

Grammatically sound.

Appropriate and is accessible to a wide audience.

Reviewed by Kathy Lamb, ELL Specialist/ English Instructor, Miami University on 8/2/18

The text covers most areas of academic research, and has a table of contents but no glossary, which is much needed. Topics are clear and concise, transitioning smoothly from general to more specific, such as “What is a Research Question?” to... read more

The text covers most areas of academic research, and has a table of contents but no glossary, which is much needed. Topics are clear and concise, transitioning smoothly from general to more specific, such as “What is a Research Question?” to “Narrowing Topics” and finding “Related Terms”. Perfect for college freshmen.

The content is accurate, error-free and unbiased.

The source is up-to-date and it would be relatively easy to update information.

The text is easily understand and flows in a clear manner. Ideas and topics progress easily and examples are used to offer context.

Ideas build one upon another and academic vocabulary is repeated throughout.

Some parts of the book seem a little “text heavy”, but overall it is well organized with efficient flow. The embedded links in the text connect earlier concepts

One problematic is that there lacks a glossary. The table of contents is very long, but broken down so that one is able to easily reference topics. Chapters are concise enough to be read in a timely manner and effectively used.

For some of the online activities it was confusing to discern which answers were correct or incorrect. And, after clicking on and completing an activity one must go back to the former page in order to navigate further. On the other hand, being able to access other information about the chapter topics via link is a handy tool.

There are no grammatical errors.

This book is culturally relevant and not offensive or insensitive in any way.

Reviewed by Sara Abrahamson, Faculty, Minneosta West Community and Technical College on 8/2/18

This text is very comprehensive. The complete research process is broken down from start to finish. read more

This text is very comprehensive. The complete research process is broken down from start to finish.

Very accurate information.

The content is very relative to today's researchers and does a fine job of detailing types of sources.

Very easy to read with content that is easily understood by even a first-time researcher.

The content was very consistent and easy to follow because if it.

LOVED the easy of reading because of the small, digestible informational pieces!

The flow of the text was perfect, following the research process from beginning to end.

I enjoyed the hyperlinked Activities, however, they did not all work for me.

No grammatical errors found.

Very culturally unbiased.

Excellent text that I wished I had years ago!

Reviewed by Justin Megahan, Librarian / Associate Professor, Fontbonne University on 6/19/18

The text does a good job covering academic research. There is a table of contents, but I feel like a glossary and index would be helpful for this book. read more

The text does a good job covering academic research. There is a table of contents, but I feel like a glossary and index would be helpful for this book.

The content is accurate. I did not notice any errors.

The content is up-to-date. There are many databases and websites referred to in the text so it is important to check those relevant links on occasion. It would be straightforward to update the text as needed.

The text clearly steps the reader through the research process. The process is discussed in detail over the 13 chapters.

The text is consistent.

The book is modular. Chapters can be rearranged without confusion. The Copyright Chapter is a good example of a component that can be used separately as a supplemental reading in another course.

The book is organized logically. The addition of a glossary and index could help navigation.

The book has images, charts, and videos that are useful. There are quick activity questions that tests the students’ knowledge on the current topic. These activities do link out to OSU’s site so it is important to make sure those links continue to stay active.

The text contains no grammatical errors.

This book does not have cultural concerns.

Many links direct the reader to OSU resources that have restricted access. The discussion of OSU resources and tools needs to be modified to fit the reader’s institutional resources. “ACTIVITY: Quantitative vs. Qualitative” has a link that is no longer working.

Reviewed by Jane Theissen, Reference Librarian/Professor, Fontbonne University on 5/21/18

The research process is explained in detail, from how to develop a research question to where and how to research through the application of copyright, fair use and citation styles. read more

The research process is explained in detail, from how to develop a research question to where and how to research through the application of copyright, fair use and citation styles.

The content is accurate and unbiased. Most of the links, which are plentiful and well placed, are either broken or link to resources at OSU's library, which I could not access. Use of this book would require time to correct this.

The content is stable. Other than updating the links, little would need to be done to use this text.

Very clearly written; jargon is appropriately explained. Self-checks allow students to make sure they understand the material.

Each section logically builds on the previous, and tone is consistent throughout.

The text has a great deal of modularity. Each section is listed in the Table of Contents and covers a few pages or less. There is no index. It is easy to find and move to sections quickly. the structure allows one to pull sections out for other courses (which I have done).

The research process is explained step-by-step with appropriate detail and excellent graphics.

Images, charts, and diagrams serve to explain and support the text. Many seem rather large and I found them a bit distracting. Additionally, there are page breaks in strange places, leaving large blocks of white space on pages while the narrative continued on the next page. This was very confusing. It would also be helpful if the links would open in a new window.

It seemed inclusive where applicable.

This text impressed me as appropriate for high school students or college freshmen.

Reviewed by Laura Heinz, Librarian, Texas Tech University on 3/27/18

This book provides beginning student researchers with a clear and complete path to the research process for class assignments and undergraduate research projects. read more

This book provides beginning student researchers with a clear and complete path to the research process for class assignments and undergraduate research projects.

The content is presented is accurate and in an unbiased manner for students to easily grasp the process and concepts.

This book was written in 2016 and may need some minor updates. The material is presented in a logical manner that leads students through the process as they begin their research. Each chapter can be used independently as the instructor fits the chapters into course content.

This book is easily understood by an undergraduate and doesn't require extra readings or content to be understood. It is concise and clear which will be appreciated by the student as they conduct research.

This book is consistent in it's framework which leads the student to each step logically avoiding confusion or frustration.

The chapters can easily be used independently and refer students to other chapters with supporting information.

The book is written to lead students in a logical manner through the research process. The length of the chapters allows a student to easily read the chapter for that step in their research, apply it and refer to it easily.

The book downloads easily onto a laptop or e-reader. The graphics display nicely on either size screen and enhance the text.

No grammatical errors were noticed.

This book is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. Examples used are appropriate.

This book introduces beginning student researchers to the academic research process in a thoughtful and deliberate manner. The books lack of jargon and abbreviations will help international students learn how to better navigate an academic library for research. Instructors in all disciplines should consider this book as an additional textbook for their classes requiring research for assignments, class projects and/or papers.

Reviewed by Hilary Johnson, Learning & Teaching Librarian, The Open University on 3/27/18

The text does not include an index or glossary. However, it covers a complex (and dry) subject in an economical and stimulating fashion. Each reader would learn about the subject from the basic text but the authors have enriched the text by... read more

The text does not include an index or glossary. However, it covers a complex (and dry) subject in an economical and stimulating fashion. Each reader would learn about the subject from the basic text but the authors have enriched the text by embedding audio-visual resources, download-and-keep checklists and formative activities of excellent quality.Chapter 9 'Making an Argument' is particularly strong and complements Chapter 1's analysis of research questions well. It is an excellent resource for undergraduates, post-graduates and beyond, and could also be useful for professionals researching topics to support evidence-based practice protocols.

More tips about applying facets to search results on services like Summon, EDS or Primo would be a useful addiition. I was surprised the authors did not employ language to frame the skill development in the language of 'employability' and life-skills, which might hook readers who are not planning to engage in academic research in the long-term.

The accuracy of the book was excellent, My score would have been 5, except the advice about copyright legislation and fair use is only applicable to students of Ohio State or elsewhere in the USA; so an institution in the Britain, Ireland or Europe would not be able to use or recommend chapters 11 or 12. However, these chapters are well-judged for the intended audience; succinct and comprehensible, where so many guides are too woolly or arcane to be useful to a general readership.

Chapter 1 had a dead link to an audio-visual resource. The explanation of how to use Wikipedia for academic study was nuanced, classic and practical. The explanation of how to use truncation and wildcards were similarly time- (and platform-) proof. There is much current interest in 'fake news' and the manipulation of Facebook and Google algorithms. So it could be timely to add a section on the known issues and some practical strategies to compensate for them.

The authors use excellent, clear English that should be comprehensible to anyone with academic english reading proficiency. My only qualms related to an ambiguous use of the term "poster" (this word has a particular meaning in an academic setting which was not explained) and more extensively around the slightly simplistic and dated language used for the university library catalogue and abstract & indexing databases. One of the activity sheets is structured like a decision-tree and starts with the question "are you working from a database"; with modern resource discovery platforms and other aggregating tools, students may not be able to tell whether they are looking at results from a single database, all the databases from one supplier or multiple databases from a variety of suppliers.

The stylesheet and planning of content is elegant and the quality is consistent throughout the text.

Each chapter is split into useful subsections, with clear formatting to demarcate between topics, tips and activities. The authors have also helpfully embedded hyperlinks to relevant chapters or sections earlier or later in the book.The length of individual subsections is consistent to make reading online easy (balancing scrolling and page turning). However, the length of embedded audio-visual materials varies so a student planning their time might be surprised in places.

The text has a sensible progression of topics, with hyperlinks back and forwards to connect relevant topics. And the final chapter, 'Roles of Research Sources', pulls together the lessons learnt with a useful acronym (BEAM), giving the book a strong ending.

I accessed the text on a variety of browsers, screen sizes and operating systems without any problems with the interface.

I only spotted two minor errors - site instead of cite and White's definition (page 186) without an apostrophe.

Not all the video materials embedded are captioned making them inaccessible to some categories of disabled users.

Reviewed by Lydia Bales, Academic Skills Tutor & Librarian, Staffordshire University on 2/1/18

Considering the book is not overly large, the guide manages to be very through and comprehensive guide to locating sources and using them correctly. It even goes further in giving some great information on making an argument and writing out the... read more

Considering the book is not overly large, the guide manages to be very through and comprehensive guide to locating sources and using them correctly. It even goes further in giving some great information on making an argument and writing out the research. The chapters are in easily digestible chunks covering the process of searching and evaluating resources in a useful and cross-discipline manner. It covers the source search process of research in an easily digestible manner.

The topics are accurate and have been written in a way that they will not date too much. The links and examples of the services provided may need updating to keep them accurate but the nature of the online format makes this easily possible. The Copyright chapter is obviously only applicable to those studying in the US. Having a version of this chapter available discussing copyright law in the UK could be useful any access the course for a different location.

The topics, examples and videos used are relevant and useful and should not date too much. The links and examples of the services provided may need updating to keep them accurate but the nature of the online format makes this easily possible. Some of the examples and links are specific to Ohio State and America and this can limit the relevance for students who do not have the ability to access Ohio State resources or are not based in America. Also the copyright section specfically is obviously only US copyright law limiting it's usefulness for students based in other locations.

The writing style is straightforward and easy to follow. It is sometimes slightly repetitive but overall the information is clearly presented and the vocabulary used is not too advanced. The style is informal and it makes a weighty topic much easier to process. I think it would be useful to have a glossary in the resource for students who maybe have not come across some of the topic specific words before and need them defining.

I was impressed with the consistency considering the work is made up of different author’s contributions. I could not identify different voices within the text, which helped improve the flow of the work. The arrangement of the contents tab is very useful to help navigate to specific sections of chapters as well as the overall chapter.

The layout of the book makes this modular. You can choose which sections to look at in any order and they read clearly and separately well. The other sections are signposted throughout the text and you can link back through to these using the hyperlinks provided. I think the order could be slightly improved by moving the citing and copyright information after the information on argument and writing but because you can choose how to read the book then it is not really an issue. I think it is important to note that if you cannot play the video content or the links in the book are Ohio State Specific the book does lose some of its positive features.

Overall, the structure is straightforward and logical. It flows in a manner that is easy to read and to process. Using the navigation you can work your way through the book in any order you feel is appropriate. As I stated I feel the referencing and copyright information could be in a different place but because you can choose to read this in a different order, it does not really matter.

Having read the online version on both a PC and a tablet I found the interface both easy to use and accessible. The page and chapter length worked well on both platforms and it was easy to access the links and activities contained within the resource. I could not access the videos on the PC due to not having Adobe Flash and it would be useful to have known I would require this to access the resource in its entirety. The video content is a refreshing change to just text and the images used are overall relevant. The videos do not all include a text version and this would be useful for accessibility. A few of them do have this option. Some of the images in the text viewed blurry on my PC and tablet. I am not sure if this was an issue with my own software or an error in the book.

I did not notice any errors during this read through. In some places, the text was a bit repetitive but this not disrupt the flow too drastically.

The examples used are not offensive and are diverse in their range. They have not given examples that define the guide for specific subset of students, which makes it more applicable.

Just for accessibility purposes, I think all the videos need a text version not just some. In addition, the RefWorks program has now been updated and it is called New Refworks with a changed logo and this could be updated in the book along with the guide to setting up Refworks if your institution subscribes. I feel that there are many links that you could not access unless you were an Ohio State user and this could disrupt the flow of the book for some users.

Reviewed by Lori Jacobson, Associate Director, Curriculum Development, William & Mary Writing Resources Center on 2/1/18

The book provides a comprehensive introduction to the use of sources in academic writing. read more

The book provides a comprehensive introduction to the use of sources in academic writing.

The book is a polished, professional and appropriate tool to help students improve their information literacy.

The content is relevant for undergraduate students and their instructors. It focuses primarily on fundamental approaches to finding, evaluating, and deploying sources in order to enter the scholarly conversation. While the authors occasionally mention a specific tool, or insert links to outside sources, these are placed within "Tip" boxes that can easily be updated.

Because this book was created for students at Ohio State University, it is sometimes quite specific about tools or processes that are unique to OSU. Instructors using this book at other institutions may sometimes need to suggest their own's institution's available tools to keep the text relevant for their students.

The book is well-crafted for an undergraduate audience, taking an easy-going, friendly tone and clearly defining key terms and concepts. It is also accessibly structured, making it fairly easy for users to jump between topics, rather than requiring a linear read. Links between related sections are provided wherever it is appropriate.

The book uses a consistent design scheme and structure. Features that appear in each chapter include graphics, tip boxes, examples, activities, and summaries.

Each unit of the text stands on its own and could be easily assigned as an individual reading. Rather than being self-referential, the text will suggest that more information on a related topic can be found in one of the other modules.

The text is organized to flow in roughly the same sequence as a typical research project. Students who are reading the text while working on a project should find individual sections logically presented and relevant. This is clearly not a text designed as background reading; rather it functions best as "just in time" information for students working through the research process.

I found the text quite easy to use in it its online form. It is visually appealing, easy to navigate, and thoughtfully arranged.

I noticed a couple of typos, but no significant grammatical errors.

The examples provided are of broad interest, and most readers will have some familiarity with them. There were no insensitive or offensive comments or examples.

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research is a practical tool for novice researchers. It asks students to begin the process with a research question, and then provides a step-by-step approach to creating the question. All the other chapters flow from this effective beginning, and should increase students' information literacy by helping them understand types of sources available to researchers, the relationship between sources and information needs, how sources should be evaluated, and how they can be deployed effectively and ethically. Additional chapters on argumentation and copyright round out the book's overall usefulness to students engaged in a research project. This book could be easily paired with a staged research project, and would provide students with the "just-in-time" information they need to successfully complete the assignment.

Reviewed by Kristin Green, Reference and Instruction Librarian, Penn State Worthington Scranton on 2/1/18

The aspects of academic research that are prudent to cover within the first year of any undergraduate student's general education are all covered within this textbook. From an introduction to the ethics of source use to crafting basic Boolean... read more

The aspects of academic research that are prudent to cover within the first year of any undergraduate student's general education are all covered within this textbook. From an introduction to the ethics of source use to crafting basic Boolean search strings, all facets of entering scholarly discourse are addressed in brief chapters that feel modern and accessible. While instructors may wish to supplement or replace some of the exercise sets in the text with their own assessments, the content of the text provides ample coverage if selected to serve as a primary textbook for a foundational information literacy course.

The book is accurate in addressing the current state of the information landscape as encountered in the realm of academic research, as well as the legalities of copyright and fair use.

All content within this book is current and the content within chapters sections are written in a style that today's undergraduate students will be able to learn easily from. Many of the concepts, processes, and principles that are covered in the text have an inherent longevity that will prolong the relevance of this text past its initial publication date. However some chapter sections, tutorials, and videos are institution-specific reducing the overall relevancy of using the entire text at other locations.

The text is written in a clear and concise style that current students will find very accessible. The authors consciously defined any technical terminology or jargon as it was introduced throughout the chapters. Furthermore, the technical concepts that were more complex to define are often accompanied by visuals to help convey what is being defined.

The terminology and format of the book, along with the linked exercise sets and visualizations, provide a solid consistency that will helps students focus on learning the content rather than being bogged down with understanding the textbook format.

Instructors could easily parse different chapters of this book to use for modular instruction, especially in "one-shot" or other limited instructional scenarios. Some of the chapters are a bit self-referential which may generate a minor degree of confusion if used out of the holistic context.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

While there is a logical flow to most of the chapters, some seem a little out of place such as the "Making an Argument" chapter. I would have preferred a division of chapters into sections, where the writing-related chapters were separated from the source-related chapters. I also think the chapters that covered Copyright, Fair Use, ethical source use, and citations would have a stronger flow if organized together in their own section.

The ability to navigate through the book from the table of contents page is a great feature for students, especially when the instructor is choosing to assign only particular chapters or work through some of the chapters in a different sequence. The linked exercise sets are also easy to navigate through, allowing students to focusing on applying learned concepts rather than learning new interfaces. However, throughout my review some of the linked external content would not open for me and links to external materials always have the possibility of changing which may result in future inaccessibility

No grammatical errors were detected when reviewing this book.

This book is not offensive nor culturally insensitive in any manner.

For any instructor looking for an open textbook to orient undergraduate students to the basics of the academic research and writing processes while simultaneously providing context of contemporary issues surrounding these scholarly activities, this is a comprehensive and accessible choice!

Reviewed by Anne Behler, Information Literacy Librarian & Instruction Coordinator, The Pennsylvania State University on 2/1/18

This text offers a comprehensive breakdown of the academic research process, with special effort made to demystify jargon that may present itself in either the classroom or library environment. Beginning with establishing a research question and... read more

This text offers a comprehensive breakdown of the academic research process, with special effort made to demystify jargon that may present itself in either the classroom or library environment. Beginning with establishing a research question and carrying through to integrating and citing sources, the text includes practical tools for students to use in their own research, as well as links to supplemental information. If anything, the text errs on the side of providing too much information, such that a novice researcher may feel overloaded.

The text offers an accurate articulation of the research process, and avoids bias by covering a wide variety of potential information sources, including the use of web search engines other than Google.

Because the information landscape is constantly shifting, the text will require fairly frequent review. This is particularly important when it comes to how web sources are addressed. For example, the book does not address fake news and/or dealing with problematic web resources, and it glosses over use of social media as an information source. However, the concepts related to the research process itself change very little, and the information presented about them has staying power.

The text is written in accessible language, and works to address uses of jargon that are typical within the academic environment by providing explanations for what professors typically want when they request a particular item in the research process. This is an effective way to establish relevance with students, as well as clarify academic expectations.

The language within the text is consistent and accessible, with helpful insertions of definitions and/or links to explanatory supplementary information online.

The text's sections are clearly and logically labeled, and could very easily be plugged into a course in part or whole.

The order of topics in the text follow the research assignment process, from point of assignment decoding through to writing and source citation. Given the audience for the text and its intended purpose, this makes great sense.

The text contains links to many outside web sources that may provide helpful supplemental information for the reader; however many of these links were found to be dead. Comprehensive review of all links is highly recommended. In addition, I recommend continuing review of available videos related to the topics, as many selected are either rudimentary or contain dated material.

The writing and grammatical quality of this text are of the highest quality.

The text is culturally relevant and inclusive in its examples.

As stated, this book holds great utility and relevance, but requires updating for links to external web resources. It will also need to be adapted to keep up with the changing landscape of information sources themselves.

Reviewed by Craig Larson, Librarian, North Hennepin Community College on 2/1/18

The book is very comprehensive, sometimes almost too much so (sections on copyright seem to be more detailed than the average college student would need or perhaps be interested in; the section on the lifecycle of information, while interesting,... read more

The book is very comprehensive, sometimes almost too much so (sections on copyright seem to be more detailed than the average college student would need or perhaps be interested in; the section on the lifecycle of information, while interesting, also is a bit questionable as to its overall relevance). Instructors who choose this book for a one- or two-credit information literacy course will have much more material at their hands than they can reasonably cover in a semester. This book would make a good companion volume to just about any course involving research.

The content is accurate and unbiased. As an example, I was interested to find that the author actually recommends that students use Wikipedia, at least in the very early stages of research, to get an overall picture of their topic. So many college instructors, regardless of the subject, seem to have a strong aversion to Wikipedia. Here, the author actually goes into some detail on how using the references in an entry can lead the researcher to additional sources he/she might not find through other means. Some of the activities are a bit misleading or written in such a way that there could be more than one right answer, which isn't necessarily an error, but could be tightened up a bit.

The content is largely relevant and up-to-date, though I was a bit surprised to not find a section addressing "fake news," which has become such a watchword over the past year. I was also a bit surprised that, although the author has a section talking about which "neighborhood" certain types of information "hangs out," there wasn't a discussion of different domain names, such as ".edu," ".org," and ".com" and what they indicate to readers. Also hampering the book's relevance somewhat is an overabundance of examples and activities that require an Ohio State student ID to log-in. Many of these would have to be re-worked or re-written for the book to be useful at other schools.

In large part, the book is clearly written and new ideas are clearly explained. The writer does a pretty good job of avoiding jargon and technical terminology or where it can't be avoided, of providing examples and clear definitions of terms. Some of the activities aren't so clearly written that there is one obviously correct answer. Also, some of the scoring of activities isn't clear enough to indicate to the user what was wrong and why it was wrong or even the correct answer that should have been chosen. Not every concept is adequately explained or thoroughly developed (for instance, the crucial process of moving from an initial reading to a research question could use further clarification and development). Another area that could use further discussion and development would be how to use databases.

The book is largely consistent, though there are occasions where the consistency falls through. For example, most of the accompanying activities will open in a new window, but not all. There were several occasions where this reader closed out an activity window and closed out the entire book as well. This is an area that someone really should take a look at, as it can be confusing and irritating for the user. Also, the fact that many of the book's activities require an Ohio State student ID effectively locks out users from other institutions.

The book is largely modular, with sections that can easily be broken apart and assigned at different points in the course. There is a very useful table of contents, broken down by subject into smaller pieces that can easily be accessed. As mentioned previously, the book is very comprehensive, almost too much so at times, so having this table of contents is very helpful.

The book is fairly-well organized, though there are things placed in odd locations that could be touched on earlier or later, as the case may be. For instance, there is a good discussion fairly late in the book about deciding whether to quote, paraphrase, or summarize, which would have been much more useful if it was placed in the section of the book that directly addresses each of those activities. Instead, it is placed in a section on academic integrity (which, again, is very Ohio State-specific, too much so, really). I also question the relevance of a chapter on creating an academic argument, which if it is to be included at all, would seem to make much more sense earlier in the book, when students are learning the basics of research and how to apply it to their writing.

The book is largely free of significant issues, although as mentioned previously, many of the activities require an Ohio State student ID to log-in and use, which makes them useless to students from other institutions. Also, the activities are sometimes difficult to follow--one doesn't know why one answered incorrectly or what the correct answer even is in some instances. And the fact that some activities open a new browser window and some don't can also be confusing. There are a few activities that lead to broken links.

