music and heart rate experiment

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Article Contents

Introduction, effects of music on the heart in healthy individuals, effects of music in patients with heart disease, methodological recommendations, conclusions, acknowledgement.

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Music and the heart

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Stefan Koelsch, Lutz Jäncke, Music and the heart, European Heart Journal , Volume 36, Issue 44, 21 November 2015, Pages 3043–3049, https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehv430

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Music can powerfully evoke and modulate emotions and moods, along with changes in heart activity, blood pressure (BP), and breathing. Although there is great heterogeneity in methods and quality among previous studies on effects of music on the heart, the following findings emerge from the literature: Heart rate (HR) and respiratory rate (RR) are higher in response to exciting music compared with tranquilizing music. During musical frissons (involving shivers and piloerection), both HR and RR increase. Moreover, HR and RR tend to increase in response to music compared with silence, and HR appears to decrease in response to unpleasant music compared with pleasant music. We found no studies that would provide evidence for entrainment of HR to musical beats. Corresponding to the increase in HR, listening to exciting music (compared with tranquilizing music) is associated with a reduction of heart rate variability (HRV), including reductions of both low-frequency and high-frequency power of the HRV. Recent findings also suggest effects of music-evoked emotions on regional activity of the heart, as reflected in electrocardiogram amplitude patterns. In patients with heart disease (similar to other patient groups), music can reduce pain and anxiety, associated with lower HR and lower BP. In general, effects of music on the heart are small, and there is great inhomogeneity among studies with regard to methods, findings, and quality. Therefore, there is urgent need for systematic high-quality research on the effects of music on the heart, and on the beneficial effects of music in clinical settings.

Music is a powerful stimulus for evoking and modulating emotions as well as moods, 1–3 and is associated with activity changes in brain structures known to modulate heart activity, such as the hypothalamus, amygdala, insular cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex. 2 , 4 , 5 Effects of emotions and affective traits on heart activity are due to several pathways transmitting information into the cardiac nerve plexus, such as autonomic and endocrine pathways, blood pressure (BP), and blood gases. 5 , 6 On the other hand, cardiovascular afferent neurons provide the autonomic nervous system (ANS) with information about BP as well as the mechanical and chemical milieu of the heart. 7 , 8 Such sensory information modulates autonomic outflow, and contributes to emotional experience as interoceptive information. 9 Owing to these mechanisms, music-evoked emotions have effects on the regulation of regional heart activity, heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), BP, and respiratory rate (RR).

However, studies on effects of music on the heart have often yielded inconsistent results. These inconsistencies (in both healthy and clinical study groups) are probably due to the use of very inhomogeneous methods and musical stimuli used across studies. Note that the term ‘music’ itself refers to a great variety of musical genres and styles, all subsumed under the umbrella concept of music, and many studies did not clearly specify the particular style of music used, nor the particular emotional effects evoked by the musical stimuli. Thus, it is no wonder that music studies yield a variety of different physiological effects, given the great variety of musical stimuli. For example, use of (i) energizing (usually fast) or tranquilizing (usually slow) music, (ii) self-selected music (usually associated with memories and stronger pleasantness) or experimenter-selected music, (iii) beat-based music (usually with a drum set, e.g. Rock, Jazz, and Latin), or music that is not beat based but based on an isochronous pulse (e.g. most of classical music, which is often also characterized by distinct tension-resolution patterns that have particular emotional effects), or music not based on an isochronous pulse (e.g. many pieces of ‘ambient music’, meditation music, or ‘new age music’), (iv) music with or without lyrics, (v) active music making or passive music listening (and passive listening with or without the presence of a music therapist), and (vi) natural music (e.g. recorded from commercially available CDs) or artificial music stimuli (e.g. without variations in tempo and loudness in order to have maximum control over the acoustical stimulus).

If participants bring their own music (‘participant-selected music’), it is virtually impossible to control any of these variables. On the other hand, studies using experimenter-selected music suffer from a high risk of missing out on positive emotional effects (or even risk annoying the participant or the patient). To help overcoming methodological problems, we will provide methodological recommendations for future studies at the end of this review. Before we do so, we will first review effects of music on the heart in healthy subjects, and then review (potentially) beneficial effects of music in patients with heart disease.

Although there are numerous inconsistencies between studies, there are also some consistent findings (summarized in Table 1 ), which we will review in following [studies included in this review were identified using the database Web of Science (Thomson Reuters, NY, USA) and the keywords ‘music and HR’ and ‘music and HRV’; only studies with healthy participants were included; studies were excluded if they included fewer than 12 participants, if stimuli were <30 s, if there was no adequate control condition, or if data were not acquired during music listening].

Summary of effects of music on heart rate, heart rate variability, and respiration

Arrows in brackets indicate that only few studies are available, or that reliability across studies is only moderate.

HR, heart rate; HRV, heart rate variability; SDNN, standard deviation of NN intervals.

Heart rate is regulated by numerous reflex-like circuits involving both brainstem structures and intra-thoracic cardiac ganglia, which are in turn under the influence of cortical forebrain structures involved in emotion such as hypothalamus, amygdala, insular cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex. 5 Activity of these forebrain structures can be modulated by music-evoked emotions. 1 , 2 , 4 Generally, emotional arousal is associated with a predominance of sympathetic ANS activity, thus leading to an increase in HR, whereas a predominance of parasympathetic ANS activity leads to a decrease of HR. Correspondingly, several studies report that listening to music evoking higher levels of emotional arousal is associated with higher HR than HR elicited by tranquilizing music, 10–18 and that exciting music is associated with higher RR than tranquilizing music. 10–15 , 19 A recent study reported that, if arousal is balanced, even considerable tempo differences (90 vs. 120 beats per minute) do not evoke changes inHR. 16 Thus, up to now, there is no evidence for entrainment of HR to musical beats. 20

The increase of HR accompanying music-evoked emotional arousal is consistent with the observation that HR increases during music-evoked frissons (i.e. intensely pleasurable feelings with high-emotional arousal involving shivers and/or goosebumps, also referred to as ‘chills’). 21–26 This HR increase during musical frissons parallels an increase inRR 23–25 or respiratory depth. 21 A recent study found an HR increase following piloerection onset (i.e. onset of goosebumps) during a frisson, but no significant increase in HR during chills without piloerection. 26 Therefore, to measure reliable HR changes during music-evoked frissons, or ‘chills’, it is recommended to use objective measures of piloerection. 24

Another relatively consistent effect of music is an increase in HR compared with silence, 13 , 16 , 27–35 although this change is small (usually about 1–2 beats per minute, thus considerably smaller than the respiratory sinus arrhythmia), often statistically not significant, 13 , 16 , 27 , 