There are the occasional run-on sentences and spelling mistakes in the text. It's almost impossible not to have some issues in this area. However, the infrequent errors don't detract from the book or its overall usefulness, though it might be a good idea for someone to go through the text and try to clear some of these up.

The book does a good job of avoiding being culturally insensitive or offensive. Activities and examples are written in such a way as to be inclusive. Many of the examples link directly to sites that deal with minority themes and issue.

I think, on the whole, this is a very useful book and one that could be put to immediate use in many instances. However, the number of activities and examples that require an Ohio State student ID to access make this less relevant than it could be if the author had striven for more universal examples.

Reviewed by Mairéad Hogan, Lecturer, National University of Ireland, Galway on 2/1/18

This book covers the subject matter in a comprehensive and detailed way. The way in which the material is presented is very suitable for students who have not previously been involved in academic research as it starts at the very beginning and... read more

This book covers the subject matter in a comprehensive and detailed way. The way in which the material is presented is very suitable for students who have not previously been involved in academic research as it starts at the very beginning and assumes no prior knowledge. It has additional features that help to reinforce the material, such as activities and MCQs. These help to reinforce the learning and test the reader’s understanding. Additionally, the examples used are very useful and helpful in gaining understanding of the subject matter.

It goes into the material in depth and not only tells students how to progress their research but also explains clearly why they should be doing it this way. For example, it explains to students how to differentiate between good and bad sources. However, I have one small concern with this aspect. They do not tell students how to differentiate between different standards of peer-reviewed journals. They do mention looking at citation count but state that is not a useful measure for very recent articles. Some discussion on determining the quality of the journal itself would be helpful. For example, looking at citation counts for the journal, rather than the article would be one example, as would looking at rankings.

Overall, I would see this as an excellent reference book to last students through their academic careers.

The material itself is accurate. However, many of the links to additional material either do not work or are inaccessible to those without OSU credentials.

The material is mainly presented in a way that will last. However, many of the links no longer work so these should be checked and alternatives put in on a regular basis. Additionally, there are links to videos that may not be there in the future, although all I clicked on were available. However, the text description of the videos did not work. Many of the activities (MCQ’s etc) have a dated feel about them in terms of layout and interaction. The design of them could do with some updating.

The writing itself is very clear and easy to understand. Diagrams are used to good effect to clarify concepts (e.g. use of Venn diagrams to explain Boolean concepts). However, some of the terminology is not as clearly defined as it could be. While terms are generally explained clearly in the text, it would be nice to have a glossary of terms. Additionally, the MCQs are not always clear as if the reader gets an answer wrong it is not always apparent which is the correct one.

The book is consistent in writing style and interface.

The book is structured in a modular format whereby the reader can dip in and out of different sections, as they need to. Equally, for a student starting out, it is structured in a way that is likely to follow the steps in the same order as the student, making it a good companion to their research projects.

The book was organised in a very natural and sensible way and flowed smoothly from one topic to another. Links were provided to related sections of the book where relevant so that if the reader forgot what was meant by a particular topic, they could easily hop back and forth. The book started at the very beginning with good coverage of developing a research question and then progressed through tools and sources to help with this. The additional activities were all web based, which works fine if you have easy access. However, I was using a kindle with poor broadband so struggled to access it at times. It also felt a bit disruptive leaving the book to do the activities. It’s also not always clear whether links lead to another part of the book or to an external site. The tips are a useful addition. The stand out when flicking through the book and help to reinforce the important points. It is also useful the ways steps are clearly broken down into sub-steps.

I downloaded it to Kindle, and found a number of issues. It struggled to deal with larger fonts, resulting in some text not being visible.. There were also references to “the bottom of the page” but the bottom of the page varies depending on font size. Not all of the activities worked. Some of the activities required OSU credentials to access them, which was frustrating.

There were some minor grammatical and typographical errors but nothing major.

The book is very US centric in its use of examples. For example, there is an American football example and news sources referred to are US based generally. Additionally, copyright discussion is US centric.

Overall, I found this to be an excellent book that will help students in their research projects. I think it is a book that they will use for a number of years as it is has sufficient depth to help at different levels. The one main change I would make would be to broaden OSU references and activities so they are referring to databases in general, for example, rather than simply talking about the OSU one. Much of the material is relevant regardless of institution but a reader unfamiliar with databases would not be aware of this and might skip over some very useful information.

Reviewed by Anthony Patterson, Assistant Professor, North Carolina Central University on 2/1/18

Choosing and Using Sources is an extremely thorough text taking readers through the research process from formulating research questions to fair use and copy right issues. I particularly liked the online examples and resources including quizzes... read more

Choosing and Using Sources is an extremely thorough text taking readers through the research process from formulating research questions to fair use and copy right issues. I particularly liked the online examples and resources including quizzes and videos. The table of contents is thorough but there is not a glossary. While this is a strong text some discussion of theory and how theoretical frameworks are used in academic writing.

While the text could have addressed additional areas, the authors were accurate and detailed. Chapter 8 - How to Cite Sources is well done and accurately takes novel researchers through when they should and should not provide citations.

The authors present how to develop, approach, and conduct sound research in a well thought out format. This text is up-to-date addressing issues like Wikipedia and Google Scholar. While issues around these information sources will change, the way this text is set up, it can easily be updated in the future.

The book is well written, clear, and easy to follow. Jargon such as primary, secondary, and tertiary sources were explained clearly with appropriate examples. This text will be accessible for my students and most others pursuing advanced degrees.

The authors are consistent throughout the text when discussing topics like presenting arguments and the relationship this has with concepts like research questions and the sources researcher select. While consistency is expected is difficult to do especially when writing as a team. More impressively is the consistency of supplemental materials throughout the text.

The book has long chapters and occasionally I had some difficulty knowing where one section ended and another began but overall it is readily divisible. Another important aspect of the text are the supplemental materials like online quizzes and videos which are also clearly align with the sections in the text.

I was skeptical at first when I began reading but the overall organization of this text is good. Even though the text is about writing and sources, a section of theory and incorporating theoretical frameworks would have strengthen the book. However the topics selected flowed well and led potential researchers through a logical process.

A few problems linking to sum supplemental materials but overall I was impressed by the quality of the graphics as well as the links to quizzes and videos that were provided.

I did not come across any grammatical or typographical issues.

I did not see any cultural insensitive examples or information provided. However I also did not see a lot of racial or ethnic diversity in examples throughout this text. Overall, I feel the authors approached the subject matter appropriately.

Reviewed by Rachelle Savitz, Assistant Professor, Clemson University on 2/1/18

The text is quite comprehensive regarding finding, using, and understanding sources. It provides the process of sourcing from start to finish with examples and activities provided throughout to support the reader. Various ways to find sources... read more

The text is quite comprehensive regarding finding, using, and understanding sources. It provides the process of sourcing from start to finish with examples and activities provided throughout to support the reader. Various ways to find sources are described. There is a focus throughout on software and databases for the students at the authors institution and that can be confusing to readers from other institutions. The information provided regarding citing, ethics and copyright, and fair use was informative and would be beneficial to the reader. There were sections throughout that could have been more in depth and more specific. For instance, when going over the various ways to cite sources, additional examples could be provided and the version/edition should be listed. For instance, was the APA citation in APA 6th edition format? Also, make sure to address citing from secondary sources as students do this often and tend to cite what they read even if they read it from another text. The TOC was helpful and allowed ease of understanding what was to be covered in each section. One main complain that I have was regarding the additional information provided to help the reader in writing a paper. This information would be helpful for basic college writing but not for academic writing, thesis or dissertation writing. The sections required for some of these papers are not discussed and the text eludes that the sections provided regarding writing an argumentative piece would be appropriate for all. Also, synthesizing information could be explained a bit more and with more depth. Synthesizing includes more than critiquing and summarizing. All in all, the sourcing information is spectacular and the additional information could be expanded upon.

Accuracy of sourcing was spot on. Some of the additional categories discussed, as mentioned in the first section of this review, could be expanded upon to fully explain that category, if it is to be included in the book. The examples and activities provided were quite good and would be very beneficial for students to apply what they are learning in real-life contexts. Links were provided for extending information. I did not attempt to open every link but making sure they are up-to-date will be important as time goes forward. I also feel that the section on popular texts can be misleading. Stating that the Washington Post is "popular" eludes that it is not reliable or valid. This is not necessarily true as many experts in various fields write sections in "popular" newspapers.

As previously stated, a lot of links go to OSU resources. This could be problematic for any reader that is not at OSU. More information should be provided to support any student in the world as that part would be confusing to many students.

The text is easy to read and follow. All new information is explained and then examples and activities are provided. This is student friendly and allows any reader to quickly follow along and understand what is being stated, especially regarding the sourcing elements. As stated above, there are some sections that could/should be expanded upon for clarity and this might be best for beginning university students but the text was easy to understand in regards to sourcing, citing, and fair use. More information on how to use the sources and sections of papers would be beneficial to all students.

Each chapter seemed to follow a similar structure that followed the TOC.

Modularity rating: 3

Reading the book online provides ability to chunk the text based on assignments and can be read chapter by chapter, entirety or starting at different places. Due to the extensive amount of outside links and examples, this would be quite different if read in paper format. This book truly has to be read online to ensure benefit from all of the additional activities, links, examples, sources, etc. In addition, the many links specific to OSU would not be helpful for other students.

The organization is consistent from chapter to chapter. Information is explained and then examples and activities are provided to further knowledge. This works well for readers that needs examples.

Using a laptop provided no issues. However, when using a smartphone, the pages changed in size and various display features did not load properly or at all.

Very few grammatical errors were noticed.

No cultural issues noticed other than the many OSU references and sources. This could be offensive to other institutions as they will not be able to access many of the links.

Reviewed by Scott Rice, Associate Professor, Appalachian State University on 2/1/18

The book is very comprehensive which sometimes detracted from its usefulness. There were a few units that may be superfluous, but I did appreciate that the author seemed to err on the side of inclusivity, leaving it to other adoptees how much... read more

The book is very comprehensive which sometimes detracted from its usefulness. There were a few units that may be superfluous, but I did appreciate that the author seemed to err on the side of inclusivity, leaving it to other adoptees how much content they might use and repurpose.

The book is error-free and appears to be free of bias.

The book is pitched to an Ohio State University audience, so some of the resources pointed to would not be the same as a potential adopter's institution might select. In addition, the book needs some updating regarding the impact of social media on the information cycle. Social media formats are mentioned, but a fuller treatment of how they fit into the information climate would be a good addition.

The text was clear and easy to read, and provided numerous examples for its points. It also did not rely on jargon in its explanations, which makes it much more accessible.

The text was consistent in its use of terms. I found its tone consistent, as well as the level of explanation for the wide variety of concepts explored.

The organization of the text into units makes it very easy to break the content apart into smaller units and use it for a variety of purposes. I could see using the content for different parts of several courses, as well as incorporating it into e-learning content.

The topics are presented in a logical fashion, following the path that a typical research assignment might take. This will also make it easier to fit within the flow of a course that uses the textbook to teach about the process of academic research.

The interface of the text itself works appropriately, but some of the ancillary quizzes and extra material did not work so well. Many of the graphics did not work as well within the pdf format as they do in the web format.

The textbook was free of grammatical errors and was easy to read.

The text did not appear to be culturally insensitive.

I am exploring the creation of a for-credit information literacy class at my institution and this book is a possible candidate for adoption for the course.

Reviewed by Bryan Gattozzi, Lecturer, General Studies Writing, Bowling Green State University on 2/1/18

I was impressed how the text began helping students understand the benefits of leading a research project by writing research question(s), following with assessment of research methods, and thinking about research writing as an avenue to test a... read more

I was impressed how the text began helping students understand the benefits of leading a research project by writing research question(s), following with assessment of research methods, and thinking about research writing as an avenue to test a hypothesis instead of one simply confirming a previous, and perhaps uninformed, belief.

The book didn't seem to dismiss any possible research method. Instead it provided suggestions of how and when any individual research method may be relevant.

The book was published last academic year and the content included is still relevant, mostly because best-practices in research (and research writing) haven't changed much.

The volume of research methods students can use given the internet's power is ever increasing, yet the book does well to isolate a handful of long standing tenets that academic writers have used for decades while allowing for discussion of web-based writing and multi-modal presentation methods instructors may increasingly require students to use.

Each section is concise, clear, and easy to follow . . . for me.

I assume students will be capable of reading the text, performing quizzes provided, and plotting out a research path to complete their assignment(s).

Then again, as an academic I obsess over these issues. I can see a student yawning while reading this text.

The content isn't especially fun to read yet the information provided in relevant and time-saving if students are willing to relax, read actively, and apply the material to the assignment their instructor has given.

I don't imagine many students would seek the book out and read about research methods, yet an instructor can pair excerpts from the book with specific assignments along a student's research path to help the student retain and apply the helpful suggestions in the book.

The text does well to allow students to name the process they're going through when composing a research question then deciding on what research path fits their question. Students are guided to consider what blend of qualitative / quantitative, primary / secondary / tertiary, or public / professional / scholarly research will fit their research and writing goals.

The book refers back to the same terms throughout and provides students with active learning worksheets to plot a research AND writing plan to complete their work, one they could conceivably follow throughout their academic and professional career.

Each subheading contains, on average, not more than a page of content allowing instructors the ability to easily limit reading assignments from the book to concise, focused sections.

The book is very process-based, and follows the workflow necessary to write a successful academic researched assignment.

The limit of this strategy might be students being overwhelmed with so much discussion of process they'd be paralyzed to inaction.

An instructor, then, would have to be direct in assigning reading materials relevant to a student's immediate research goal.

I like how the text follows the path a student would follow: from narrowing a research question, selecting and reviewing research materials, then choosing how to implement them ethically in writing.

It also details how to process research considerations students may not consider including how to archive research results, to respect copyright law when publishing blog posts or submitting student work to an online repository.

The text contains many online activities, sample research artifacts, and instructional handouts. Some require on Ohio State student authentication. The text is still useful without access to these materials, though an instructor would have to alert students to this issue.

Text was proofread well.

Didn't see any culturally insensitive content.

Reviewed by Jonathan Grunert, Assistant Professor of Library Services: Information Literacy Coordinator, Colorado State University - Pueblo on 2/1/18

This textbook covers the concepts found in the ACRL frameworks in a way that is meaningful and accessible to academic researchers at all levels. It adequately provides a discussion of the complete research process, with clear signposts as to which... read more

This textbook covers the concepts found in the ACRL frameworks in a way that is meaningful and accessible to academic researchers at all levels. It adequately provides a discussion of the complete research process, with clear signposts as to which steps writers might need to revisit to improve their work.

The content appears to be accurate to 2016, with some acknowledgement that finding sources is an activity that has seen many changes in the past few decades, and will likely seem more, and rapidly.

Information discovery and retrieval is a rapidly changing process in a changing field. But much of the content in this textbook—as far as general advice and instruction for finding resources and the ways to use them—remains relevant. As information processes change and as information uses change, I have no doubt that librarians will be at the forefront of maintaining the relevance of a textbook like this one through various edition changes.

This textbook is clear, and accessible to researchers at all levels. Jargon, where present, is well-explained, and the contexts for the various components of the textbook are provided.

The text and frameworks in this book are consistent with ACRL frameworks as well as with the ways librarians tend to talk about finding and using sources. Furthermore, the book consistently uses the same terminologies to clearly explain sometimes difficult practices.

I would be very comfortable using any chapter of this book to teach a component of the academic research process. The chapters are discrete, with well-defined boundaries. The modularity of this textbook helps reinforce the overarching idea in this book: the iterative research process. Students might read the chapters in virtually any order, and come away with a valuable understanding of the research process.

This textbook presents the research process in the way that many students and faculty think about the process—from the perspective of the end goal, and through the organizational structure of an academic paper. But, it also indicates throughout the process places when the researcher needs to revisit an earlier step, to modify the project, or to make the end product more meaningful.

No issues in the interface; nothing distracting from the content.

Some minor punctuation errors, but no grammatical errors that distract from the content.

This textbook comes from an American perspective for ways of searching for, retrieving, and using information, as well as the traditionally American ways of constructing arguments. Though there is not discussion of other cultural ways of arguing academically, this textbook does not dismiss or otherwise denigrate other cultures; nor is it insensitive in any way.

Many examples are university-specific to the libraries at Ohio State University, as should be expected from a textbook such as this. As such, this book will be most helpful to students using the book at OSU. However, instructors using this book need to be aware of this focus, and must prepare to supplement with materials accessible by researchers outside OSU.

Reviewed by Susan Nunamaker, Lecturer, Clemson University on 2/1/18

This textbook is comprehensive. It goes in-depth covering the topics of research questions (specifically how to narrow down topics), types of sources, sources and information needs, precision searching, search tools, evaluating sources, ethical... read more

This textbook is comprehensive. It goes in-depth covering the topics of research questions (specifically how to narrow down topics), types of sources, sources and information needs, precision searching, search tools, evaluating sources, ethical use of sources, how to cite sources, making an argument, writing tips, copyright basics, fair use, and roles of resource sources. The textbook hits all of the topics that I plan to cover in my upcoming classroom-based research course with the exception of techniques for completing and writing a literature review. The textbook touches on the topic through a section on "background reading", but does not go in-depth. Otherwise, the textbook covers every aspect of academic research.

I found no errors or bias issues in my initial first read of the textbook.

The information and techniques provided within this textbook are up-to-date and relevant for academic research. I reviewed several textbooks before choosing this one for my upcoming masters-level classroom-based research course. I chose this book because of its relevance in regard to the practical skills needed in order to complete research assignments within the course, as well as, writing a capstone research paper.

This textbook is clear and exceptionally readable. It is organized by research skills in an order that makes sense to the reader. For example, the book begins with a chapter on choosing one's research question. Verbiage is clear and concise for all levels of academia to be able to effectively utilize this text.

This textbook is consistent in terms of terminology and framework. Each chapter of the textbook builds on the last. The reader is not necessarily expected to have prior knowledge of research before reading chapter one, but should easily be able to have a good frame of reference for academic research by the end of the textbook due to its high-quality framework for scaffolding knowledge with each chapter.

This textbook does a great job of sectioning academic research into small bites for the reader. It was easy for me to create modules from the textbook's chapters, spreading the information within the text over an 8-week course. The modularity of this textbook was a selling point for utilizing the textbook with students.

This is a well-organized textbook. Each chapter builds on prior chapters. Chapters are organized in a logical manner. The first chapter begins with the purpose of research questions and builds content to assist the reader in narrowing down options for research questions. The textbook progresses to assist the reader in building skills as an academic researcher throughout the textbook.

No interface issues were discovered during my initial exposure to the online format. I printed the PDF (because I still love paper) and all display features printed properly. The online navigation is easy to use and pleasing to the eye, as well.

No grammar issues were detected during my initial review of the textbook.

This text is not culturally insensitive or offensive in my opinion.

This is an excellent textbook if you are looking to utilize it to introduce students to the academic research and writing process. Its layout and design and conducive to module-based instruction, and the content is well thought out and beneficial.

Reviewed by Diane Kauppi, Library Faculty, Technical Services & Systems, Ruth A Myers Library at Fond du Lac Tribal & Community College on 2/1/18

The text did a great job of covering the subject and the table of contents were laid out well. The content was well thought out. read more

The text did a great job of covering the subject and the table of contents were laid out well. The content was well thought out.

I found the accuracy to be good. The content is a good representation of what a student needs to know in order better understanding library research.

The content itself is good & should stand the test of time for the near future. The only exception is that even though it's only one year from the publishing date (2016) many of the links are broken. And I would have preferred a OER text that was geared more generally for application to any institution vs. the inclusion of OSU specific references, links, resources.

For a text written to a 4-year university/college audience the text was good. For a 2-year community college audience some of the terminology would need to be defined.

I found the consistency to be good. It followed through each section with including tips, activities, etc.

I think the modularity was good. And the text could easily be broken down into smaller sections to be used as units by themselves or refresher units. The only issue would be where there are links within a module that link to other modules. Add to this that these links didn't work-- I rec'd errors each time I tried a module link.

The overall organization and flow as great. As stated on p 6 ("... as though you are conducting a research project while reading them [the sections]...") this made my logical side happy.

I like the links to activities for students to practice the skills being taught. The problem though was that many of the links no longer work. Additionally, many of the links are to areas not available to users who are not affiliated with OSU. And as mentioned in another review section, module links to other modules didn't work either.

I found the grammar to be quite good with only a few exceptions or where it was clunky at times.

I thought the text was neutral in this area. Nothing that blatantly jumped out at me.

I appreciated the link to application of research to other areas of our lives outside of academic research. I try to get this point across to students, especially when they are hesitant and resistant to library research. I found the "tips" & "summaries" to be a nice added 'pop' & easy for referring back to later. I liked the bold letters/words for emphasis. And the suggestion to "brush up" on p 31 was a nice touch vs outwardly assuming they don't know. The downloadable templates are a great resource for students. Overall, I found the text to be a good resource.

Reviewed by Kristine Roshau, Instructional Technology Specialist and PT Faculty Librarian, Central Oregon Community College on 8/15/17

This text is extensive! Like the title suggests, it truly is a full guide to academic research, from developing a topic, finding sources, and using them appropriately. It also follows the logical order of the search process, from identifying an... read more

This text is extensive! Like the title suggests, it truly is a full guide to academic research, from developing a topic, finding sources, and using them appropriately. It also follows the logical order of the search process, from identifying an information need, evaluating source quality (and purpose), and how to perform complex searches. It also highlights several common areas where academic research can be performed, from the college library catalog to specialized databases and how to find academic sources on the free web.

The book also covers what to do once sources have been found, including the importance of properly citing sources, ethical use of source material, and how to cite unusual or non-standard source material. It then moves into addressing the writing process: developing an argument and idea, writing tips, and a large section on copyright, fair use, creative commons, and public domain.

The table of contents is very granular, which is helpful. The sections vary in length, but given the overall size of the book (190 pages) having a very specific TOC is useful when returning to the text as a reference source.

I did not find any objectionable or questionable content. The authors have done a good job of selecting examples for each section (often with associated online activities or examples linked out to the web) that are varied and unbiased, but also represent realistic examples of what students might be encountering during their research process. I was really pleased when looking through the section on citing sources - styles can change, but the book is written in such a way as to be comprehensive about the purpose of citing sources, and links out to many helpful web sources, citation tools, etc so the information will remain accurate in the textbook even if the style guides themselves are updated in the future.

The section on copyright is similarly done.

See previous note - it is clear the authors have taken care to include examples that will remain relevant, not evaporate into popular culture, and provide flexibility where the content may be updated or changes (such as copyright law and citation style guides). They do provide a LOT of external links and activities, not all produced by Ohio State. So it's possible that some of their links may break in the future. It does appear that they have made an effort to either link to open sources they control, or which are unlike to change significantly (ie: government websites).

If I were using this text, I would probably modify some of the resource sections (eg: databases) to reflect those that the students at my institution have access to, though the writers do make a point of identifying OSU access-only resources where applicable. I would also update the copyright/plagiarism section to include our college's student handbook blurbs, etc.

The tone is extremely approachable in all of the areas I checked. This is extremely important in academic research where there are a lot of areas of possible legal entanglement, and the authors have done a credible job of breaking down complex concepts into approachable prose and examples.

The textbook is consistent in both writing and structure; however, I do with the table of contents was split into sections in the same way the content is. Page numbers are given though, so that's not really a big deal. There were one or two places where I saw formatting errors, but nothing overly distracting - it did not adversely effect the content.

It is visually appealing and for the most part, easy to navigate. No huge blocks of text, and it also intersperses activities, tips, and examples. The text is also organized in such a way that it can be used as a reference, without needing to be read from start to finish in order to make sense, which is helpful for the researcher who may need to pop in for just pieces of the work.

However, there is a strong presence of external sources (often OSU library webpages) and activities that are linked out of the text. The writing itself is certainly standalone, but the book would lose a lot of its character if it were printed and not viewed digitally. I would have liked a References or bibliographic section that listed some of these resources, but there wasn't one, meaning the user would not be able to search for the resource if the linked text didn't work.

I can see the potential for too many asides for activities to be distracting, but they are generally held to the end of their relevant sections, so it wasn't too overwhelming. The organization follows a logical research process, walking the reader through from beginning to end.

As mentioned before, there are a few places where it looks like images have distorted the intended formatting, pushing items to empty pages, etc. But these instances are rare. A few of the images could be higher resolution, but they were certainly legible (and I was viewing this text at 125% zoom on a larger screen, so my experience is probably not representative of every reader).

It is long though, and I would have loved to be able to jump to sections through anchor bookmarks in the content page - that would be a nice touch.

I also found a few broken links, which is not totally surprising, given the volume of them in this book.

None noticed in this review.

No objectionable content found - the authors have chosen inclusive examples wherever possible, while remaining realistic about subjects students might be researching.

Not all of the links to activities are self-describing (there are no plain URLs, but many of the activity links contain the same 'Open Activity in Web Browser' text, which would be confusing if a user was navigating with a screen reader.

Reviewed by Deborah Finkelstein, Adjunct Professor, George Mason University on 6/20/17

The book is very comprehensive. The authors consistently explain concepts well and provide easy-to-understand examples that are approachable for the undergraduate audience. For example, the authors don’t just say, “narrow down your source,” they... read more

The book is very comprehensive. The authors consistently explain concepts well and provide easy-to-understand examples that are approachable for the undergraduate audience. For example, the authors don’t just say, “narrow down your source,” they go through steps to narrow it down, walking students through the process. (p 9) Very thorough. They also spend a page and a half giving examples of “Regular Question” vs. “Research Question.” (p 13-14) This ensures that students will understand the difference. They also do well with explaining fact vs. option, objective vs. subjective, primary vs. secondary vs. tertiary sources, popular vs. professional vs. scholarly magazines, when to quote vs. paraphrase vs. summarize, and other concepts that are critical to performing research.

The book does not have an index. The table of contents is quite thorough and very useful in understanding the breakdown of the book or locating certain topics.

The book is error-free.

There are many digital examples in the text. As long as authors make updates as technology inevitably changes in the future, the book should remain relevant.

The book has a conversational tone that is connective, trustworthy, and approachable for the undergraduate audience. This makes it easy to read and easy to understand.

The book is very consistent with tone, and terminology.

In the introduction, the book encourages students to “jump around a bit in this guide to meet your needs.” (p 5). The book stays true to this idea. Students could read the book straight through, but it is well-designed for “jumping around.” The sections stand alone, and instructors could easily assign sections in the book out of order. This book could be used as the only textbook in a classroom, or an instructor could use these modules to supplement an existing textbook. Topics are easily found in the book thanks to an excellent table of contents, a clear organizational structure, and a great use of headers.

The book is well-organized and follows a logical structure. Individual topics are also well-organized. The authors break processes into step-by-step, making is easy for students to learn.

Great use of visual aids. For example, there is a chart on how to narrow down research topic (p 9), and a chart on the roles of resources in research (p 179). These items are great for visual learners, and they make the text come alive while emphasizing important concepts.

The book shares links to outside sources. This provides students that would like more information that is beyond the book with resources. It additionally provides students links to activities, such as one that asks them if a source is primary, secondary, or tertiary (p 34). On occasion, it links to outside companies, such as citation management software, news outlets, and social media, making the book a resource. In this way, the book utilizes the medium of a digital book.

The book is free of grammatical errors.

The book is culturally sensitive. The book is designed for Ohio University students. Examples given occasionally apply to Ohio, such as when the authors are providing examples of newspapers, they list two out of six that are from Ohio, including the campus newspaper (p 43) There is also a link to the OSU Libraries’ newspaper database (p 44), and when talking about citation management software, they mention the three that are available at OSU. It’s not a large enough issue that one should not use the book; it’s still easy to understand, but it is a limitation and worth mentioning to students.

I teach a 300-level English class on performing research and writing research papers. I plan to utilize this book next semester due to the excellent organization of modules, the approachable tone, and the great explanations and examples.

Reviewed by Constance Chemay, Head of Public Services, Library Services; Asst. Professor, User Instruction, River Parishes Community College, Gonzales, LA on 6/20/17

The book does an excellent job covering the subject, and even goes beyond what its title suggests, with chapters on writing and formulating an argument. The chapters on copyright and fair use are exceptional. However, it lacks both a glossary and... read more

The book does an excellent job covering the subject, and even goes beyond what its title suggests, with chapters on writing and formulating an argument. The chapters on copyright and fair use are exceptional. However, it lacks both a glossary and an index. Some terms are defined in their appropriate chapters, but not all. Some students, particularly first-year or those who may be enrolled in developmental courses, would benefit greatly from a glossary. The activities, while appropriate for their contexts, are mixed in their effectiveness; some provide good feedback with clarification, but most offer little more than a smiley face for a correct answer or an “x” for a wrong answer with no other feedback.

For the most part, this book is accurate and unbiased, but one area where I noticed discrepancies is the chapter on citing sources. MLA released its 8th edition in April 2016, yet the examples provided are 7th edition. I also noticed errors in the example for APA; only the first word, proper nouns, and those following major punctuation marks are to be capitalized in article titles following APA formating guidelines. Regarding bias, the book is unbiased; however, I disagree with the discussion of news sources regarding mainstream versus non-mainstream (or mainline as used in the text); main-stream media includes "traditional" sources, e.g., television, newspapers, and radio, as opposed to online sources, especially social media. The authors’ inclusion of Fox News, a right-leaning national television news network, a contemporary of CBS, NBC, and ABC, as non-mainline rather than mainline shows bias, in my opinion. It’s difficult to find news from any news source, mainstream or not, right, left or center, that doesn’t have some bias or opinions in its reporting.

This textbook itself is written so that it will be relevant for a long time. However, there are some exceptions. The discussion of citation styles uses examples for MLA that reflect the 7th edition rather than the 8th, which was released in April 2016. The book covers this discrepancy somewhat with its tip regarding choosing a citation style, with its remarks that styles do change and its recommendation to check with one’s instructors. Another issue is the potential for link rot regarding external websites; in fact there are a few dead links in the text and activities already. A couple of online resources mentioned and linked to, IPL2 and the Statistical Abstracts of the US, have been retired for at least a couple of years, which makes me wonder about when the book was actually last reviewed edited.

The book is well-written, easy to read, conversational. Most technical language is defined and used appropriately.

This book is consistent in terms of its terminology and framework.

This book is extremely modular in its organization at the chapter level and within the chapters. It can be easily reordered to meet specific course or instructor needs. It does refer to other sections of the text, but these references are appropriate, emphasizing more in-depth information elsewhere in the book. Sections that are unique to OSU can be replaced/revised to make the text relevant to other institutions as needed.

It is well organized and reflects the processes and stages of research. While the research process is not linear, the topics are presented in a logical manner that guides students through the process. I did note that a couple of sections in chapter 7, on ethical use of sources don’t really seem to fit there, however. The paragraphs on page 118 discussing a lack of understanding of the materials and lack of time might fit better in other chapters.

While the online version works well, the PDF format has issues. Some of the in-text navigation links work (the TOC links) while others found throughout the text don’t, often giving an “error: unknown export format” message. There are also a few dead links in both the online and PDF formats, as well as in some of the online activities. Some links direct users to OSU Libraries’ resources, either their catalog or their licensed databases, but not all such links are clearly identified as such.

Grammatical Errors rating: 3

For the most part, this text is well-written, grammatically; however, it does have a few grammatical/typographical errors, possibly more than one might expect from a text of this length, and assuming that the author is most likely a committee rather than an individual, more eyes reviewing the text should catch such errors. There are also instances of tense inconsistencies, shifting from present to past in the same sentence. Two paragraphs on page 47, under “Finding Data in Articles . . .,” repeat the same four sentences verbatim in different order. This occurs again on page 88. While these are not grammatical errors, they are certainly editorial errors. Most of the online activities have typos, as well, more so than the textbook.

This textbook is not culturally insensitive or offensive.

I do like this book. I think it puts the topic in terms that students can readily use and understand. I'd even recommend the chapters on copyright and fair use to faculty! I do think that it could benefit from the inclusion of a glossary and an index, as well as regular and frequent review, especially in regards to the linked resources. The PDF version definitely needs revisions since it seems that most of the in-text referral links throughout the text don’t work. Since it is tailored to OSU’s library resources, any instruction librarian using the book can substitute content relevant to his/her institution; non-library faculty using the text can consult their own librarians for help with this.

Reviewed by Dawn Kennedy, Ed.S, Health Education, Anoka-Ramsey Community College on 4/11/17

Choosing &amp; Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research serves as an excellent guide for teaching the research process. It takes the learner through the process of academic research and writing in an easy to understand manner. As an educator... read more

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research serves as an excellent guide for teaching the research process. It takes the learner through the process of academic research and writing in an easy to understand manner. As an educator in a community college setting, I am working with students who are new to the research process. This text will be useful when working with students to start developing the appropriate process of research writing. The text has neither a back-of-the-book index nor a glossary. It is beneficial that key terms are defined throughout the chapters.

The information presented in the text is accurate at this point in time and unbiased. One concern is that some of The information presented in the text is accurate at this point in time and unbiased. One concern is that some of the links do not work.

Content is up-to-date at this point in time. Most examples and exercises are arranged separately from the main text and can be updated as needed. Some of the content links to the Ohio State University Libraries databases which may not be assessable to students outside that institution.

This text is clearly written, well-illustrated, and user-friendly for the undergraduate audience. It avoids technical jargon and provides definitions where appropriate.

Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research is consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

Regarding the book’s modularity, users of this text can be selective in chapter choice. In this sense the text is useful to instructors and students who wish to focus on a single component and /or use the text as a reference. For a better understanding of the research process in its entirety, reading the text in the order written may prove to be more beneficial.

The text's organization mirrors the research process in a logical, clear manner. Chapters 1-8 lead the reader through the basics of research literacy and research skills; chapters nine and ten explain the process for making an argument and writing tips; Subsequent chapters zero in on copyright and Fair Use information. Key concepts and points are supported with highlights, examples and colorful illustrations.

The text displays generous use of visuals which are clear and free of distortion. The activities provided support the concepts and skills being addressed and are easy to navigate. One concern is the activities which are linked to Ohio State University may not provide access to all, resulting in limited access of information and frustration for the reader.

• The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

This is a text does an excellent job of explaining the research process in a logical manner. The text uses examples, illustrations, and skill practice to support the learning process. I recommend this text for use in it's entirely for teaching and learning the research process and as a resource for the rest of us.

Reviewed by Scott Miller, Reference and Instruction Librarian, Rogue Community College on 4/11/17

The book is very comprehensive and even goes beyond what might be expected in this kind of textbook. Along with choosing and using sources, the authors include a section on making an argument. Topics are dealt with appropriately and the text... read more

The book is very comprehensive and even goes beyond what might be expected in this kind of textbook. Along with choosing and using sources, the authors include a section on making an argument. Topics are dealt with appropriately and the text employs tests and activities along the way. I found some of the activities were not particularly well designed and sometimes answers to questions were based on assumptions by the authors as to context that in real life may or may not be appropriate. For instance, they claim that the periodical/journal title "Coral Reefs" is a scholarly journal, but judging by the title alone in a real life exercise there is no way to know whether it is scholarly or popular in nature.

There could have been more discussion about context and how it defines whether a sources is primary, secondary or tertiary. '

What the this textbook does not have is any kind of index or glossary, which I found disappointing.

I did not find any instances of inaccuracies in the text. I did find, however, some assumptions in the text that were not always warranted. I took issue with the assumption that mainline news sources are objective (p. 42). It is very clear that news articles are often biased. I think telling students that mainline news sources are objective effectively disarms instead of promotes critical thinking by students doing research.

On page 126 there is a discussion about using quotations where the authors say that all quotes are to be put within quotation marks. This is not true of block quotes in MLA or APA style and they omit any mention of it.

This textbook should retain its relevancy for several years, but it will lose its effectiveness very soon, since many of the dozens and dozens of links in the text will surely break before long. In the short term the links are a great feature, but they do severely limit the longevity of the book. I also found them annoyingly pervasive.

It should also be noted that the MLA citation example on page 122 uses the outdated MLA 7th edition guidelines.

Overall, I thought the book was very clearly written and easy to follow. The one section I struggled reading was the section on sources and information need. It seemed to want much more editing and was often wordy and almost obscure.

I did not notice any lack of consistency in terminology or framework.

This is one the book's strengths. It was clearly organized into topics and subtopics which sometimes could be addressed in an order chosen by an instructor. There were, however, occasional self-references to earlier sections or previously used external sources.

Moving from the simpler aspects of choosing and evaluating sources to the more complex uses of them and how arguments are constructed made good sense.

Interface rating: 2

I found the interface to have significant problems. At least a dozen links would not work from the PDF text when opened in Firefox. I often got the message, "error: unknown export format." The links seemed to work when viewing the text online, however.

The textbook's usefulness outside of Ohio State is severely limited by the frequent use of sources only available through OSU student logins. The textbook was written for OSU students, but it really fails as a textbook for any other institution unless it is significantly modified.

I found a few missing punctuation marks, and only two missing or wrong words in sentences. For a textbook this long, that's very good.

The textbook used interesting and non-offensive examples.

While it's a good textbook for choosing and using information sources it suffers from being too specifically written for OSU students, as well as including an overabundance of links that will reduce its longevity. Not including any kind of index or glossary is also a drawback.

Reviewed by Vanessa Ruccolo, Advanced Instructor of English, Virginia Tech on 2/8/17

Ch. 1 has a great overview of regular versus research questions and the difference between qualitative and quantitative research. Ch. 2 covers primary, secondary, and tertiary sources as well as popular, professional, and scholarly. Ch. 3... read more

Ch. 1 has a great overview of regular versus research questions and the difference between qualitative and quantitative research. Ch. 2 covers primary, secondary, and tertiary sources as well as popular, professional, and scholarly. Ch. 3 includes a source plan (i.e. what do you need the sources for and what is your plan). Ch. 4 gives tips and hints for searching on a library database. Ch. 5 gives different search options, like the library or Google Scholar. Ch. 6 is all about evaluating the sources you find, including clues about sussing out bias and thoroughness, as well as discussing currency of topic. Ch. 7 discusses why you should cite sources. Ch. 8 discusses ways to cite sources. Ch. 9 is looking at argument as dialog and what is necessary in that exchange and a recommended order of components. Ch. 10 covers quoting, paraphrasing,and summarizing and signal phrases. Ch. 11, 12 are copyright and fair use. Ch. 13 covers the roles or research.

I will use Ch. 1 and 2 in my classes, as I think the breakdown of research is useful and clear. Ch. 3 also has useful imbedded tools that will help students plan; Ch. 4 and 5 might be used as references post-library visit. I will also use Ch. 6 and Ch. 10.

I think the information provided for distinguishing scholarly, popular, and professional is helpful and I hope the resources help students understand good, reliable sources a bit better. The same is true for searching for sources, and I think the sections on search engines and evaluation of sources are going to be quite useful.

While the information on copyright, fair use, and why and ways to cite sources is fine, I won't be using these for my English classes as I find them not as helpful or relevant.

I think the book is quite accurate in terms of information provided. They use sources that both I and my students use, so clearly the book is addressing real needs in the classroom. It also makes suggestions that reinforce the concepts our librarians share with the students and instructors, so I find this to be extremely helpful.

The book suggests Purdue OWL, a source I also use; however, I realized this year that OWL was behind in updating some of the MLA citation changes. So that's something maybe for the book authors to note or address when recommending websites.

With that said, I think the book covers key specifics like university library websites, Google Scholar, and search engines, in broad enough terms to keep it relevant. Also, the graphics are simple and not dated, and there is one drawing of the "outernet" that shows what social media, Youtube, etc. would look like in the "real, outer" world. This drawing is the only thing I saw that might be dated soon, but its point is still solid.

Very easy to read, clear terminology and explanation of terms, and lists are also provided to help break up each page's prose, which means the information is presented in a visually clear form as well.

I think the consistency of terminology as well as the scaffolding makes sense on the whole. I didn't seem places where the language changed or seemed to have several writers or definitions.

Perhaps one of the best parts of this book is how each chapter is contained, succinct, includes an activity, but still builds on and with the other chapters. Each chapter is stand-alone and clear and easy to read online, or if you chose to print it. The creators clearly had the online reader in mind, however, and the chapter lengths and fonts are comfortable.

Overall, I like the organization, specifically for chapters 10-6. I would change the order of the final chapters so that Ch. 9 and 10 come before Ch. 7, 8, 11, 12. I would also move Ch. 13 "The Roles of Research" to earlier in the book, perhaps around Ch. 3 or Ch. 6. If I use these materials, I will reorder some of the chapters for my class so that the scaffolding and explanations work a bit more side by side.

Again, comfortable, easy-to-read pages, simple graphics and the charts used are helpful and appropriate. I especially appreciated that the authors didn't use images that showed people or figures that could both date the book and also make students feel talked down to - I hate images like this and refuse to use textbooks that incorporate them, so kudos!

Additional resources are easy to access.

I wish the email option (for sending yourself a page) pulled up a screen in which I could type the email I wanted it sent to. Instead, it pulls up Messenger, which I don't use.

The Table of Contents didn't let me jump to the chapter when I pulled down the menu. Was that just my computer/browser?

Now, I didn't read through as though I was grading (it is winter break, after all!) but nothing jumped off the page. If something had, if there had been a mistake, I would still use the text; if there had been several, I would have considered abandoning it for class. However, the information is still so good I i might have told my students to find the grammar mistakes as part of an assignment just so that I could use the research parts still; however, I didn't not see any.

No, nothing. Perhaps if the authors include more examples for citations they could pull from culturally different sources then, but the material here was so broad in terms of textual sources it was in no way exclusive.

I will be using parts of this book in my English classes. Well done to the authors - a helpful, free supplement.

Reviewed by Dale Jenkins, Advanced Instructor, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University (Virginia Tech) on 2/8/17

Having taught freshmen how to write college research papers for the past 18 years, I gave the text high marks on addressing all of the key elements college students need to engage in academic research. read more

Having taught freshmen how to write college research papers for the past 18 years, I gave the text high marks on addressing all of the key elements college students need to engage in academic research.

The text implements content from a host of sources which is extremely useful, but the grammar needs a few tweaks.

This represents a strong aspect of the text. The writers did a good job of winnowing out unnecessary components of the research process, although my freshmen would not delve into the Fair Use and Copyright chapters.

The book gets outstanding marks on clarity. Students will find this to be a definite strength of the text.

The authors did a good job with consistency. I kept my students in mind as I evaluated this aspect of the text.

Students would find this book extremely accessible in terms of modularity. I don't see them being overwhelmed by the text or high-brow jargon.

I noted a logical progression to all thirteen of the chapters. Students in upper-level classes would find the chapters on Fair Use and Copyright more significant in their academic studies.

The hyperlinks and the interactive elements of the book will be extremely appealing to students as well as being substantive.

The book still needs some work in this regard. Pronouns don't always agree with the antecedents, and I noted several shifts in voice in the text.

The text doesn't have any instances of cultural insensitivity, and I pay close attention to this aspect of textbooks when I peruse them for potential use in my courses.

The hyperlinks, using different types of media, and the chapters on "Why Precision Searching?" and the discussion of plagiarism proved to be well-crafted and accessible for students. I also commend the authors for the lack of jargon that would leave students in its wake.

Reviewed by Jarrod Dunham, Instructor - English Composition, Portland Community College on 2/8/17

A very comprehensive guide to the writing of the research paper. I've taught research writing for several years, and this book covers all the material I'd typically cover in a class. Previously I've not used a textbook in that class, but I'm... read more

A very comprehensive guide to the writing of the research paper. I've taught research writing for several years, and this book covers all the material I'd typically cover in a class. Previously I've not used a textbook in that class, but I'm teaching an online section this term and find that the book offers a very effective substitute for the lectured and activities I'd otherwise be presenting in class.

This text is accurate and up-to-date with the most recent developments and issues in the field.

This text is very much up-to-date. It shows an awareness of changing conventions in academic writing, and emphasizes the latest technological tools for researching and managing citations. It frequently links to outside resources, which could be problematic in the event those resources were removed or relocated, but in practice I never encountered such an issue.

Clarity is one of the book's strengths. It is written in clear, simple, and concise prose, resisting the kind of "academese" that is frequently employed in textbooks and gives students a false impression of what academic writing should look like. I found all of the content very easy to understand, and, although it's intended for slightly more advanced classes, accessible for Freshman writing students.

The text is highly consistent, both in terms of the terminology it employs, its organizational structure, and its systematic incorporation of tips, learning activities, and quizzes.

The book is divided into 13 chapters, each of which addresses particular aspects of research writing and can be employed on its own, or in conjunction with other related chapters. I found that assigning chapters in order was generally perfectly appropriate, although there was no issue with assigning the odd chapter out of order - links to previous or later content are provided where appropriate, so students can easily navigate to other relevant sections of the text.

This text is very nicely organized. It moves from the beginning stages of the pre-writing process - choosing a topic and identifying appropriate guiding questions - through the research to the writing of the paper itself. I found that the organizational structure of the text very closely mirrored the structure I use myself in teaching research writing. As such, adopting this text for the course (and adapting the course to the text) was a delightfully straightforward exercise.

The interface of the text is excellent. It is very easy to navigate, very attractive, and all tools work as intended. Some features are only available to those with Ohio State University log-ins, which yields a handful of frustrating moments, but in general I didn't find this to be a significant issue.

The text is error free and written in a simple, accessible, and engaging style. It's not merely an easy read, but one that effectively models clear and concise academic prose for writing students.

To the extent such issues come into play, the text is inclusive and culturally sensitive. The content of the text is mostly neutral on such issues - they simply tend not to come into play - but I was pleased to find a comprehensive chapter on the ethical use of sources, which introduces an ethical dimension to the research and writing process that many students may not anticipate or otherwise be prepared to navigate.

Overall I was quite pleased with this text. In my online section of Research Paper Writing, I have assigned nine of the thirteen chapters, and am very pleased with the breadth of content covered thereby. With one exception, I've been able to assign those chapters in the order they appear in the book, which simplified the planning process for myself, and offers a structure to the course that will be more readily apparent to my students as well. Late chapters on Copyrights Basics and Fair Use struck me as unnecessary and a little off topic, but it is of course easy to simply not assign those chapters, and since this is not a print book they have no bearing on materials costs.

For an online class like the one I am currently teaching, this is an excellent primary text. Even in a face-to-face class it could prove to be a very useful supplemental text. Normally I resist the use of supplemental texts in face-to-face classes, but since this one is free it is ideal for that purpose: instructors and students can simply rely on it to whatever extent feels useful.

Reviewed by Jennifer Lantrip, Reference Librarian, Umpqua Community College on 2/8/17

This book is an excellent source for guiding undergraduate students through the research process, from understanding the purposes for doing research and writing a research question, to composing a thesis and contributing to a scholarly... read more

This book is an excellent source for guiding undergraduate students through the research process, from understanding the purposes for doing research and writing a research question, to composing a thesis and contributing to a scholarly conversation. Students learn where and how to find relevant sources and how to evaluate and use them ethically. The main text is supplemented with links to useful resources, videos, worksheets, examples, and exercises. These are all high quality sources, making this a comprehensive resource for teaching information literacy and the research process. While no index or glossary is provided, terms are well defined within the text. Links are provided to other sections within the text where terms are further discussed.

The content is error-free, unbiased, and accurate. Ideas and concepts are in accordance with the Association of College and Research Libraries’ “Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education,” with the exception of several small sections that could easily be clarified or adapted.

The opening section of Chapter 3 states that researchers should find sources in order to meet their information needs. However, it states that one information need is “to convince your audience that your answer is correct or, at least, the most reasonable answer.” This should be clarified for students so that they understand that they should start their research with an open mind as opposed to looking for sources which support their predetermined thesis.

The section “The Sources to Meet Needs” in Chapter 3 states that convincing one’s audience is an information need and that students should find sources based upon what their audience would be convinced by. Researchers should not choose their sources based upon what would convince their audience, but rather upon what sources best answer their research question. The most relevant and highest quality sources should not be omitted from the research process because the researcher does not think that his/her audience would be convinced by them. It is part of the researcher’s job to educate and convince his/her audience why the chosen sources and the research are relevant and of high quality.

Chapter 13 mentions briefly, “Putting your sources to work for you in these roles can help you write in a more powerful, persuasive way—to, in fact, win your argument.” It is very important for researchers to make convincing arguments through using quality sources, doing quality research, and presenting the information in an understandable way. Students should understand that the goal of scholarly conversation is not to “win” arguments, but rather to contribute to the world’s shared knowledge. While one argument may hold for a time, it will most likely be refined in some way by future researchers.

The main content of each chapter is current and does not contain terms that will soon be outdated. Specific examples and exercises are arranged separately from the main chapter text and can be updated independently. Some of the content discusses and links to Ohio State University Libraries databases which are unavailable to students at other institutions. While some of this knowledge is transferable, the specific information about these databases is unique to OSU Libraries. It would be useful if this information could be generalized in the main flow of the text so that it would be applicable for students at other institutions.

This text is very readable and easy to understand. Concepts are explained clearly. Exercises and examples are provided to help students grasp each new concept. It is written in a casual tone that appears to make an effort to put its readers at ease while giving solid information about how to complete research and writing assignments successfully.

The terminology used in this book and its framework are consistent. Each chapter, chapter sections, examples, and exercises are organized in a consistent manner throughout the book, making it easy to follow. Students can refer to specific sections of the book or read it straight through. Because links are provided to sections of the book where important terms are defined or discussed further, students can easily jump to relevant sections of the book.

The book is divided into chapters and subsections which lead the reader seamlessly and logically through the research process. The book could easily be assigned to be read linearly, but it would also work well for instructors to assign specific chapters as applicable to the course content.

This book takes students through the research process in logical steps, from choosing and refining research questions, to producing and sharing what they have learned. For students who are unfamiliar with the research process, it would be most useful to read the book linearly as each chapter prepares students for future chapters.

This text is easy to navigate in both the PDF and online versions. Images are clear. There are currently no broken links. The contents in the PDF version could be made clearer by making a greater distinction between the main chapter and chapter section titles.

The text has negligible grammatical errors.

This text is not culturally insensitive or offensive.

I highly recommend this book for teaching information literacy and the research process to undergraduates.

Reviewed by Patricia Akhimie, Asst. Prof of English, Rutgers University-Newark on 2/8/17

This textbook does not include an index or glossary but is full-text searchable, returning a an easy to read and access menu of clickable search results to take readers directly to the desired information. In addition, an expandable Table of... read more

This textbook does not include an index or glossary but is full-text searchable, returning a an easy to read and access menu of clickable search results to take readers directly to the desired information. In addition, an expandable Table of Contents for the book is available as a tab so that readers can view an overview of topics and jump to other sections at any time. This textbook offers a review of research methods that is certainly comprehensive. Instructors will likely find that individual sections, rather than the whole work, are most useful in planning lessons and constructing student assignments in research based and writing intensive courses at the undergraduate level.

This textbook is accurate in its representation of research methods and of the reasoning behind these approaches. In addition, details about citation styles, and search tools, seem error-free. Treatments of the more complex aspects of research, such as constructing an argument, are unbiased and thorough.

The textbook should be useful to students and instructors for some time. It should be noted, however, that research software and citation styles are updated, though infrequently. Thus, the video walkthroughs of particular databases, for example, may be obsolete or misleading after some time.

This textbook is remarkably lucid and approachable for undergraduate readers. Discussions of complex ideas are illustrated with useful graphics that readers and instructors will find particularly helpful. The video walkthroughs are perhaps the most attractive illustrations for instructors. These guides will be appealing and easy to use for students intimidated by large databases and their idiosyncrasies.

The textbook is immanently usable. It is consistent in its tone as well as in its use of terms.

It is clear that this textbook has been designed with modularity in mind. Individual sections will be more useful than others, depending on the type and level of the class. In addition, sections can easily be assigned at different points over the course of a semester. For example, sections might be assigned at intervals that reflect the stages of the development of undergraduate student’s independent research paper. The section on formulating research questions might appear early in the semester, the section on citation styles toward the end.

The organization of the book reflects the stages of research. This means that navigating the textbook will be intuitive.

Navigating this textbook will be intuitive, the Table of Contents tab makes moving between sections very easy.

Readers will find the textbook free of simple typos and errors.

Readers will find the textbook inclusive. Some readers may find that the attempt made in the textbook to speak to research in the humanities, social sciences and sciences has meant that discussions can be vague at times but this is to be expected in a textbook on this topic aimed at a broad range of readers and researchers.

Reviewed by Heather Jerónimo, Assistant Professor, University of Northern Iowa on 2/8/17

This text is a comprehensive review of the various types of sources one might need to complete a research project or paper. The book begins with a clear explanation of how to formulate a research question, while the majority of the chapters focus... read more

This text is a comprehensive review of the various types of sources one might need to complete a research project or paper. The book begins with a clear explanation of how to formulate a research question, while the majority of the chapters focus on finding and evaluating sources. The topics in this text are well-chosen and reflect several aspects of academic writing in which beginning researchers might struggle, such as how to do a precision search, understanding biased versus unbiased sources, and how to decide between quoting or paraphrasing. This book is written at a level that undergraduates should easily be able to comprehend, while the content of the chapters gets increasingly detailed and complex throughout the book. There is no index or glossary at the back of the book, but there is a very complete table of contents at the beginning of the text. Readers might find it useful if the chapter titles in the table of contents were in bold, as the detailed breakdown of sections—while helpful—can be overwhelming when one is looking for the main categories of the book.

The text provides helpful and unbiased examples for how to do research in many different areas. The practice activities relate quite well to the content of the chapters, although some links do not work. One of the strengths of the text is its applicability in a general sense to many different types of research.

In most chapters the information is kept very general, allowing the text to enjoy relative longevity, as the process of how to conduct academic research, cite quotes, etc., likely will not change drastically in the near future. For example, in the section on databases, different types of databases are explained, but the author does not reference many specific databases to which students may or may not have access. With an understanding of the concept, students then are equipped to find the databases that pertain to their field and that are offered by their institutions. There are several references to Ohio State throughout the text that will not be helpful to all readers, but they do not impede the reader’s comprehension of the text.

It is a very readable text, written at a level that makes it easily accessible to undergraduate students. The author has avoided jargon that would be confusing to the readers.

Even though the book gives examples of various types of research and sources, it maintains a high level of consistency throughout.

The chapters are clearly divided in a way that allows the reader the option to skip between chapters or to read the chapters in succession. This text could be put to a variety of uses within the classroom. As an instructor, one could use it as a primary text for a Research Methods or Composition class. One could also suggest that students read only certain sections in a class that was not primarily focused on the writing of research papers but that had a research component. This text is a valuable how-to manual that students can reference throughout their academic journey.

The text has a logical organization and flow. The book transitions from more basic information at the beginning to more specialized knowledge in later chapters, allowing students to gradually become more immersed in the topic. The structure permits students to read the text from cover to cover, or to read only the information and chapters about which they are curious. The activities serve as good checkpoints to assess students’ knowledge and break up longer readings.

The interface of the text is easy to manage and does not distract from the content. The placement and accessibility of the activities provide quick and easy checks to assess whether students have understood the concepts of the chapters. The images support the text and are linked closely to the message.

There are few grammatical errors in this text.

The text is not culturally insensitive or offensive. Like many textbooks, it could be more intentional in its inclusion of a variety of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds, perhaps in the examples or practice activities.

Reviewed by Dr. William Vann, Information Studies Faculty, Minneapolis Community and Technical College on 12/5/16

While there is neither a back-of-the-book index nor a compiled glossary in this outstanding textbook (key terms are defined, however, throughout the chapters), one cannot deny its comprehensiveness. In fact, this text covers so much ground it is... read more

While there is neither a back-of-the-book index nor a compiled glossary in this outstanding textbook (key terms are defined, however, throughout the chapters), one cannot deny its comprehensiveness. In fact, this text covers so much ground it is unlikely to be used in its entirety for any single college course. Information literacy and research skills courses will find the first eight chapters to be a robust introduction to their subject matter, replete with interactive activities and auto-graded assessments. Composition courses engaged in research-based writing will likely work through the first eight chapters selectively, but then dwell on chapters nine and ten on argument formation and writing. Such courses may also benefit from the excellent chapter thirteen on Joseph Bizup's BEAM method of deploying research sources in scholarly communication. Chapters eleven and twelve on copyright and fair use, respectively, are likely to be used only by advanced undergraduates, faculty, and professional librarians, but they do serve as a handy reference nonetheless.

All of the chapters of this textbook contain authoritative and accurate information, in line with national information literacy standards and sound pedagogical methods for composition and critical thinking. The only section of the text I took issue with was the "Fact or Opinion" part of the second chapter, where the authors try to distinguish between fact, opinion, subjective information, and objective information. The authors' attempt results in claims like "the death penalty is wrong" being rendered as opinions, while claims like "women should stock up on calcium to ensure strong bones" are judged to be subjective information. Facts and objective information are superior, on this way of thinking, because they are the result of research studies, particularly empirical, quantitative ones.

I suspect that this way of drawing the distinction would do little to challenge the naive relativism most undergraduates bring to the classroom. (How many of us, when analyzing a text with beginning undergraduates, have had to entertain the question "Isn't that just the author's opinion though?") A better approach would be to talk about claims that are empirically justified (facts), claims that are justified, but not empirically (value judgments - "x is wrong", prescriptive claims - "women should do x"), and claims that are not adequately justified by any means (opinions). In this way, answering a research question like "Is the death penalty unjust?" is not merely an exercise in subjective opinion-making, but rather an exploration of reasoned argumentation, only some of which may be empirical or based on research studies.

The text is current and will likely be so for some time. Examples, activities, and tips are marked off from the main chapter prose, so will be easy to refresh when necessary.

There is no lack of technical terms in the world of information studies, but this textbook does a fine job of providing definitions where appropriate in each chapter. Concepts and methods are explained in context, and illustrative, easy-to-follow examples adorn each chapter.

The only area of the text that falls a little short on clarity is the interactive activities. These are usually multiple choice or matching questions, but some of the word choice in questions left this reader confused, and in some cases the instructions could have been more explicit.

Being authored by committee, we might expect this textbook to suffer in the consistency category. Yet it does not, thanks again to the fine editing job by Cheryl Lowry. Perhaps the book's provenance as a series of online tutorials put together by librarians and faculty at OSU is partly responsible for this.

As the authors suggest on the first page, the research process isn't always linear. So reading a text modeled on the research process oughtn't to be a straightforward chapter-by-chapter march either. Consequently, faculty and students can comfortably read this text selectively and skip chapters as needed. For the most holistic understanding of the research process, however, it would be sensible to work through at least chapters one through eight in their entirety.

I appreciate how the text's organization mirrors the research process itself. The first chapter takes on research questions, exactly where student researchers need to begin their projects. Subsequent chapters explore types of information sources, how to find and evaluate them, and finally how to deploy them in a well-argued scholarly product. The writing in each chapter is clear and crisp, with important concepts amplified by colorful visualizations.

As mentioned above, the chapters on copyright and fair use which occur near the end of the book feel like a logical interruption to the book's flow, and they might well fit more comfortably as appendices for occasional reference by advanced undergraduates, faculty, and librarians.

The "look and feel" of this textbook is clean and very intuitive to navigate through. The design strikes a pleasing balance between prose, graphics, and special formatting features like the explanatory, grey-background "TIPS" found in each chapter. Subheadings, bulleted and ordered lists, and judicious font choices make the text easy to read in all its online file formats.

One weakness of the interface is that several of the linked activities point to OSU Libraries' resources, thus requiring OSU authentication to be accessed. While it is understandable that the authors wanted to include their libraries' proprietary information sources in the activities - these are the sources their students and faculty will be using in actual practice, after all - this obviously makes this text less of an "open" textbook. Those outside of the OSU community who would like to adopt this textbook will therefore have to come up with their own replacement activities in such cases, or do without.

A few of the links in the text did lead me to a curious OSU server error message: "Error: Unknown export format", but I expect these links will be repaired as they are reported to the authors.

This textbook has clearly been edited with careful eyes by Cheryl Lowry, as grammatical errors are few to none. The grammatical hygiene of the text can probably also be attributed to its collective authorship - over a dozen librarians and faculty of the Ohio State University Libraries developed the content, which was born out of a series of online tutorials.

This textbook is culturally relevant in its use of examples and depictions of college students.

This text is a substantial contribution to the open textbook movement, and its quality easily meets or exceeds anything comparable in the commercial publishing arena. Highly recommended.

Reviewed by Kelly McKenna, Assistant Professor, Colorado State University on 12/5/16

The book provides a thorough introduction and how to regarding sources in academic writing. With the exception of the first chapter on writing research questions, the rest of the book is focused on sources, which is relevant for any type of... read more

The book provides a thorough introduction and how to regarding sources in academic writing. With the exception of the first chapter on writing research questions, the rest of the book is focused on sources, which is relevant for any type of academic writing not just research papers. The information is relevant across disciplines and readable to a wide audience. It is clearly written for and geared towards undergraduate students, particularly from Ohio State University. The index is detailed making it easy to locate specific information and includes hyperlinks for clear navigation. A slightly altered index format would make the chapter topics more readily available and accessed. All subjects and chapters are aligned rather than clearly indicating each of the chapters found within the text.

Content throughout the book is accurate and clearly written. There does not appear to bias in reading the material. The book includes numerous resources linked throughout the text, however some are no longer active resulting in error messages.

Due to the significant number of links throughout the book, it is likely updates will be necessary on a consistent basis. These links are extremely beneficial, so ensuring they are accurate and up to date is essential to the content of this book. Much of the book reads as a "how to" regarding sources, so although practices for scholarly writing will likely not become obsolete the sources and technology used to locate the sources will evolve.

The informal tone of the text is engaging and applicable for the intended audience. The writers are aware of their audience, avoiding technical jargon. Also, throughout the book they provide numerous examples, resources, activities, and tips to provide insight and relevancy to students.

The structure of the book is clear and well organized with each chapter providing scaffolding for the next. Although the text is internally consistent regarding terminology there are formatting differences between and within some chapters. Blue boxes throughout the text contain tips, examples, answers, etc. Organization, readability, and consistency could be improved if these were constant throughout the text similar to the presentation of activities in the text.

Sections of the book could be easily assigned and read in isolation. Subsections of material are clearly marked and chapters are presented in organized fashion with clear delineation between segments. The inclusion of numerous activities, examples, resources, and tips improve modularity.

The book is created as a tool for students completing academic writing and follows this course. Topics contained in the book are presented in a clear and logical structure. As mentioned above, with exception of the first chapter, the material is relevant to all undergraduate academic writing, not just research.

The layout and display work well as a PDF or electronic book. Numerous visuals are included throughout and are free of distortion or other distracting or confusing issues. As mentioned above, the index could be improved by clearly articulating the subheadings as within a chapter.

The book contains minimal to no grammatical errors.

The book is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

Some sections of the book are specific to Ohio State University potentially limiting its relevancy and audience in specific chapters or sections.

Table of Contents

• 1. Research Questions
• 2. Types of Sources
• 3. Sources and Information Needs
• 4. Precision Searching
• 5. Search Tools
• 6. Evaluating Sources
• 7. Ethical Use of Sources
• 8. How to Cite Sources
• 9. Making an Argument
• 10. Writing Tips
• 11. Copyright Basics
• 12. Fair Use
• 13. Roles of Research Sources

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Choosing & Using Sources presents a process for academic research and writing, from formulating your research question to selecting good information and using it effectively in your research assignments. Additional chapters cover understanding types of sources, searching for information, and avoiding plagiarism. Each chapter includes self-quizzes and activities to reinforce core concepts and help you apply them. There are also appendices for quick reference on search tools, copyright basics, and fair use.

What experts are saying about Choosing & Using Sources: A Guide to Academic Research :

“…a really fantastic contribution that offers a much needed broadened perspective on the process of research, and is packed to the brim with all kinds of resources and advice on how to effectively use them. The chapter on plagiarism is really excellent, and the chapter on searching for sources is utterly brilliant.”

– Chris Manion, PhD Coordinator of Writing Across the Curriculum at Ohio State University

“… an excellent resource for students, with engaging content, graphics, and examples—very compelling. The coverage of copyright is outstanding.”

– J. Craig Gibson Co-chair of ACRL's Task Force on Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education

About the Contributors

Cheryl Lowry , training and education specialist, Ohio State University Libraries.

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• Locations and Hours
• UCLA Library
• Research Guides
• Research Tips and Tools

Advanced Research Methods

• What Is Research?

Skills and Abilities

What kind of new knowledge, critical reading, handbooks and guides on research methods.

• Library Research
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Writing the Research Paper
• Presenting the Research Paper

Research Methods

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This guide was originally designed and written by Katalin Radics.

Research Help

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Research: Systematic investigation of a subject in order to find something new

The most important ones:

• Curiosity, creativity
• Passion, focus, interest, enthusiasm
• Critical thinking
• Strong analytic problem solving skills
• Academic integrity
• Good communication skills

(Based on Nicholas Walliman: Research Methods: the Basics. Routledge, 2011)

• Categorization:  form a typology of works, personalities, objects, etc.
• Description:  observe and write up what you consider typical, specific, or accidental
• Explanation:  answer the question: why?
• Evaluation:  make judgements and compare to a norm, scale, typology, etc.
• Comparison:  list the similarities and differences in order to better understand one or both of the compared things
• Correlation:  do two phenomena influence each other? How? Are there links between two things? Or, are they independent?
• Prediction:  on the basis of past correlations, tell how probable a future event, action, outcome, etc. could be.
• Control/validation:  in technology or sciences implementing the new correlation, correspondance, cause and effect, etc. In humanities: state the probability of similar correspondance, correlation, etc. in cases you have not investigated.

It is very important to fully understand and critically analyse the texts of primary and secondary literature.

• Make judgements about the text.
• Reflect about the content of the text and the way it is written. Make an effort to understand not only what is written, but also how the text portrays the subject.
• Try to understand how the author of the text thinks about the subject matter and compare it with the way you, the reader would think about it.
• Is the text an objective description of the subject? Or, does the text reflect biases, irony, creative imagination, hypotheses, etc.?
• If the text is an interpretation (biased, ironical, etc.), what is the standpoint of the interpretation?
• What is the author's purpose with the interpretation?
• What kind of choice did the author make when s/he described the subject? In what kind of frame did the author place the subject?

• Next: Library Research >>
• Last Updated: Jul 24, 2024 1:23 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.ucla.edu/research-methods

WashU Libraries

Conducting research.

• The Process
• Step 1: Exploring an idea
• Step 2: Finding background info.
• Step 3: Finding Print/E-Books
• Step 4: Finding Articles (Current Research)
• Step 5: Evaluating your sources
• Step 6: Citing your sources
• FAQs This link opens in a new window
• Library Vocabulary
• Research in the Humanities
• Research in the Social Sciences
• Research in the Sciences

The Research Process

If you have any questions, please reach out to a Subject Librarian.

The Research Process can be broken up into many steps. For the purposes of this guide, it has been broken into six (6) steps:

• Exploring an Idea
• Finding Background Information
• Gathering More Information
• Locating Current Research
• Evaluating your Sources
• Citing your Sources

Additionally, the guide also provides information on conducting research in the Humanities, Social Sciences, and Sciences.

• Next: Step 1: Exploring an idea >>
• Last Updated: Aug 14, 2024 7:12 AM
• URL: https://libguides.wustl.edu/research

How to Research Guide

• What is Research
• Research Terms
• Subject vs. Keyword
• Crafting Searches
• Primary & Secondary Sources
• Credible Resources

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• Last Updated: Jun 11, 2024 12:09 PM
• URL: https://lit.libguides.com/how-to-research

The Library, Technological University of the Shannon: Midwest

Libraries | Research Guides

Start your research, purpose of this guide, develop a research question, decide on sources, locate your resources.

• Tips for Reading and Notetaking
• Course Reserves This link opens in a new window
• Cite Your Sources
• Individual and Group Study Spaces
• Make an Appointment to Meet with a Librarian This link opens in a new window

This tutorial on research methods will help you gain practical skills and knowledge you can apply for all research needs.

Scroll down to learn about:.

• Developing a Research Question : How do you get background knowledge? Develop a thesis? Start searching?
• Deciding on Sources : What's the difference between academic and popular sources, or primary and secondary sources?
• Locating Sources : How do you locate articles, books and literature reviews both from NUL and other academic institutions?
• Tips for Reading and Note-taking : What are different strategies for reading scholarly articles and books?

Have a question or need help? Contact any NUL Subject Specialist Librarian for personal assistance.

• Build Background on your Topic
• Build a Question
• Videos: Choose and Search Keywords

Somewhere in between your initial idea and settling on a research question, you'll need to do background research on how scholars in a particular subject area have discussed your topic. You may find background research in your textbook or class readings, academic books in the library's collection, or reference sources.

The databases below compile reference sources from a variety of disciplines, and they can be a great way to consider how your topic has been studied from different angles.

• Oxford Bibliographies This link opens in a new window Offers annotated bibliographies of the most important books and articles on specific topics in a growing range of subject areas. Particularly useful for anyone beginning research.
• Oxford Reference Online This link opens in a new window Online version of many Oxford University Press reference works, ranging from specialized dictionaries and companions to major reference works such as the Encyclopedia of Human Rights, the Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink, the Oxford Encyclopedia of Latinos and Latinas in the United States, and the Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, among many others.
• CQ Researcher Plus Archive This link opens in a new window The CQ Researcher is a collection of reports covering political and social issues, with regular reports on topics in health, international affairs, education, the environment, technology and the U.S. economy.

Use  NU Search  to browse for books, reference entries, and periodicals to build background information.

After you have an initial project idea, you can think deeper about the idea by developing a "Topic + Question + Significance" sentence. This formula came from Kate Turabian's  Student's Guide to Writing College Papers . Turabian notes that you can use it plan and test your question, but do not incorporate this sentence directly into your paper (p. 13):

TOPIC: I am working on the topic of __________, QUESTION: because I want to find out __________, SIGNIFICANCE: so that I can help others understand __________.

Remember : the shorter your final paper, the narrower your topic needs to be. Having trouble?

• Which specific subset of the topic you can focus on? Specific people, places, or times?
• Is there a cause and effect relationship you can explore?
• Is there something about this topic that is not addressed in scholarship?

Turabian, Kate L.  Student's Guide to Writing College Papers . 4th edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2010.

How do you move from a research question to searching in a database? You first have to pick out keywords from your research question.

• Evaluating Sources
• Academic vs. Popular Publications
• Primary vs. Secondary Sources
• Video: Types of Scholarly Articles

When evaluating a source of information, consider both the content of the source itself and  the context in which the source was created.  

CONTENT 

•  What does it say? What is its main point or argument? Relevance to your topic? What new information, facts, or opinions does it include? 
•  Where did you find it? Where was it published? 
•  When was it written? Within the past few days, weeks, or years? Is it historical? Has its information changed over time? 
•  Who created this information? What are their credentials? 
•  Why does this source exist? Is its purpose to inform, persuade, or entertain? 
•  How does it incorporate data or evidence? What kinds of evidence?

CONTEXT  

•  What is the audience for this source? General readers, people who work in a specific field, academics? Does it assume previous knowledge? 
•  Where can you find other information about this topic? 
•  When was this information last updated? Has it been revised, redacted, or challenged? 
•  Who is missing from the conversation? Does it include opposing viewpoints, marginalized voices, or global perspectives? 
•  Why do you need this information? Is it for an academic assignment, work project, personal decision-making, or to share with others?* 
•  How did the information find you?  Was it through a relevance-ranked search, social media algorithm, advertising cookie, or press release? 

 *Sources that may be appropriate for sharing with others, deepening personal understanding, or decision-making may not be appropriate for an academic assignment or work presentation. When in doubt, check with your librarian or professor for more guidance! 

Adapted from  Beyond the Source  created by the DePaul University Libraries .

Not all "articles" are the same! They have different purposes and different "architecture".

• Original article – information based on original research
• Case reports – usually of a single case
• Technical notes -  describe a specific technique or procedure
• Pictorial essay – teaching article with images
• Review – detailed analysis of recent research on a specific topic
• Commentary – short article with author’s personal opinions
• Editorial – often short review or critique of original articles
• Letter to the Editor – short & on subject of interest to readers

Peh, WCG and NG, KH. (2008) "Basic Structure and Types of Scientific Papers." Singapore Medical Journal , 48 (7) : 522-525.  http://smj.sma.org.sg/4907/4907emw1.pdf  accessed 4/24/19.

• What are the differences between types of articles? "Scholarly articles," "trade journals," "popular magazines," and "newspapers" are all referred to as "articles" - pretty confusing, right?! Check out this table which distinguishes between the different kinds of "articles" that could be useful sources.

Primary sources  provide the raw data you use to support your arguments. Some common types of primary resources include manuscripts, diaries, court cases, maps, data sets, experiment results, news stories, polls, or original research.  One other way to think about primary sources is  the author was there .

Secondary sources  analyze primary sources, using primary source materials to answer research questions.  Secondary sources may analyze, criticize, interpret or summarize data from primary sources. The most common secondary resources are books, journal articles, or reviews of the literature. 

Depending on the subject in which you are doing your research, what counts as a primary or secondary source can vary!  Here are some examples of types of sources that relate to dragons in different disciplines:

There are many types of primary resources, so it is important to define your parameters by:

• Discipline (e.g. art, history, physics, political science)
• Format (e.g. book, manuscript, map, photograph)
• Type of information you need (e.g. numerical data, images, polls, government reports, letters)

Look at the  Primary and Secondary Sources  guide for more clarification on what primary and secondary sources are in different disciplines! 

• Find Articles
• Videos: Books at NU and Other Libraries
• Find Literature Reviews

Northwestern has access to millions of articles not available through Google!

From the library website , enter your keywords into the NUSearch search box. All results with those keywords in the title or description will appear in the search results. Limit your results to "Peer-reviewed Journals" for scholarly articles.

For a more specific search,  go to one of the Libraries' many scholarly databases. If you know the name of your database, find it with  Databases A-Z . Find subject-specific lists of databases in our  Research Guides.

Searching a scholarly database is different from using a Google search. When searching: 

• Use an advanced search, which  allows you to search for multiple keywords. "AND" allows you to enter more than one term in multiple search boxes to focus your search (e.g. apples AND oranges) for articles about both. "OR" broadens your results (e.g. apples OR oranges) for articles about either. 
• The results may link to a full-text version of the article, but if one is not available, the library can likely get it for you! Clicking the "Find it @ NU" button  on the database's left-hand navigation will display other Northwestern databases that may have access to it. If we don't have access to the article, request it through Interlibrary Loan. 

Locating Books

To locate a book, use the NUsearch.  The catalog will tell you the location and call number for retrieval. You can also request for books to be pulled and picked up at the Circulation desk of your choosing.

Borrowing Materials from other Institutions

Need to borrow a book Northwestern does not own or have an article PDF scanned and sent to you? Log into (or create) your interlibrary loan account.  You may also check the status of your interlibrary loan requests here. Contact the Interlibrary Loan Department for more assistance.

• Interlibrary Loan Department

• Annual Reviews The Annual Reviews provide substantially researched articles written by recognized scholars in a wide variety of disciplines that summarize the major research literature in the field. These are often a good place to start your research and to keep informed about recent developments.
• Oxford Handbooks Online Scholarly reviews of research in 15 subject fields including: Archaeology, Business/Management, Classical Studies, Criminology/Criminal Justice, Economics/Finance, History, Law, Linguistics, Literature, Music, Neuroscience, Philosophy, Physical Sciences, Political Science, Psychology, Religion, Sociology.

Search for literature review articles in subject databases:

• Type the phrase "Literature Review" (with quotation marks) as a search term OR
• Look to see if there is an option to limit your search results by  Document Type  (this may appear underneath the search box or among the filters on the left side of the search results display).

Be careful The document type "Review" is often used and may identify articles that are book reviews, software reviews or reviews of films, performances, art exhibits, etc.

Need Help? Ask Your Librarian

Created by...

Created and maintained by Instruction & Curriculum Support , with content also developed by Chris Davidson, Jason Kruse, Gina Petersen, and Amy Odwarka (intern, fall 2019). 

• Next: Tips for Reading and Notetaking >>
• Last Updated: May 2, 2024 10:39 AM
• URL: https://libguides.northwestern.edu/start-research

How to Do Research: A Step-By-Step Guide: Get Started

• Get Started
• 1a. Select a Topic
• 1b. Develop Research Questions
• 1c. Identify Keywords
• 1d. Find Background Information
• 1e. Refine a Topic
• 2a. Search Strategies
• 2d. Articles
• 2e. Videos & Images
• 2f. Databases
• 2g. Websites
• 2h. Grey Literature
• 2i. Open Access Materials
• 3a. Evaluate Sources
• 3b. Primary vs. Secondary
• 3c. Types of Periodicals
• 4a. Take Notes
• 4b. Outline the Paper
• 4c. Incorporate Source Material
• 5a. Avoid Plagiarism
• 5b. Zotero & MyBib
• 5c. MLA Formatting
• 5d. MLA Citation Examples
• 5e. APA Formatting
• 5f. APA Citation Examples
• 5g. Annotated Bibliographies

Related Guides

• Elmira College Writing Center Get one-on-one assistance for all types of writing.

Recommended Websites

• Purdue University's Online Writing Lab (OWL)

Research Process Overview

Step 1.  Develop a topic Select a Topic | Develop Research Questions | Identify Keywords | Find Background Information | Refine a Topic

Step 2. Locate information Search Strategies | Books | eBooks | Articles  | Videos & Images | Databases | Websites | Grey Literature

Step 3. Evaluate and analyze information Evaluate Sources | Primary vs Secondary | Types of Periodicals

Step 4. Write, organize, and communicate information Take Notes | Outline the Paper | Incorporate Source Material

Step 5. Cite sources Avoid Plagiarism | Zotero & MyBib | MLA | APA | Chicago Style | Annotated Bibliographies

For research help,  use one of the following options:

Ask the GTL

• Next: Step 1: Develop a Topic >>
• Last Updated: Aug 13, 2024 3:10 PM
• URL: https://libguides.elmira.edu/research

How-To Guide for Research

What is research, information cycle.

• Develop a Topic
• Articles, Journals, Databases: What's the difference?
• How to Search EBSCO
• Evaluate Sources
• APA Style Guide This link opens in a new window
• PowerPoint Best Practices

Ask a Librarian

Have a question? Ask a librarian!

Ask-a-Librarian

This research guide will take you step by step through the research process and show you how to use the library and the web to find good sources.

Research Process:

• Define  what problem you are solving and/or what information you need.
• Locate  resources in the library and online.
• Select  resources that help you best solve your problem.
• Organize  the information to help decide if you have enough and can communicate it successfully.
• Use  the information effectively and ethically. Think about what you have learned and the impact it will make.

What is the Information Cycle?

The information cycle is the progression of media coverage of a newsworthy event. Understanding the information cycle can help you determine what kind of information you are likely to find about your topic.

The Day of an Event

Television, Social Media, and the Web

• The who, what, why, and where of the event
• Quick, not detailed, regularly updated
• Authors are journalists, bloggers, social media participants
• Intended for general audiences

The Day After an Event

• Explanations and timelines of the event begin to appear
• More factual information, may include statistics, quotes, photographs, and editorial coverage
• Authors are journalists

The Week or Weeks After an Event

Weekly Popular Magazines and News Magazines

• Long form stories begin to discuss the impact on society, culture, and public policy
• More detailed analyses, interviews, and various perspectives emerge
• Authors range from journalists to essayists, and commentary provided by scholars and experts in the field
• Intended for a general audience or specific nonprofessional groups

Six Months to a Year or More After an Event

Academic, Scholarly Journals

• Focused, detailed analysis and theoretical, empirical research
• Peer-reviewed, ensuring high credibility and accuracy
• Authors include scholars, researchers, and professionals
• Intended for an audience of scholars, researchers, and university students

A Year to Years After an Event

Books 

• In-depth coverage ranging from scholarly in-depth analysis to popular books
• Authors range from scholars to professionals to journalists
• Include reference books which provide factual information, overviews, and summaries
• Reports from federal, state, and local governments
• Authors include governmental panels, organizations, and committees
• Often focused on public policy, legislation, and statistical analysis

*The information on this page is used courtesy of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

• Next: Develop a Topic >>
• Last Updated: Feb 8, 2023 6:47 PM
• URL: https://libguides.sullivan.edu/howtoresearch

Research step-by-step: What is research?

Follow the tabs for a Step-by-Step Research Guide

• What is research?
• 1) Develop a topic
• 2) Understand information
• 3) Find books & articles via databases
• 4) Write your paper/project
• Try these exercises

Things you ought to know

To improve your writing, visit

• APA (style guide)
• English Center                    (SD City College)
• MLA (style guide) **
• OWL (Purdue's site)

** The MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Paper s is now in its 8th edition (2016). 

• Autobiography
• Bibliography
• Call numbers
• Copyright and Fair Use
• Current and contemporary sources
• Key words and keywords
• Peer reviewed
• Periodicals
• Primary and secondary sources
• References cited
• Reference collection
• Reserve collection
• Scholarly journals
• MLA 8th Edition Style Guide Revised 3/14/2017
• APA 6th Edition Style Guide Revised 2/28/2017

Two kinds of research

Remember, you can always ask a librarian for help

TWO KINDS OF RESEARCH

There are two kinds of research: 1) original research and 2) review of the books, articles and other information on your topic.  This, #2, is often called library research .   All of you will do both kinds of research before you graduate and some of you will continue throughout your careers.  All good research takes time. Schedule enough time and start early in the semester.  

ORIGINAL RESEARCH 

Original research is a project that includes the collection and analysis of data.  The collection of data could be in a science lab, such as biology, chemistry, anthropology, or in the field.  Field research might involve gathering data via a survey, interview, or geological dig.  You can see that these examples of different kinds of original research may overlap.  

When original research is written up into an article for an academic journal, it usually includes

• an introduction describing the question or problem being studied and a discussion of previous research on this topic (this discussion is based on library research) 
• how the research was done: methodology
• the results of the research which often includes tables or graphs
• a discussion of the results in view of the original question and ideas for future research
• a list of the articles, books and anything else used for the paper: a bibliography or references cited

Once it is written, the author(s) sends it to a journal for publication.   The editors of the journal send the article out to other experts in the field, the authors’ peers, for their constructive criticism.   This is called peer reviewed for a scholarly or academic journal.   Most often, the article is sent back to the authors for at least one re-write before the journal publishes it.  Have you ever had to re-write a paper?  So have your professors.

LIBRARY RESEARCH

Library Research is the gathering of information on your topic that others have written or recorded somehow. This might be in books, articles or other materials. College students most often write their papers using library research.  Students need to move away from the idea of taking the first few books or articles they find on their topics and writing about them.   Instead, college students develop research questions or a thesis statement and then find answers or supporting evidence through library research and, sometimes, original research.  

There are exceptions to everything in this guide. 

Please ask your professor or librarian

if you would like details or clarification.

Subject Guide

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Developing a Guide for Transporting Freight in Emergencies

Conduct of research.

Commercial vehicles delivering consumer goods must observe the applicable weight requirements and seek permits for oversize loads.

NCHRP WOD 397: Developing a Guide for Transporting Freight in Emergencies: Conduct of Research , from TRB's National Cooperative Highway Research Program, is a supplement to NCHRP Research Report 1115: Transporting Freight in Emergencies: A Guide on Special Permits and Weight Requirements .

• Transportation and Infrastructure — Freight Transportation
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Suggested Citation

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Student title page

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Lifeway Research

Enlightening today’s church with relevant research and insights

Americans Support Legality of Euthanasia, Doctor-Assisted Suicide

Insights | Faith & Culture | Aug 19, 2024

For the past 10 years, support for legal euthanasia among Americans has hovered around 7 in 10, according to Gallup.

By Aaron Earls

For almost three decades, at least 2 in 3 U.S. adults have asserted it should be legal for medical professionals should be legally allowed to end the life of a patient with an incurable disease upon request.

Currently, 71% of Americans favor legal euthanasia , saying “doctors should be allowed by law to end the patient’s life by some painless means if the patient and his or her family request it.” For the past 10 years, support has hovered around 7 in 10, according to Gallup.

A majority, though somewhat smaller, (66%) also support the practice when framed as legally allowing a doctor to assist someone in committing suicide when they have a disease that cannot be cured and are living in severe pain.

Backing for assisted suicide has been much more volatile since 1996, ranging from a low of 51% in 2013 to a high of 69% in 2021. Only once has more people supported doctor-assisted suicide than euthanasia, 68% v. 65% in 2001.

Gallup first asked about doctors ending a patient’s life through painless means in 1947, when 37% of Americans supported the practice. And favor reached the record low of 36% three years later in 1950. Gallup asked the question again in 1973, with 53% in favor. Since that time, majorities have backed the legality of doctor-assisted suicide.

Currently, doctor-assisted suicide is legal in 10 states and Washington D.C. “under stringent requirements,” according to Gallup. “No states currently allow euthanasia, but physicians are ethically allowed to withdraw life-sustaining treatment for a terminal patient should current interventions not facilitate the patient’s quality of life,” said the report.

“While most states outlaw physician-assisted suicide and classify it as manslaughter or a lesser felony, there are growing movements in roughly 19 states in 2024 state legislatures to permit this practice,“ according to a policy statement from the Ethics and Religious Liberty Commission (ERLC).

Morality of suicide

While a clear majority support the legalization of doctor-assisted suicide, fewer view it as moral. Currently, 53% of Americans believe the practice is morally acceptable, while 40% say it is morally wrong. Most have seen it as morally OK since 2014. Before then, sentiment was generally at or below 50%. Since 2001, those who see the practice as immoral have outnumbered those who see it as moral only four times and not once since 2013.

Gallup notes that the slightly lower levels of support likely come from the inclusion of the word “suicide” in the question, as it “carries social and religious stigma.” When asked directly about suicide, only 22% of Americans believe it is morally acceptable.

A 2021 Lifeway Research study found 77% of Americans believe suicide has become an epidemic in the United States. The study also found 39% have a friend or family member who committed suicide. Still, few Americans believe people who commit suicide are selfish (38%) or are automatically going to hell (23%).

Religious objections

The religiosity of a person contributes to their attitude toward the morality of doctor-assisted suicide, according to Gallup. The more often one attends church the less likely they are to see doctor-assisted suicide as moral. Among those who seldom or never attend, 67% find it morally acceptable and 28% say it’s wrong. Those who attend nearly weekly or monthly are nearly split. Almost half (48%) believe it is morally wrong and 42% say it is morally acceptable. Among weekly church attendees, 66% call it immoral, while 29% believe it is acceptable.

Additionally, those who are religiously unaffiliated are much more likely to support the practice compared to Christians. More than 3 in 4 irreligious Americans (77%) call doctor-assisted suicide morally acceptable, compared to 44% of Catholics and 46% of Protestants and other Christians.

“Jesus taught that each person should love their neighbors as God loves each of us. Each person has value and purpose because they are loved by God and others,” said Scott McConnell, executive director of Lifeway Research. “When each life matters individually and to the community, voluntarily removing any life is tragic.”

“Pain and suffering call for compassionate treatment that supports a God-honoring culture of life, not euthanasia. Ethical principles derived from Judeo-Christian and Hippocratic traditions provide compassionate methods of both hospice and palliative care,” argued the ERLC. “Medicine has been governed for over 2,500 years by the belief it is always wrong to intend to harm one’s patients, including killing or assisting a patient to kill himself or herself.”

For permission to republish this article, contact  Marissa Postell Sullivan .

Aaron Earls

@WardrobeDoor

Aaron is the senior writer at Lifeway Research.

Christian Bioethics: A Guide for Pastors, Health Care Professionals, and Families

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How to finance a car: A complete guide

Money and car keys

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Wondering about the ways to finance a car? You’re in the right place. Regardless of how you decide to finance your car, in terms of where you obtain the loan, the process is similar. We’ll walk you through the steps of getting a loan for your next new car, whether you decide to finance through the dealership or find a bank loan.

Check your budget

Before you start shopping for a car, figure out how much you can comfortably pay per month. Then start looking at vehicles in that price range. Resist the temptation to stretch your budget, or your loan term, for a bigger or nicer vehicle, since interest and insurance will add to this monthly total, too. 

Review your credit score

Check your credit score and figure out what tier you're in, so you know what to expect in terms of interest rates. If there are errors in your credit history, correct them. If your loan will likely have a higher interest rate than you expected, go back to the previous step and slim down your budget.

Get preapproved 

Check rates at your regular bank, as well as credit unions and other advertised deals. You want to head into a car dealership with a preapproval at the lowest interest rate you can find — the goal is to make the dealership beat your current offer with a lower interest rate.

Choose your car at the dealership

Here’s where you shop for your new car, keeping in mind your budget and your priorities. Don’t tell your salesperson you have preapproval until you’re ready to buy.

Review loan options and choose the best suited one

Dealer. This option certainly has convenience going for it. Dealers often have dedicated finance and insurance (F&I) staff on hand to find you the best deal, as the salesperson will tell you. The caveat is that they will find the best deal amongst the lenders they work with, and may not be as good a deal as you can find on your own.  

Financial institution. Banks, credit unions and online lenders are closing the gap in convenience versus dealer financing by extending loan department hours, often by telephone. Typically, you can expect better interest rates than dealer-based financing, more flexibility in terms and pre-approval options.

Manufacturer. Not to be confused with dealer financing, this option is linked with the automaker’s financial arm. Offers vary and can be very appealing. Bear in mind this is not for just any car at the dealership, though. It will be restricted to new and certified pre-owned (CPO) units, and usually only those already in stock.  

Lease. As manufacturers’ purchase offers have become more favorable, lease popularity has cooled overall. One notable exception is among luxury car drivers, who still keep this option popular. A lease allows you to get into a more expensive new or CPO car for your dollar. At the end of the lease, you can simply turn the car in or purchase it for the established residual price.

Cash. This isn’t just an option for a few wealthy people; they don’t always pay cash, anyway. For that matter, a lot of private-party used-car transactions are financed by cash. Whatever the price bracket, your cash flow may be better than your credit. Maybe you’re shopping for something that causes lenders to shy away, like an older sports car. Or it could be that you would pay more in loan interest than you could earn in interest for that amount. All are instances that make paying cash the preferred method.

Bank or dealership: Which is better to finance?

The best way to finance a car is however you get the best interest rate. The easiest way to handle it is to get some preapprovals, and take the best one with you when you’re ready to buy. If the dealership can beat it, go with the dealership. If not, go with the preapproval and rest easy knowing you did your research.

Tips on financing a car

If you’re planning to buy a new car, make sure to consider the following factors. There are other variables that add to the complexity and overall cost of financing a car, well beyond the actual cost of the car. Take a look at the factors that can affect your new car financing, and before you sign the pile of paperwork, make sure you’re prepared for the additional costs that are tacked on to a financed car.

Putting down a down payment

Experts generally recommend a down payment of 20% of the purchase price of a new car. Granted, considering the prices of new cars, this is a tough target for a lot of consumers. Keep the following factors in mind. First, the less you agree to pay for your new car, the less that 20% will be. So hone your negotiation skills. Second, a solid down payment may help you qualify for a lower interest rate, which reduces the entire amount you’ll pay for a new car. Third, the more you pay up front, the lower your monthly payments will be. And finally, if you are financing through a dealership and have a vehicle to trade in, the value of your trade in can be counted toward your down payment. So again, be prepared to negotiate. All that in mind — that is, for all the benefits gained from a substantial down payment — financial experts don’t recommend draining your savings account for a down payment on a new car. If your financial situation is precarious enough that scraping up a down payment will wipe you out, perhaps consider a used car or a cheaper new car. 

Car loan terms

If you finance your car, keep in mind that technically, the financial institution loaning you the money owns your car until it’s paid off. Therefore, that institution can set conditions on what you do with your car, and the most common and reasonable of those conditions is insurance. 

If you’re trying to decide whether to finance a new car or buy a used car outright, keep in mind that there are additional costs you might not yet have factored in. If you take out a loan for a new car, the bank or institution that lends the money owns your car until it’s paid off, and with that comes conditions. Typically, lenders require comprehensive and collision insurance policies, which are generally considered optional in most states. Gap insurance is another type of extra-cost policy often required in the event of a loan. Since the lender owns the car, the lender wants to ensure they’re compensated if the car is damaged or totaled. However, this insurance coverage is another cost of a new car that falls on the buyer of the new car — you. 

Interest rate

Finally, figure out how much the interest on your new car is going to cost you over the life of the loan. There are a number of online calculators that can help with that. Consumers who need a new car and have good credit, and don’t have a particular make and model in mind, might do well to shop manufacturers’ low interest promotional deals, to help get a good new car with the lowest possible payment.

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Filing instructions guide for small business lending data collected in 2025

Changes from 2024 filing instructions guide:

• Section 1: Updated reporting period dates to reflect 2025 as the reporting year
• Section 3.2: Updated "Application Date" year to 2025
• Section 3.10: Updated "Action Taken Date" year to 2025 and validation to reflect current reporting period
• Section 4: Updated validation "E0321" with current reporting period dates

1. What is the filing instructions guide?

The 2025 filing instructions guide is a set of resources to help you file small business lending data with the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) in 2026 covering the period from July 18, 2025 to December 31, 2025. These resources are briefly described in this section and are further detailed throughout this web page in individual sections.

These resources may be useful for employees in a variety of roles, for example:

• Staff who collect, prepare, and submit data
• Technology support staff
• Compliance officers

The guide includes the following sections:

Filing process overview.

Section 2 provides an overview of the process to file small business lending data with the CFPB. It describes the data filing platform (the platform), which is the system that filers will use to submit their data. It also describes the file format that will be required for submitting the data.

Data points

Section 3 provides instructions for what to enter into each data field in the small business lending application register (register). A machine-readable version of the data specification is provided.

Data validation

Section 4 lists the validation requirements that a register must meet before it can be filed with the CFPB. A machine-readable version of the validation specification is provided.

Where to get help

Section 5 provides a summary of resources available from the CFPB to assist with small business lending rule-related inquiries.

2. Filing process overview

This section provides instructions on filing small business lending data with the CFPB. This document is not a substitute for the small business lending rule, found in Regulation B (12 CFR part 1002), Subpart B. Refer to the rule for guidance and clarification regarding the reporting requirements for each data field.

2.1. About the small business lending platform

Filers will submit their data to the platform via a web interface. There will be a process for individuals representing a financial institution to register for an account to access the online filing platform.

Using the platform, each filer will provide financial institution identifying information per 12 CFR § 1002.109(b). The platform will walk filers through the small business lending application register filing process, including uploading data, performing validation checks on the data, and certifying the data. An authorized representative of the filer with knowledge of the data submitted will certify to the accuracy and completeness of the data submitted.

2.2. File format

Your register must be submitted in a comma-separated values (CSV) file format.

Your CSV file should adhere to the following standards:

• The register must be a comma-delimited text file.
• The first line of the file is a header row. The contents of the header row must be the column names specified in the Data points section of this guide, in the order of the field numbering used in the guide, separated by commas.
• Each following line of the file represents a covered application record. Each record in the file must contain the data fields described in the Data points section of this guide, in order, corresponding to the order of the column names in the header row.
• Each data field within each row must be separated with a comma (","). That means that if you leave a field blank, the field should still be denoted by commas (example: three fields containing 1, [blank], 3 would be formatted as 1,,3 ).
• If any field contains space(s) (" ") before and/or after the comma delimiter, the space(s) will be ignored.
• This is not a fixed-width formatted file. Do not include leading zeros, tabs, or spaces for the purpose of making a data field a specific number of characters.
• If a field contains a comma character, the field must be enclosed in double quotes (e.g., "Confederated Tribes of the Coos, Lower Umpqua and Siuslaw Indians of Oregon"). Fields not containing a comma can also be enclosed in double quotes, but this is not required.
• No field in a row may contain a line break, newline, or carriage-return. Line breaks should only appear at the end of a row. Each row of the file should represent a whole application record.
• Files must use UTF-8 encoding (note that all-ASCII files are always valid UTF-8).

Any file not conforming to these specifications cannot be submitted as a register.

3. Data points

This section provides instructions on entering data in the small business lending application register for small business lending data collected in 2025. This document is not a substitute for the rule, found in Regulation B (12 CFR part 1002), Subpart B. Refer to the rule for guidance and clarification regarding the reporting requirements for each data field.

Data fields are presented below in the order they are recorded in the register. For a machine-readable view of the data specification, see the following link:

Data spec (CSV)

3.1 Unique identifier

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(1)

Field 1: Unique identifier

Column name, instructions.

• Field type: Text (width 21 to 45 characters)
• Required for all application records
• Begins with the financial institution's Legal Entity Identifier as defined in comment 1002.109(b)(6)-1
• May be uppercase letters, numerals, or a combination of uppercase letters and numerals (cannot contain dashes, other special characters, or characters with diacritics)
• Must be unique within the financial institution
• Must not include any information that could be used to directly identify the applicant or borrower
• 10BX939C5543TQA1144M999143938

Validations

• Must be at least 21 characters in length and at most 45 characters in length
• May contain any combination of numbers and/or uppercase letters (i.e., 0-9 and A-Z), and must not contain any other characters
• May not be used in more than one record within a small business lending application register
• The first 20 characters should match the Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) for the financial institution

3.2 Application date

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(2)

Field 2: Application date

• Field type: Date
• For October 1, 2025, enter 20251001
• Must be a real calendar date using YYYYMMDD format

3.3 Application method

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(3)

Field 3: Application method

• Field type: Single response

• Must equal 1, 2, 3 or 4

3.4 Application recipient

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(4)

Field 4: Application recipient

• Must equal 1 or 2

3.5 Credit type

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(5)

Field 5: Credit product

Field 6: free-form text field for other credit products, field 7: type of guarantee, field 8: free-form text field for other guarantee, field 9: loan term: na/np flag, field 10: loan term.

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(5)(i)

• Must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 977, or 988
• Field type: Text (width up to 300 characters)
• Conditionally required if 'credit product' is code 977. Leave blank if code 977 is not entered.
• Must not exceed 300 characters in length

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(5)(ii)

• Field type: Multiple response

• Each value (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 977, or 999
• Must contain at least one and at most five values, separated by semicolons
• When code 999 is reported, should not contain any other values
• Should not contain duplicated values
• Conditionally required if 'type of guarantee' contains code 977. Leave blank if code 977 is not entered.

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(5)(iii)

• Must equal 900, 988, or 999
• Field type: Numeric
• Conditionally required if 'credit type: loan term: NA/NP flag' is code 900. Leave blank if code 900 is not entered.
• For a loan term of 36 months, enter 36
• For a loan term of less than 1 month, enter 1
• When present, must be a whole number
• When present, must be greater than or equal to 1
• When present, should be less than 1200 (100 years)

3.6 Credit purpose

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(6)

Field 11: Credit purpose

• Each value (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 977, 988, or 999
• Must contain at least one and at most three values, separated by semicolons
• When code 988 or 999 is reported, should not contain any other values

Field 12: Free-form text field for other credit purpose

• Conditionally required if 'credit purpose' contains code 977. Leave blank if code 977 is not entered.

3.7 Amount applied for

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(7)

Field 13: Amount applied for: NA/NP flag

• Must equal 900, 988 or 999

Field 14: Amount applied for

• Conditionally required if 'amount applied for: NA/NP flag' is code 900. Leave blank if code 900 is not entered.
• The dollar amount for initial amount of credit/credit limit requested by applicant at the application stage
• If application is in response to a firm offer that specifies an amount or limit, the dollar amount of the firm offer, unless the applicant requested a different amount
• If application is in response to a firm offer that does not specify an amount or limit and the applicant did not request a specific amount, the dollar amount underwritten
• If application is in response to a firm offer that specifies an amount or limit as a range and the applicant did not request a specific amount, the dollar amount underwritten
• If applicant did not request a particular amount but the financial institution underwrites for a specific amount, the dollar amount underwritten
• If applicant requested a range of dollar amounts, the midpoint of that range
• If application is a request for additional amounts on an existing account, the dollar amount of additional credit requested
• For $12,345, enter 12345
• When present, must be a numeric value
• When present, must be greater than 0

3.8 Amount approved or originated

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(8)

Field 15: Amount approved or originated

• Conditionally required if 'action taken' is code 1 or 2. Report not applicable by leaving blank if codes 1 or 2 are not entered.
• For a closed-end origination, the amount of the originated loan
• For a closed-end application, the highest amount approved if the application was approved but not accepted
• For an open-end origination, the amount of the credit limit established
• For an open-end application, the highest amount approved if the application was approved but not accepted
• For additional credit amounts that were approved for or originated on an existing account, report the additional credit amount approved or originated, and not any previous amount extended
• Leave blank if amount approved or originated is not applicable because an application is denied, withdrawn, or incomplete
• For $101.23, enter 101.23

3.9 Action taken

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(9)

Field 16: Action taken

• Must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5

3.10 Action taken date

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(10)

Field 17: Action taken date

• For October 25, 2025, enter 20251025
• The date indicated must occur within the current reporting period: July 18, 2025 to December 31, 2025

3.11 Denial reasons

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(11)

Field 18: Denial reason(s)

• If Cashflow, enter 4
• If Cashflow, Collateral, Time in business, and Government loan program criteria, enter 4;5;6;7 or 7;5;6;4 etc.

• Each value (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 977, or 999
• Must contain at least one and at most four values, separated by semicolons

Field 19: Free-form text field for other denial reason(s)

• Conditionally required if 'denial reason(s)' contains code 977. Leave blank if code 977 is not entered.

3.12 Pricing information

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(12)

Field 20: Interest rate type

Field 21: initial rate period, field 22: fixed rate: interest rate, field 23: adjustable rate transaction: margin, field 24: adjujstable rate transaction: index name, field 25: adjustable rate transaction: index name: other, field 26: adjustable rate transaction: index value, field 27: total origination charges, field 28: amount of total broker fees, field 29: initial annual charges, field 30: mca/sales-based: additional cost for merchant cash advances or other sales-based financing: na flag, field 31: mca/sales-based: additional cost for merchant cash advances or other sales-based financing, field 32: prepayment penalty could be imposed, field 33: prepayment penalty exists.

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(12)(i)

• Must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 999

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(12)(i)(B)

• Conditionally required if 'interest rate type' is code 3, 4, 5, or 6. Leave blank if codes 3, 4, 5, or 6 are not entered.

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(12)(i)(A)

• Conditionally required if 'interest rate type' is code 2, 4, or 6. Leave blank if codes 2, 4, or 6 are not entered.
• If 4.125%, enter 4.125
• If 4.500%, enter 4.5, 4.50, or 4.500
• When present, should generally be greater than 0.1
• Conditionally required if 'interest rate type' is code 1, 3, or 5. Leave blank if codes 1, 3, or 5 are not entered.
• If 2.525%, enter 2.525
• If 2.500%, enter 2.5, 2.50, or 2.500

• Must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 977 or 999
• Conditionally required if 'adjustable rate transaction: index name' is code 977. Leave blank if code 977 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'interest rate type' is code 1 or 3. Leave blank if codes 1 or 3 are not entered.
• If 1.025%, enter 1.025
• If 3.100%, enter 3.1, 3.10, or 3.100

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(12)(ii)

• If $2,500, enter 2500 or 2500.00
• If $2,582.91, enter 2582.91
• If $0, enter 0
• If -$100, enter -100

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(12)(iii)

• If $1,125, enter 1125 or 1125.00
• If $1,125.76, enter 1125.76

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(12)(iv)

• If $1,034, enter 1034 or 1034.00
• If $1,034.97, enter 1034.97

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(12)(v)

• Must equal 900 or 999
• Conditionally required if 'MCA/sales-based: additional cost for merchant cash advances or other sales-based financing: NA flag' is code 900. Leave blank if code 900 is not entered.
• If $3,500, enter 3500 or 3500.00
• If $3,527.14, enter 3527.14

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(12)(vi)(A)

• Must equal 1, 2 or 999

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(12)(vi)(B)

3.13 Census tract

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(13)

Field 34: Type of address

• Must equal 1, 2, 3 or 988

Field 35: Tract number

• Field type: Special (width 11 characters)
• Conditionally required if 'type of address' is code 1, 2, or 3. Leave blank if code 988 is entered.
• Address where the loan proceeds will principally be applied, if known
• If the proceeds address is not known, location of borrower's main office or headquarters
• If neither of those addresses are known, another address or location associated with the applicant
• 06037264000 (a census tract within Los Angeles County, CA)
• When present, must be a GEOID with exactly 11 digits
• When present, should be a valid census tract GEOID as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau

3.14 Gross annual revenue

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(14)

Field 36: Gross annual revenue: NP flag

• Must equal 900 or 988

Field 37: Gross annual revenue

• Conditionally required if 'gross annual revenue: NP flag' is code 900. Leave blank if code 900 is not entered.
• If $855,430, enter 855430 or 855430.00
• If $855,430.17, enter 855430.17

3.15 North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(15)

Field 38: North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code: NP flag

Field 39: North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code

• Field type: Special (width 3 characters)
• Conditionally required if 'North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code: NP flag' is code 900. Leave blank if code 900 is not entered.
• 311 (a business engaged in the food processing sector)
• When present, must be exactly three numeric characters
• When present, should be a valid NAICS code

3.16 Number of workers

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(16)

Field 40: Number of workers

• Must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 or 988

3.17 Time in business

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(17)

Field 41: Type of response

• Must equal 1, 2, 3, or 988

Field 42: Time in business

• Conditionally required if 'time in business: type of response' is code 1. Leave blank if code 1 is not entered.
• When present, must be greater than or equal to 0

3.18 Minority-owned, women-owned, and LGBTQI+-owned business statuses

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(18)

Field 43: Business ownership status

• If women-owned, enter 2
• If women-owned and LGBTQI+-owned, enter 2;3 or 3;2
• If LGBTQI+-owned and the applicant responded that they did not wish to provide this information, enter 3

• Each value (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 3, 955, 966, or 988
• Must contain at least one value
• When code 966 or 988 is reported, should not contain any other values

3.19 Number of principal owners

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(20)

Field 44: Number of principal owners: NP flag

Field 45: Number of principal owners

• Conditionally required if 'number of principal owners: NP flag' is code 900. Leave blank if code 900 is not entered.
• When present, must equal 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4

3.20 Demographic information of principal owner 1

Rule section: 12 CFR 1002.107(a)(19)

Field 46: Ethnicity of principal owner 1

Field 47: ethnicity of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other hispanic or latino ethnicity, field 48: race of principal owner 1, field 49: race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for american indian or alaska native enrolled or principal tribe, field 50: race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other asian race, field 51: race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other black or african american race, field 52: race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other pacific islander race, field 53: sex/gender of principal owner 1: np flag, field 54: sex/gender of principal owner 1: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender.

• Conditionally required if there is at least one principal owner. Report not applicable by leaving blank if there are no principal owners.
• If Mexican, enter 11
• If Mexican and Puerto Rican, enter 11;12 or 12;11
• If Mexican and the applicant responded that they did not wish to provide this information, enter 11
• If responded Argentinean in the free form-text field but the applicant did not select Other Hispanic or Latino ethnicity, enter 977. May also enter 14.

• When present, each value (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 11, 12, 13, 14, 2, 966, 977, or 988
• Conditionally required if 'ethnicity of principal owner 1' contains code 977. Report not applicable by leaving blank if code 977 is not entered.
• If Haitian and White, enter 33;5 or 5;33
• If Asian and the applicant responded that they did not wish to provide this information, enter 2.
• If responded Thai in the free form-text field for other Asian race but the applicant did not select Other Asian race, enter 972. May also enter 27.

• When present, each value (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 3, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 4, 41, 42, 43, 44, 5, 966, 971, 972, 973, 974, or 988
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 1' contains code 971. Report not applicable by leaving blank if code 971 is not entered
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 1' contains code 972. Report not applicable by leaving blank if code 972 is not entered
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 1' contains code 973. Report not applicable by leaving blank if code 973 is not entered
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 1' contains code 974. Report not applicable by leaving blank if code 974 is not entered
• Marshallese
• If the applicant responded in free-form text field and also responded that they did not wish to provide this information, enter 1.

• When present, must equal 1, 966, or 988
• Conditionally required if 'sex/gender of principal owner 1' is code 1. Report not applicable by leaving blank if code 1 is not entered.

3.21 Demographic information of principal owner 2

Field 55: ethnicity of principal owner 2, field 56: ethnicity of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other hispanic or latino ethnicity, field 57: race of principal owner 2, field 58: race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for american indian or alaska native enrolled or principal tribe, field 59: race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other asian race, field 60: race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other black or african american race, field 61: race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other pacific islander race, field 62: sex/gender of principal owner 2: np flag, field 63: sex/gender of principal owner 2: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender.

• Conditionally required if there are at least two principal owners. Report not applicable by leaving blank if there are fewer than two principal owners.
• Conditionally required if 'ethnicity of principal owner 2' contains code 977. Leave blank if code 977 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 2' contains code 971. Leave blank if code 971 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 2' contains code 972. Leave blank if code 972 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 2' contains code 973. Leave blank if code 973 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 2' contains code 974. Leave blank if code 974 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'sex/gender of principal owner 2' is code 1. Leave blank if code 1 is not entered.

3.22 Demographic information of principal owner 3

Field 64: ethnicity of principal owner 3, field 65: ethnicity of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other hispanic or latino ethnicity, field 66: race of principal owner 3, field 67: race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for american indian or alaska native enrolled or principal tribe, field 68: race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other asian race, field 69: race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other black or african american race, field 70: race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other pacific islander race, field 71: sex/gender of principal owner 3: np flag, field 72: sex/gender of principal owner 3: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender.

• Conditionally required if there are at least three principal owners. Report not applicable by leaving blank if there are fewer than three principal owners.
• Conditionally required if 'ethnicity of principal owner 3' contains code 977. Leave blank if code 977 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 3' contains code 971. Leave blank if code 971 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 3' contains code 972. Leave blank if code 972 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 3' contains code 973. Leave blank if code 973 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 3' contains code 974. Leave blank if code 974 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'sex/gender of principal owner 3' is code 1. Leave blank if code 1 is not entered.

3.23 Demographic information of principal owner 4

Field 73: ethnicity of principal owner 4, field 74: ethnicity of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other hispanic or latino ethnicity, field 75: race of principal owner 4, field 76: race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for american indian or alaska native enrolled or principal tribe, field 77: race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other asian race, field 78: race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other black or african american race, field 79: race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other pacific islander race, field 80: sex/gender of principal owner 4: np flag, field 81: sex/gender of principal owner 4: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender.

• Conditionally required if there are four principal owners. Report not applicable by leaving blank if there are fewer than four principal owners.
• Conditionally required if 'ethnicity of principal owner 4' contains code 977. Leave blank if code 977 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 4' contains code 971. Leave blank if code 971 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 4' contains code 972. Leave blank if code 972 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 4' contains code 973. Leave blank if code 973 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'race of principal owner 4' contains code 974. Leave blank if code 974 is not entered.
• Conditionally required if 'sex/gender of principal owner 4' is code 1. Leave blank if code 1 is not entered.

4. Data validation

Data validations are a series of checks that run on a small business lending application register to ensure that the data entries are correct and ready to submit, meaning the data are both internally consistent and consistent with the syntax and logic specified by this guide. When data are uploaded to the small business lending data filing platform, before the register can be certified and submitted, the platform will review the submission to determine if the data pass the validations described in this section. What follows is a description of the types of validations that will be performed on a register prior to its certification and acceptance.

First, validations vary by type:

• An error validation checks that each data field contains valid data and that each value submitted matches the expected type. Each record must pass all of these validations in order for the register to be certified and submitted.
• A warning validation checks for values that could indicate a mistake in the register. These are quality checks to assist filers in checking that their register has been compiled correctly and alerting them to possible problems. The filer may confirm the accuracy of all values flagged by warning validations as part of the filing process in order to certify and submit their data.

Validations also vary by scope:

• Each single-field validation pertains to only one specific field in each record. These validations check that the data held in an individual field match the values that are expected. A single-field validation may be an error validation or a warning validation.
• Multi-field validations check that the values of certain fields make sense in combination with other values in the same record. These validations have a list of “affected data fields,” which are the individual fields within the record whose values will be compared to identify whether the record passes the validation checks. For example, many multi-field validations check for the presence of conditionally required data, meaning that such checks ensure that fields that should be blank are blank, and fields that should be populated are populated. A multi-field validation may be an error validation or a warning validation.
• There is also one register-level validation . This validation checks that the register does not contain duplicate IDs.

Below is a comprehensive list of validations that will be applied to each register before submission. For multi-field validations, we provide a pseudocode interpretation of each validation. This pseudocode is an illustration of the logic of the validation, exclusively for the purpose of ensuring that the validation logic is clear and unambiguous. It is not code which can be compiled and run. For a tabular view of the validation specification in CSV file format, see the following link:

Validation spec (CSV)

4.1. Single-field errors

Validation id: e0001, validation name.

• uid.invalid_text_length

Affected data field

Description.

• 'Unique identifier' must be at least 21 characters in length and at most 45 characters in length.

Validation ID: E0002

• uid.invalid_text_pattern
• 'Unique identifier' may contain any combination of numbers and/or uppercase letters (i.e., 0-9 and A-Z), and must not contain any other characters.

Validation ID: E0020

• app_date.invalid_date_format
• 'Application date' must be a real calendar date using YYYYMMDD format.

Validation ID: E0040

• app_method.invalid_enum_value
• 'Application method' must equal 1, 2, 3, or 4.

Validation ID: E0060

• app_recipient.invalid_enum_value
• app_recipient
• 'Application recipient' must equal 1 or 2.

Validation ID: E0080

• ct_credit_product.invalid_enum_value
• ct_credit_product
• 'Credit product' must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 977, or 988.

Validation ID: E0100

• ct_credit_product_ff.invalid_text_length
• ct_credit_product_ff
• 'Free-form text field for other credit products' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E0120

• ct_guarantee.invalid_enum_value
• ct_guarantee
• Each value in 'type of guarantee' (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 977, or 999.

Validation ID: E0121

• ct_guarantee.invalid_number_of_values
• 'Type of guarantee' must contain at least one and at most five values, separated by semicolons.

Validation ID: E0140

• ct_guarantee_ff.invalid_text_length
• ct_guarantee_ff
• 'Free-form text field for other guarantee' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E0160

• ct_loan_term_flag.invalid_enum_value
• ct_loan_term_flag
• 'Loan term: NA/NP flag' must equal 900, 988, or 999.

Validation ID: E0180

• ct_loan_term.invalid_numeric_format
• ct_loan_term
• When present, 'loan term' must be a whole number.

Validation ID: E0181

• ct_loan_term.invalid_numeric_value
• When present, 'loan term' must be greater than or equal to 1.

Validation ID: E0200

• credit_purpose.invalid_enum_value
• credit_purpose
• Each value in 'credit purpose' (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 977, 988, or 999.

Validation ID: E0201

• credit_purpose.invalid_number_of_values
• 'Credit purpose' must contain at least one and at most three values, separated by semicolons.

Validation ID: E0220

• credit_purpose_ff.invalid_text_length
• credit_purpose_ff
• 'Free-form text field for other credit purpose' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E0240

• amount_applied_for_flag.invalid_enum_value
• amount_applied_for_flag
• 'Amount applied For: NA/NP flag' must equal 900, 988, or 999.

Validation ID: E0260

• amount_applied_for.invalid_numeric_format
• amount_applied_for
• When present, 'amount applied for' must be a numeric value.

Validation ID: E0261

• amount_applied_for.invalid_numeric_value
• When present, 'amount applied for' must be greater than 0.

Validation ID: E0280

• amount_approved.invalid_numeric_format
• amount_approved
• When present, 'amount approved or originated' must be a numeric value.

Validation ID: E0281

• amount_approved.invalid_numeric_value
• When present, 'amount approved or originated' must be greater than 0.

Validation ID: E0300

• action_taken.invalid_enum_value
• action_taken
• 'Action taken' must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5.

Validation ID: E0320

• action_taken_date.invalid_date_format
• action_taken_date
• 'Action taken date' must be a real calendar date using YYYYMMDD format.

Validation ID: E0321

• action_taken_date.invalid_date_value
• The date indicated by 'action taken date' must occur within the current reporting period: July 18, 2025 to December 31, 2025.

Validation ID: E0340

• denial_reasons.invalid_enum_value
• denial_reasons
• Each value in 'denial reason(s)' (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 977, or 999.

Validation ID: E0341

• denial_reasons.invalid_number_of_values
• 'Denial reason(s)' must contain at least one and at most four values, separated by semicolons.

Validation ID: E0360

• denial_reasons_ff.invalid_text_length
• denial_reasons_ff
• 'Free-form text field for other denial reason(s)' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E0380

• pricing_interest_rate_type.invalid_enum_value
• pricing_interest_rate_type
• 'Interest rate type' must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 999.

Validation ID: E0400

• pricing_init_rate_period.invalid_numeric_format
• pricing_init_rate_period
• When present, 'adjustable rate transaction: initial rate period' must be a whole number.

Validation ID: E0401

• pricing_init_rate_period.invalid_numeric_value
• When present, 'adjustable rate transaction: initial rate period' must be greater than 0.

Validation ID: E0420

• pricing_fixed_rate.invalid_numeric_format
• pricing_fixed_rate
• When present, 'fixed rate: interest rate' must be a numeric value.

Validation ID: E0440

• pricing_adj_margin.invalid_numeric_format
• pricing_adj_margin
• When present, 'adjustable rate transaction: margin' must be a numeric value.

Validation ID: E0460

• pricing_adj_index_name.invalid_enum_value
• pricing_adj_index_name
• 'Adjustable rate transaction: index name' must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 977, or 999.

Validation ID: E0480

• pricing_adj_index_name_ff.invalid_text_length
• pricing_adj_index_name_ff
• 'Adjustable rate transaction: index name: other' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E0500

• pricing_adj_index_value.invalid_numeric_format
• pricing_adj_index_value
• When present, 'adjustable rate transaction: index value' must be a numeric value.

Validation ID: E0520

• pricing_origination_charges.invalid_numeric_format
• pricing_origination_charges
• When present, 'total origination charges' must be a numeric value.

Validation ID: E0540

• pricing_broker_fees.invalid_numeric_format
• pricing_broker_fees
• When present, 'amount of total broker fees' must be a numeric value.

Validation ID: E0560

• pricing_initial_charges.invalid_numeric_format
• pricing_initial_charges
• When present, 'initial annual charges' must be a numeric value.

Validation ID: E0580

• pricing_mca_addcost_flag.invalid_enum_value
• pricing_mca_addcost_flag
• 'MCA/sales-based: additional cost for merchant cash advances or other sales-based financing: NA flag' must equal 900 or 999.

Validation ID: E0600

• pricing_mca_addcost.invalid_numeric_format
• pricing_mca_addcost
• When present, 'MCA/sales-based: additional cost for merchant cash advances or other sales-based financing' must be a numeric value.

Validation ID: E0620

• pricing_prepenalty_allowed.invalid_enum_value
• pricing_prepenalty_allowed
• 'Prepayment penalty could be imposed' must equal 1, 2, or 999.

Validation ID: E0640

• pricing_prepenalty_exists.invalid_enum_value
• pricing_prepenalty_exists
• 'Prepayment penalty exists' must equal 1, 2, or 999.

Validation ID: E0660

• census_tract_adr_type.invalid_enum_value
• census_tract_adr_type
• 'Census tract: type of address' must equal 1, 2, 3, or 988.

Validation ID: E0680

• census_tract_number.invalid_text_length
• census_tract_number
• When present, 'census tract: tract number' must be a GEOID with exactly 11 digits.

Validation ID: E0700

• gross_annual_revenue_flag.invalid_enum_value
• gross_annual_revenue_flag
• 'Gross annual revenue: NP flag' must equal 900 or 988.

Validation ID: E0720

• gross_annual_revenue.invalid_numeric_format
• gross_annual_revenue
• When present, 'gross annual revenue' must be a numeric value.

Validation ID: E0740

• naics_code_flag.invalid_enum_value
• naics_code_flag
• 'North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code: NP flag' must equal 900 or 988.

Validation ID: E0760

• naics_code.invalid_text_length
• When present, 'North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code' must be three digits in length.

Validation ID: E0761

• naics_code.invalid_naics_format
• 'North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code' may only contain numeric characters.

Validation ID: E0780

• number_of_workers.invalid_enum_value
• number_of_workers
• 'Number of workers' must equal 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 988.

Validation ID: E0800

• time_in_business_type.invalid_enum_value
• time_in_business_type
• 'Time in business: type of response' must equal 1, 2, 3, or 988.

Validation ID: E0820

• time_in_business.invalid_numeric_format
• time_in_business
• When present, 'time in business' must be a whole number.

Validation ID: E0821

• time_in_business.invalid_numeric_value
• When present, 'time in business' must be greater than or equal to 0.

Validation ID: E0840

• business_ownership_status.invalid_enum_value
• business_ownership_status
• Each value in 'business ownership status' (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 3, 955, 966, or 988.

Validation ID: E0841

• business_ownership_status.invalid_number_of_values
• 'Business ownership status' must contain at least one value.

Validation ID: E0860

• num_principal_owners_flag.invalid_enum_value
• num_principal_owners_flag
• 'Number of principal owners: NP flag' must equal 900 or 988.

Validation ID: E0880

• num_principal_owners.invalid_enum_value
• num_principal_owners
• When present, 'number of principal owners' must equal 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4.

Validation ID: E0900

• po_1_ethnicity.invalid_enum_value
• po_1_ethnicity
• When present, each value in 'ethnicity of principal owner 1' (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 11, 12, 13, 14, 2, 966, 977, or 988.

Validation ID: E0920

• po_1_ethnicity_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_1_ethnicity_ff
• 'Ethnicity of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other Hispanic or Latino' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E0940

• po_1_race.invalid_enum_value
• When present, each value in 'race of principal owner 1' (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 3, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 4, 41, 42, 43, 44, 5, 966, 971, 972, 973, 974, or 988.

Validation ID: E0960

• po_1_race_anai_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_1_race_anai_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E0980

• po_1_race_asian_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_1_race_asian_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other Asian' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1000

• po_1_race_baa_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_1_race_baa_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other Black or African American' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1020

• po_1_race_pi_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_1_race_pi_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1040

• po_1_gender_flag.invalid_enum_value
• po_1_gender_flag
• When present, 'sex/gender of principal owner 1: NP flag' must equal 1, 966, or 988.

Validation ID: E1060

• po_1_gender_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_1_gender_ff
• 'Sex/gender of principal owner 1: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1080

• po_2_ethnicity.invalid_enum_value
• po_2_ethnicity
• When present, each value in 'ethnicity of principal owner 2' (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 11, 12, 13, 14, 2, 966, 977, or 988.

Validation ID: E1100

• po_2_ethnicity_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_2_ethnicity_ff
• 'Ethnicity of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other Hispanic or Latino' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1120

• po_2_race.invalid_enum_value
• When present, each value in 'race of principal owner 2' (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 3, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 4, 41, 42, 43, 44, 5, 966, 971, 972, 973, 974, or 988.

Validation ID: E1140

• po_2_race_anai_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_2_race_anai_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1160

• po_2_race_asian_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_2_race_asian_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other Asian' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1180

• po_2_race_baa_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_2_race_baa_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other Black or African American' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1200

• po_2_race_pi_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_2_race_pi_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1220

• po_2_gender_flag.invalid_enum_value
• po_2_gender_flag
• When present, 'sex/gender of principal owner 2: NP flag' must equal 1, 966, or 988.

Validation ID: E1240

• po_2_gender_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_2_gender_ff
• 'Sex/gender of principal owner 2: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1260

• po_3_ethnicity.invalid_enum_value
• po_3_ethnicity
• When present, each value in 'ethnicity of principal owner 3' (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 11, 12, 13, 14, 2, 966, 977, or 988.

Validation ID: E1280

• po_3_ethnicity_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_3_ethnicity_ff
• 'Ethnicity of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other Hispanic or Latino' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1300

• po_3_race.invalid_enum_value
• When present, each value in 'race of principal owner 3' (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 3, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 4, 41, 42, 43, 44, 5, 966, 971, 972, 973, 974, or 988.

Validation ID: E1320

• po_3_race_anai_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_3_race_anai_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1340

• po_3_race_asian_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_3_race_asian_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other Asian' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1360

• po_3_race_baa_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_3_race_baa_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other Black or African American' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1380

• po_3_race_pi_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_3_race_pi_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1400

• po_3_gender_flag.invalid_enum_value
• po_3_gender_flag
• When present, 'sex/gender of principal owner 3: NP flag' must equal 1, 966, or 988.

Validation ID: E1420

• po_3_gender_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_3_gender_ff
• 'Sex/gender of principal owner 3: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1440

• po_4_ethnicity.invalid_enum_value
• po_4_ethnicity
• When present, each value in 'ethnicity of principal owner 4' (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 11, 12, 13, 14, 2, 966, 977, or 988.

Validation ID: E1460

• po_4_ethnicity_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_4_ethnicity_ff
• 'Ethnicity of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other Hispanic or Latino' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1480

• po_4_race.invalid_enum_value
• When present, each value in 'race of principal owner 4' (separated by semicolons) must equal 1, 2, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 3, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 4, 41, 42, 43, 44, 5, 966, 971, 972, 973, 974, or 988.

Validation ID: E1500

• po_4_race_anai_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_4_race_anai_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1520

• po_4_race_asian_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_4_race_asian_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other Asian' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1540

• po_4_race_baa_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_4_race_baa_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other Black or African American' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1560

• po_4_race_pi_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_4_race_pi_ff
• 'Race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

Validation ID: E1580

• po_4_gender_flag.invalid_enum_value
• po_4_gender_flag
• When present, 'sex/gender of principal owner 4: NP flag' must equal 1, 966, or 988.

Validation ID: E1600

• po_4_gender_ff.invalid_text_length
• po_4_gender_ff
• 'Sex/gender of principal owner 4: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender' must not exceed 300 characters in length.

4.2. Multi-field errors

Validation id: e2000.

• ct_credit_product_ff.conditional_field_conflict

Affected data fields

• When 'credit product' does not equal 977 (other), 'free-form text field for other credit products' must be blank.
• When 'credit product' equals 977, 'free-form text field for other credit products' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2001

• ct_guarantee_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'type of guarantee' does not contain 977 (other), 'free-form text field for other guarantee' must be blank.
• When 'type of guarantee' contains 977, 'free-form text field for other guarantee' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2003

• ct_loan_term_flag.enum_value_conflict
• When 'credit product' equals 1 (term loan - unsecured) or 2 (term loan - secured), 'loan term: NA/NP flag' must not equal 999 (not applicable).
• When 'credit product' equals 988 (not provided by applicant and otherwise undetermined), 'loan term: NA/NP flag' must equal 999.

Validation ID: E2004

• ct_loan_term.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'loan term: NA/NP flag' does not equal 900 (applicable and reported), 'loan term' must be blank.
• When 'loan term: NA/NP flag' equals 900, 'loan term' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2005

• credit_purpose_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'credit purpose' does not contain 977 (other), 'free-form text field for other credit purpose' must be blank.
• When 'credit purpose' contains 977, 'free-form text field for other credit purpose' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2007

• amount_applied_for.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'amount applied for: NA/NP flag' does not equal 900 (applicable and reported), 'amount applied for' must be blank.
• When 'amount applied for: NA/NP flag' equals 900, 'amount applied for' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2008

• amount_approved.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'action taken' does not equal 1 (originated) or 2 (approved but not accepted), 'amount approved or originated' must be blank.
• When 'action taken' equals 1 or 2, 'amount approved or originated' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2009

• action_taken_date.date_value_conflict
• The date indicated by 'action taken date' must occur on or after 'application date'.

Validation ID: E2011

• denial_reasons.enum_value_conflict
• When 'action taken' equals 3 (denied), 'denial reason(s)' must not contain 999 (not applicable).
• When 'action taken' does not equal 3, 'denial reason(s)' must equal 999.

Validation ID: E2012

• denial_reasons_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'denial reason(s)' does not contain 977 (other), field 'free-form text field for other denial reason(s)' must be blank.
• When 'denial reason(s)' contains 977, 'free-form text field for other denial reason(s)' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2014

• pricing_all.conditional_fieldset_conflict
• pricing_origination_charge

When 'action taken' equals 3 (denied), 4 (withdrawn by applicant), or 5 (incomplete), the following fields must all equal 999 (not applicable):

• 'Interest rate type'
• 'MCA/sales-based: additional cost for merchant cash advances or other sales-based financing: NA flag'
• 'Prepayment penalty could be imposed'
• 'Prepayment penalty exists'

And the following fields must all be blank:

• 'Total origination charges'
• 'Amount of total broker fees'
• 'Initial annual charges'

Validation ID: E2015

• pricing_charges.conditional_fieldset_conflict

When 'action taken' equals 1 (originated) or 2 (approved but not accepted), the following fields all must not be blank:

And the following fields must not equal 999 (not applicable):

Validation ID: E2016

• pricing_init_rate_period.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'interest rate type' does not equal 3 (initial rate period > 12 months, adjustable interest), 4 (initial rate period > 12 months, fixed interest), 5 (initial rate period <= 12 months, adjustable interest), or 6 (initial rate period <= 12 months, fixed interest), 'initial rate period' must be blank.
• When 'interest rate type' equals 3, 4, 5, or 6, 'initial rate period' must not be blank

Validation ID: E2017

• pricing_fixed_rate.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'interest rate type' does not equal 2 (fixed interest rate, no initial rate period), 4 (initial rate period > 12 months, fixed interest rate), or 6 (initial rate period <= 12 months, fixed interest rate), 'fixed rate: interest rate' must be blank.
• When 'interest rate type' equals 2, 4, or 6, 'fixed rate: interest rate' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2018

• pricing_adj_margin.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'interest rate type' does not equal 1 (adjustable interest rate, no initial rate period), 3 (initial rate period > 12 months, adjustable interest rate), or 5 (initial rate period <= 12 months, adjustable interest rate), 'adjustable rate transaction: margin' must be blank.
• When 'interest rate type' equals 1, 3, or 5, 'adjustable rate transaction: margin' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2019

• pricing_adj_index_name.enum_value_conflict
• When 'interest rate type' does not equal 1 (adjustable interest rate, no initial rate period), 3 (initial rate period > 12 months, adjustable interest rate), or 5 (initial rate period <= 12 months, adjustable interest rate), 'adjustable rate transaction: index name' must equal 999.
• When 'interest rate type' equals 1, 3, or 5, 'adjustable rate transaction: index name' must not equal 999.

Validation ID: E2020

• pricing_adj_index_name_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• pricing_adj_index_name;
• When 'adjustable rate transaction: index name' does not equal 977 (other), 'adjustable rate transaction: index name: other' must be blank
• When 'adjustable rate transaction: index name' equals 977, 'adjustable rate transaction: index name: other' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2021

• pricing_adj_index_value.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'interest rate type' does not equal 1 (adjustable interest rate, no initial rate period), or 3 (initial rate period > 12 months, adjustable interest rate), 'adjustable rate transaction: index value' must be blank.
• When 'interest rate type' equals 1 or 3, 'adjustable rate transaction: index value' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2022

• pricing_mca_addcost_flag.enum_value_conflict
• When 'credit product' does not equal 7 (merchant cash advance), 8 (other sales-based financing transaction) or 977 (other), 'MCA/sales-based: additional cost for merchant cash advances or other sales-based financing: NA flag' must be 999 (not applicable).

Validation ID: E2023

• pricing_mca_addcost.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'MCA/sales-based: additional cost for merchant cash advances or other sales-based financing: NA flag' does not equal 900 (applicable), 'MCA/sales-based: additional cost for merchant cash advances or other sales-based financing' must be blank.
• When 'MCA/sales-based: additional cost for merchant cash advances or other sales-based financing: NA flag' equals 900, ‘MCA/sales-based: additional cost for merchant cash advances or other sales-based financing’ must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2024

• census_tract_number.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'census tract: type of address' equals 988 (not provided by applicant and otherwise undetermined), ‘census tract: tract number’ must be blank.
• When 'census tract: type of address' equals 1 (address or location where the loan proceeds will principally be applied), 2 (address or location of borrower’s main office or headquarters), or 3 (another address or location associated with the applicant), 'census tract: tract number' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2025

• gross_annual_revenue.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'gross annual revenue: NP flag' does not equal 900 (reported), 'gross annual revenue' must be blank.
• When 'gross annual revenue: NP flag' equals 900, 'gross annual revenue' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2026

• naics_code.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code: NP flag' does not equal 900 (reported), 'North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code' must be blank.
• When 'North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code: NP flag' equals 900, 'North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2027

• time_in_business.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'time in business: type of response' does not equal 1 (the number of years an applicant has been in business is collected or obtained by the financial institution), 'time in business' must be blank.
• When 'time in business: type of response' equals 1, 'time in business' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2028

• num_principal_owners.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'number of principal owners: NP flag' does not equal 900 (reported), 'number of principal owners' must be blank.
• When 'number of principal owners: NP flag' equals 900, 'number of principal owners' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2040

• po_1_ethnicity_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'ethnicity of principal owner 1' does not contain 977 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field), 'ethnicity of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other Hispanic or Latino' must be blank.
• When 'ethnicity of principal owner 1' contains 977, 'ethnicity of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other Hispanic or Latino' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2041

• po_2_ethnicity_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'ethnicity of principal owner 2' does not contain 977 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field), 'ethnicity of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other Hispanic or Latino' must be blank.
• When 'ethnicity of principal owner 2' contains 977, 'ethnicity of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other Hispanic or Latino' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2042

• po_3_ethnicity_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'ethnicity of principal owner 3' does not contain 977 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field), 'ethnicity of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other Hispanic or Latino' must be blank.
• When 'ethnicity of principal owner 3' contains 977, 'ethnicity of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other Hispanic or Latino' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2043

• po_4_ethnicity_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'ethnicity of principal owner 4' does not contain 977 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field), 'ethnicity of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other Hispanic or Latino' must be blank.
• When 'ethnicity of principal owner 4' contains 977, 'ethnicity of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other Hispanic or Latino' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2060

• po_1_race_anai_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 1' does not contain 971 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe), 'race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 1' contains 971, 'race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2061

• po_2_race_anai_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 2' does not contain 971 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe), 'race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 2' contains 971, 'race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2062

• po_3_race_anai_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 3' does not contain 971 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe), 'race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 3' contains 971, 'race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2063

• po_4_race_anai_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 4' does not contain 971 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe), 'race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 4' contains 971, 'race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for American Indian or Alaska Native Enrolled or Principal Tribe' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2080

• po_1_race_asian_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 1' does not contain 972 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for other Asian race), 'race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other Asian' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 1' contains 972, 'race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other Asian' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2081

• po_2_race_asian_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 2' does not contain 972 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for other Asian race), 'race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other Asian' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 2' contains 972, 'race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other Asian' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2082

• po_3_race_asian_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 3' does not contain 972 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for other Asian race), 'race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other Asian' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 3' contains 972, 'race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other Asian' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2083

• po_4_race_asian_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 4' does not contain 972 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for other Asian race), 'race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other Asian' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 4' contains 972, 'race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other Asian' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2100

• po_1_race_baa_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 1' does not contain 973 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for other Black or African race), 'race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other Black or African American' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 1' contains 973, 'race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other Black or African American' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2101

• po_2_race_baa_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 2' does not contain 973 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for other Black or African race), 'race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other Black or African American' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 2' contains 973, 'race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other Black or African American' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2102

• po_3_race_baa_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 3' does not contain 973 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for other Black or African race), 'race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other Black or African American' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 3' contains 973, 'race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other Black or African American' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2103

• po_4_race_baa_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 4' does not contain 973 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for other Black or African race), 'race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other Black or African American' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 4' contains 973, 'race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other Black or African American' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2120

• po_1_race_pi_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 1' does not contain 974 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race), 'race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 1' contains 974, 'race of principal owner 1: free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2121

• po_2_race_pi_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 2' does not contain 974 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race), 'race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 2' contains 974, 'race of principal owner 2: free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2122

• po_3_race_pi_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 3' does not contain 974 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race), 'race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 3' contains 974, 'race of principal owner 3: free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2123

• po_4_race_pi_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'race of principal owner 4' does not contain 974 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race), 'race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race' must be blank.
• When 'race of principal owner 4' contains 974, 'race of principal owner 4: free-form text field for other Pacific Islander race' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2140

• po_1_gender_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'sex/gender of principal owner 1: NP flag' does not equal 1 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field), 'sex/gender of principal owner 1: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender' must be blank.
• When 'sex/gender of principal owner 1: NP flag' equals 1, 'sex/gender of principal owner 1: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2141

• po_2_gender_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'sex/gender of principal owner 2: NP flag' does not equal 1 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field), 'sex/gender of principal owner 2: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender' must be blank.
• When 'sex/gender of principal owner 2: NP flag' equals 1, 'sex/gender of principal owner 2: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2142

• po_3_gender_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'sex/gender of principal owner 3: NP flag' does not equal 1 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field), 'sex/gender of principal owner 3: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender' must be blank.
• When 'sex/gender of principal owner 3: NP flag' equals 1, 'sex/gender of principal owner 3: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender' must not be blank.

Validation ID: E2143

• po_4_gender_ff.conditional_field_conflict
• When 'sex/gender of principal owner 4: NP flag' does not equal 1 (the applicant responded in the free-form text field), 'sex/gender of principal owner 4: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender' must be blank.
• When 'sex/gender of principal owner 4: NP flag' equals 1, 'sex/gender of principal owner 4: free-form text field for self-identified sex/gender' must not be blank.

4.3. Register-level errors

Validation id: e3000.

• uid.duplicates_in_dataset
• Any 'unique identifier' may not be used in more than one record within a small business lending application register.

4.4. Single-field warnings

Validation id: w0003.

• uid.invalid_uid_lei
• The first 20 characters of the 'unique identifier' should match the Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) for the financial institution.

Validation ID: W0122

• ct_guarantee.multi_value_field_restriction
• When 'type of guarantee' contains 999 (no guarantee), 'type of guarantee' should not contain more than one value.

Validation ID: W0123

• ct_guarantee.duplicates_in_field
• 'Type of guarantee' should not contain duplicated values.

Validation ID: W0182

• ct_loan_term.unreasonable_numeric_value
• When present, 'loan term' should be less than 1200 (100 years).

Validation ID: W0202

• credit_purpose.multi_value_field_restriction
• When 'credit purpose' contains 988 (not provided by applicant and otherwise undetermined) or 999 (not applicable), 'credit purpose' should not contain more than one value.

Validation ID: W0203

• credit_purpose.duplicates_in_field
• 'Credit purpose' should not contain duplicated values.

Validation ID: W0340

• denial_reasons.multi_value_field_restriction
• When 'denial reason(s)' contains 999 (not applicable), 'denial reason(s)' should not contain more than one value.

Validation ID: W0341

• denial_reasons.duplicates_in_field
• 'Denial reason(s)' should not contain duplicated values.

Validation ID: W0420

• pricing_fixed_rate.unreasonable_numeric_value
• When present, 'fixed rate: interest rate' should generally be greater than 0.1.

Validation ID: W0441

• pricing_adj_margin.unreasonable_numeric_value
• When present, 'adjustable rate transaction: margin' should generally be greater than 0.1.

Validation ID: W0680

• census_tract_number.invalid_geoid
• When present, 'census tract: tract number' should be a valid census tract GEOID as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau.

Validation ID: W0762

• naics_code.invalid_naics_value
• When present, 'North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) code' should be a valid NAICS code.

Validation ID: W0842

• business_ownership_status.duplicates_in_field
• 'Business ownership status' should not contain duplicated values.

Validation ID: W0843

• business_ownership_status.multi_value_field_restriction
• When 'business ownership status' contains 966 (the applicant responded that they did not wish to provide this information) or 988 (not provided by applicant), 'business ownership status' should not contain more than one value.

Validation ID: W0901

• po_1_ethnicity.duplicates_in_field
• 'Ethnicity of principal owner 1' should not contain duplicated values.

Validation ID: W0902

• po_1_ethnicity.multi_value_field_restriction
• When 'ethnicity of principal owner 1' contains 966 (the applicant responded that they did not wish to provide this information) or 988 (not provided by applicant), 'ethnicity of principal owner 1' should not contain more than one value.

Validation ID: W0941

• po_1_race.duplicates_in_field
• 'Race of principal owner 1' should not contain duplicated values.

Validation ID: W0942

• po_1_race.multi_value_field_restriction
• When 'race of principal owner 1' contains 966 (the applicant responded that they did not wish to provide this information) or 988 (not provided by applicant), 'race of principal owner 1' should not contain more than one value.

Validation ID: W1081

• po_2_ethnicity.duplicates_in_field
• 'Ethnicity of principal owner 2' should not contain duplicated values.

Validation ID: W1082

• po_2_ethnicity.multi_value_field_restriction
• When 'ethnicity of principal owner 2' contains 966 (the applicant responded that they did not wish to provide this information) or 988 (not provided by applicant), 'ethnicity of principal owner 2' should not contain more than one value.

Validation ID: W1121

• po_2_race.duplicates_in_field
• 'Race of principal owner 2' should not contain duplicated values.

Validation ID: W1122

• po_2_race.multi_value_field_restriction
• When 'race of principal owner 2' contains 966 (the applicant responded that they did not wish to provide this information) or 988 (not provided by applicant), 'race of principal owner 2' should not contain more than one value.

Validation ID: W1261

• po_3_ethnicity.duplicates_in_field
• 'Ethnicity of principal owner 3' should not contain duplicated values.

Validation ID: W1262

• po_3_ethnicity.multi_value_field_restriction
• When 'ethnicity of principal owner 3' contains 966 (the applicant responded that they did not wish to provide this information) or 988 (not provided by applicant), 'ethnicity of principal owner 3' should not contain more than one value.

Validation ID: W1301

• po_3_race.duplicates_in_field
• 'Race of principal owner 3' should not contain duplicated values.

Validation ID: W1302

• po_3_race.multi_value_field_restriction
• When 'race of principal owner 3' contains 966 (the applicant responded that they did not wish to provide this information) or 988 (not provided by applicant), 'race of principal owner 3' should not contain more than one value.

Validation ID: W1441

• po_4_ethnicity.duplicates_in_field
• 'Ethnicity of principal owner 4' should not contain duplicated values.

Validation ID: W1442

• po_4_ethnicity.multi_value_field_restriction
• When 'ethnicity of principal owner 4' contains 966 (the applicant responded that they did not wish to provide this information) or 988 (not provided by applicant), 'ethnicity of principal owner 4' should not contain more than one value.

Validation ID: W1481

• po_4_race.duplicates_in_field
• 'Race of principal owner 4' should not contain duplicated values.

Validation ID: W1482

• po_4_race.multi_value_field_restriction
• When 'race of principal owner 4' contains 966 (the applicant responded that they did not wish to provide this information) or 988 (not provided by applicant), 'race of principal owner 4' should not contain more than one value.

4.5. Multi-field warnings

Validation id: w2002.

• ct_guarantee_ff.multi_invalid_number_of_values
• 'Type of guarantee' and 'free-form text field for other guarantee' combined should not contain more than five values. Code 977 (other), within 'type of guarantee', does not count toward the maximum number of values for the purpose of this validation check.

Validation ID: W2006

• credit_purpose_ff.multi_invalid_number_of_values
• 'Credit purpose' and 'free-form text field for other credit purpose' combined should not contain more than three values. Code 977 (other), within 'credit purpose', does not count toward the maximum number of values for the purpose of this validation check.

Validation ID: W2010

• action_taken_date.unreasonable_date_value
• The date indicated by 'application date' should generally be less than two years (730 days) before 'action taken date'.

Validation ID: W2013

• denial_reasons_ff.multi_invalid_number_of_values
• 'Denial reason(s)' and 'free-form text field for other denial reason(s)' combined should not contain more than four values. Code 977 (other), within 'Denial reason(s)', does not count toward the maximum number of values for the purpose of this validation check.

Validation ID: W2035

• po_demographics_0.conditional_fieldset_conflict
• When 'number of principal owners' equals 0 or is blank, demographic fields for principal owners 1, 2, 3, and 4 should be blank.

Validation ID: W2036

• po_demographics_1.conditional_fieldset_conflict
• When 'number of principal owners' equals 1, 'ethnicity of principal owner 1', 'race of principal owner 1', and 'sex/gender of principal owner 1: NP flag' should not be blank.
• Demographic fields for principal owners 2, 3, and 4 should be blank.

Validation ID: W2037

• po_demographics_2.conditional_fieldset_conflict
• When 'number of principal owners' equals 2, 'ethnicity of principal owner 1 and 2', 'race of principal owner 1 and 2', and 'sex/gender of principal owner 1 and 2: NP flag' should not be blank.
• Demographic fields for principal owners 3 and 4 should be blank.

Validation ID: W2038

• po_demographics_3.conditional_fieldset_conflict
• When 'number of principal owners' equals 3, 'ethnicity of principal owner 1, 2, and 3', 'race of principal owner 1, 2, and 3', and 'sex/gender of principal owner 1, 2, and 3: NP flag' should not be blank.
• Demographic fields for principal owner 4 should be blank.

Validation ID: W2039

• po_demographics_4.conditional_fieldset_conflict
• When 'number of principal owners' equals 4, 'ethnicity of principal owner 1, 2, 3, and 4', 'race of principal owner 1, 2, 3, and 4', and 'sex/gender of principal owner 1, 2, 3, and 4: NP flag' should not be blank.

5. Where to get help

Resources to help industry understand and comply with the small business lending rule are available on the CFPB’s website. Learn about complying with the small business lending rule.

You may also sign up for an email distribution list that the CFPB will use to announce future updates and additional resources as they become available. If you have a specific regulatory interpretation question about the small business lending rule after reviewing these resources, you can submit the question to the CFPB on its website.

6. Paperwork Reduction Act

According to the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995, an agency may not conduct or sponsor, and, notwithstanding any other provision of law, a person is not required to respond to a collection of information unless it displays a valid OMB control number. The OMB control number for this collection is 3170-0013. It expires on November 30, 2025. The obligation to respond to this collection of information is mandatory under section 704B of the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, 15 U.S.C. 1691c-2, as implemented by Consumer Financial Protection Bureau’s Regulation B, 12 CFR part 1002. Comments regarding this collection of information, including the estimated response time, suggestions for improving the usefulness of the information, or suggestions for reducing the burden to respond to this collection should be submitted to the Bureau of Consumer Financial Protection (Attention: PRA Office), 1700 G Street NW, Washington, DC 20552, or by email to [email protected] .

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• Pokémon Go guide

Pokémon Go ‘2024 World Championships’ event research tasks, spawns, and bonuses guide

Celebrate competitive Pokémon with this scuba Pikachu

by Julia Lee and Matthew Reynolds

An in-game 2024 Pokémon World Championships event in Pokémon Go celebrates Hawaii-set competition taking place between Aug. 16-20.

During this event, you’ll be able to do up to five Special Trades a day (instead of just one) and you’ll be able to use Charged TMs to overwrite the Shadow Pokémon move Frustration.

Other highlights include the debut of Pikachu in scuba gear and shiny Mienfoo . Neither are available in the wild, requiring you to complete Field Research or Raids to encounter them.

Elsewhere, Go Battle Week: Shared Skies is running at the same time as this event, which offers free Timed Research and a four times increase in Stardust when you win Go Battle League bouts.

Additionally, a series of Twitch drops from the 2024 World Championships give you the chance to earn up to three additional Timed Research quests, as well as a unique avatar item.

Below we list all the perks and bonuses associated with the Pokémon Go 2024 World Championships event, including the Timed Research, event Field Research, and boosted spawns.

Pokémon Go ‘2024 World Championships’ event Field Research and rewards

Spinning a PokéStop during the event period may yield one of these tasks:

• Battle in the Go Battle League (Swablu, Mareanie encounter)
• Battle in the Go Battle League 5 times (Pikachu [Scuba / World Championships 2024] encounter
• Power up Pokémon 10 times (Mienfoo encounter)
• Power up Pokémon 15 times (Pikachu [Scuba / World Championships 2024] encounter)
• Spin 5 PokéStops or Gyms (5 Poké Balls, 2 Revives, or 3 Super Potions)
• Win a raid (Pikachu [Scuba / World Championships 2024] encounter)

Thanks to Leekduck for filling in the gaps on the above.

Pokémon Go ‘2024 World Championships’ event boosted spawns

These Pokémon will spawn more frequently during the event period:

• Paldean Wooper

Pokémon Go ‘2024 World Championships’ event raid targets

These Pokémon will be in raids during the event. Elsewhere, our raid schedule guide also shows what else is appearing later in the month.

Pokémon Go ‘2024 World Championships’ featured attacks

Pokémon caught during the event will have the following attacks:

• Lickitung (Charged Attack “Body Slam”)
• Mienfoo (Charged Attack “High Jump Kick”)

Meanwhile, Pokémon evolved during the event will learn the following attacks:

• Altaria (Charged Attack “Moonblast”)
• Charjabug (Charged Attack “Volt Switch”)
• Quagsire (Charged Attack “Aqua Tail”)
• Talonflame (Fast Attack “Incinerate”)

Pokémon Go ‘2024 Worlds Premium Timed Research’ rewards

There is just a single step in the “2024 Worlds Premium Timed Research”:

• Power up Pokémon 5 times (Skarmory encounter)
• Power up Pokémon 10 times (Vigoroth encounter)
• Use 5 supereffective charged attacks (Galarian Stunfisk encounter)
• Use 10 supereffective charged attacks (Charjabug encounter)
• Win a raid (Carbink encounter)
• Win 2 raids (Lanturn encounter)
• Battle in the Go Battle League (Lickitung encounter)
• Battle in the Go Battle League 5 times (Azumarill encounter)

Rewards : Cresselia encounter, 2,024 Stardust, 1 Premium Battle Pass

Is the ‘2024 Worlds Premium Timed Research’ worth it?

At $5, this research is pretty much only worth it if you like doing PvP (Player versus Player, known in-game as Go Battle League.)

Most of the rewards here are catered towards PvP players, as the rewards are highly-used PvP Pokémon. A (albeit small) factor to consider here is all encounters from research give a higher-than-average set of stats (they will have an “IV floor” of 10/10/10, out of a possible max of 15/15/15), so if you’re after more-powerful-than-average versions of these creatures — especially as many have the potential to be shiny — then that’s worth considering.

It’s also worth noting a Shadow Cresselia is available if you complete the latest Giovanni Special Research, “ Adventure Week: Taken Over ”, meaning there’s a free (and more powerful) version of that Pokémon currently up for grabs if you’d rather not buy this ticket.

Otherwise, there aren’t any items here that make the research directly worth it (the solitary Premium Battle Pass is worth 100 Coins, or around $1) but if you’re looking to get into PvP or build PvP teams, this may be worth your money.

Either way, if you want to get some free Timed Research this weekend, then you can claim up to three sets from Twitch drops during the 2024 World Championships before it ends on Sunday.

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How to Write a Research Paper | A Beginner's Guide

A research paper is a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation, and argument based on in-depth independent research.

Research papers are similar to academic essays , but they are usually longer and more detailed assignments, designed to assess not only your writing skills but also your skills in scholarly research. Writing a research paper requires you to demonstrate a strong knowledge of your topic, engage with a variety of sources, and make an original contribution to the debate.

This step-by-step guide takes you through the entire writing process, from understanding your assignment to proofreading your final draft.

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Table of contents

Understand the assignment, choose a research paper topic, conduct preliminary research, develop a thesis statement, create a research paper outline, write a first draft of the research paper, write the introduction, write a compelling body of text, write the conclusion, the second draft, the revision process, research paper checklist, free lecture slides.

Completing a research paper successfully means accomplishing the specific tasks set out for you. Before you start, make sure you thoroughly understanding the assignment task sheet:

• Read it carefully, looking for anything confusing you might need to clarify with your professor.
• Identify the assignment goal, deadline, length specifications, formatting, and submission method.
• Make a bulleted list of the key points, then go back and cross completed items off as you’re writing.

Carefully consider your timeframe and word limit: be realistic, and plan enough time to research, write, and edit.

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There are many ways to generate an idea for a research paper, from brainstorming with pen and paper to talking it through with a fellow student or professor.

You can try free writing, which involves taking a broad topic and writing continuously for two or three minutes to identify absolutely anything relevant that could be interesting.

You can also gain inspiration from other research. The discussion or recommendations sections of research papers often include ideas for other specific topics that require further examination.

Once you have a broad subject area, narrow it down to choose a topic that interests you, m eets the criteria of your assignment, and i s possible to research. Aim for ideas that are both original and specific:

• A paper following the chronology of World War II would not be original or specific enough.
• A paper on the experience of Danish citizens living close to the German border during World War II would be specific and could be original enough.

Note any discussions that seem important to the topic, and try to find an issue that you can focus your paper around. Use a variety of sources , including journals, books, and reliable websites, to ensure you do not miss anything glaring.

Do not only verify the ideas you have in mind, but look for sources that contradict your point of view.

• Is there anything people seem to overlook in the sources you research?
• Are there any heated debates you can address?
• Do you have a unique take on your topic?
• Have there been some recent developments that build on the extant research?

In this stage, you might find it helpful to formulate some research questions to help guide you. To write research questions, try to finish the following sentence: “I want to know how/what/why…”

A thesis statement is a statement of your central argument — it establishes the purpose and position of your paper. If you started with a research question, the thesis statement should answer it. It should also show what evidence and reasoning you’ll use to support that answer.

The thesis statement should be concise, contentious, and coherent. That means it should briefly summarize your argument in a sentence or two, make a claim that requires further evidence or analysis, and make a coherent point that relates to every part of the paper.

You will probably revise and refine the thesis statement as you do more research, but it can serve as a guide throughout the writing process. Every paragraph should aim to support and develop this central claim.

A research paper outline is essentially a list of the key topics, arguments, and evidence you want to include, divided into sections with headings so that you know roughly what the paper will look like before you start writing.

A structure outline can help make the writing process much more efficient, so it’s worth dedicating some time to create one.

Your first draft won’t be perfect — you can polish later on. Your priorities at this stage are as follows:

• Maintaining forward momentum — write now, perfect later.
• Paying attention to clear organization and logical ordering of paragraphs and sentences, which will help when you come to the second draft.
• Expressing your ideas as clearly as possible, so you know what you were trying to say when you come back to the text.

You do not need to start by writing the introduction. Begin where it feels most natural for you — some prefer to finish the most difficult sections first, while others choose to start with the easiest part. If you created an outline, use it as a map while you work.

Do not delete large sections of text. If you begin to dislike something you have written or find it doesn’t quite fit, move it to a different document, but don’t lose it completely — you never know if it might come in useful later.

Paragraph structure

Paragraphs are the basic building blocks of research papers. Each one should focus on a single claim or idea that helps to establish the overall argument or purpose of the paper.

Example paragraph

George Orwell’s 1946 essay “Politics and the English Language” has had an enduring impact on thought about the relationship between politics and language. This impact is particularly obvious in light of the various critical review articles that have recently referenced the essay. For example, consider Mark Falcoff’s 2009 article in The National Review Online, “The Perversion of Language; or, Orwell Revisited,” in which he analyzes several common words (“activist,” “civil-rights leader,” “diversity,” and more). Falcoff’s close analysis of the ambiguity built into political language intentionally mirrors Orwell’s own point-by-point analysis of the political language of his day. Even 63 years after its publication, Orwell’s essay is emulated by contemporary thinkers.

Citing sources

It’s also important to keep track of citations at this stage to avoid accidental plagiarism . Each time you use a source, make sure to take note of where the information came from.

You can use our free citation generators to automatically create citations and save your reference list as you go.

APA Citation Generator MLA Citation Generator

The research paper introduction should address three questions: What, why, and how? After finishing the introduction, the reader should know what the paper is about, why it is worth reading, and how you’ll build your arguments.

What? Be specific about the topic of the paper, introduce the background, and define key terms or concepts.

Why? This is the most important, but also the most difficult, part of the introduction. Try to provide brief answers to the following questions: What new material or insight are you offering? What important issues does your essay help define or answer?

How? To let the reader know what to expect from the rest of the paper, the introduction should include a “map” of what will be discussed, briefly presenting the key elements of the paper in chronological order.

The major struggle faced by most writers is how to organize the information presented in the paper, which is one reason an outline is so useful. However, remember that the outline is only a guide and, when writing, you can be flexible with the order in which the information and arguments are presented.

One way to stay on track is to use your thesis statement and topic sentences . Check:

• topic sentences against the thesis statement;
• topic sentences against each other, for similarities and logical ordering;
• and each sentence against the topic sentence of that paragraph.

Be aware of paragraphs that seem to cover the same things. If two paragraphs discuss something similar, they must approach that topic in different ways. Aim to create smooth transitions between sentences, paragraphs, and sections.

The research paper conclusion is designed to help your reader out of the paper’s argument, giving them a sense of finality.

Trace the course of the paper, emphasizing how it all comes together to prove your thesis statement. Give the paper a sense of finality by making sure the reader understands how you’ve settled the issues raised in the introduction.

You might also discuss the more general consequences of the argument, outline what the paper offers to future students of the topic, and suggest any questions the paper’s argument raises but cannot or does not try to answer.

You should not :

• Offer new arguments or essential information
• Take up any more space than necessary
• Begin with stock phrases that signal you are ending the paper (e.g. “In conclusion”)

There are four main considerations when it comes to the second draft.

• Check how your vision of the paper lines up with the first draft and, more importantly, that your paper still answers the assignment.
• Identify any assumptions that might require (more substantial) justification, keeping your reader’s perspective foremost in mind. Remove these points if you cannot substantiate them further.
• Be open to rearranging your ideas. Check whether any sections feel out of place and whether your ideas could be better organized.
• If you find that old ideas do not fit as well as you anticipated, you should cut them out or condense them. You might also find that new and well-suited ideas occurred to you during the writing of the first draft — now is the time to make them part of the paper.

The goal during the revision and proofreading process is to ensure you have completed all the necessary tasks and that the paper is as well-articulated as possible. You can speed up the proofreading process by using the AI proofreader .

Global concerns

• Confirm that your paper completes every task specified in your assignment sheet.
• Check for logical organization and flow of paragraphs.
• Check paragraphs against the introduction and thesis statement.

Fine-grained details

Check the content of each paragraph, making sure that:

• each sentence helps support the topic sentence.
• no unnecessary or irrelevant information is present.
• all technical terms your audience might not know are identified.

Next, think about sentence structure , grammatical errors, and formatting . Check that you have correctly used transition words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas. Look for typos, cut unnecessary words, and check for consistency in aspects such as heading formatting and spellings .

Finally, you need to make sure your paper is correctly formatted according to the rules of the citation style you are using. For example, you might need to include an MLA heading  or create an APA title page .

Scribbr’s professional editors can help with the revision process with our award-winning proofreading services.

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Checklist: Research paper

I have followed all instructions in the assignment sheet.

My introduction presents my topic in an engaging way and provides necessary background information.

My introduction presents a clear, focused research problem and/or thesis statement .

My paper is logically organized using paragraphs and (if relevant) section headings .

Each paragraph is clearly focused on one central idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence .

Each paragraph is relevant to my research problem or thesis statement.

I have used appropriate transitions  to clarify the connections between sections, paragraphs, and sentences.

My conclusion provides a concise answer to the research question or emphasizes how the thesis has been supported.

My conclusion shows how my research has contributed to knowledge or understanding of my topic.

My conclusion does not present any new points or information essential to my argument.

I have provided an in-text citation every time I refer to ideas or information from a source.

I have included a reference list at the end of my paper, consistently formatted according to a specific citation style .

I have thoroughly revised my paper and addressed any feedback from my professor or supervisor.

I have followed all formatting guidelines (page numbers, headers, spacing, etc.).

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What to Know About the Democratic National Convention

Vice President Kamala Harris and her running mate, Gov. Tim Walz of Minnesota, will be the stars in Chicago.

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By Maggie Astor

The Democratic National Convention is almost upon us, following the Republican convention last month. Once it’s over, it will be a 75-day sprint to Election Day.

Here is what to know about the convention.

When is the Democratic National Convention?

The convention will run from Monday, Aug. 19, through Thursday, Aug. 22.

Where is it?

It will be held at two venues in Chicago: The United Center, an arena on the city’s West Side, will host evening events — that is, the prime-time programming and speeches intended for public consumption. McCormick Place, which is downtown near Lake Michigan, will host daytime events, largely official party business and meetings.

Who will be there?

Vice President Kamala Harris and her running mate, Gov. Tim Walz of Minnesota, will be the stars, and President Biden is expected to speak as well. But the full list and schedule of the speakers has not yet been released, and Ms. Harris’s campaign and the Democratic National Convention committee have declined so far to confirm any names besides Ms. Harris and Mr. Walz.

Republicans, during their convention, didn’t publicize their speaking schedule until close to the start of each night’s programming.

Typically, though, conventions feature a wide array of prominent people within the party, such as governors, members of Congress and former elected officials. Spouses of the nominees and other family members often speak or make appearances. And Americans who aren’t famous generally get some stage time as well, speaking about personal experiences that touch the themes and policies the nominee wants to emphasize.

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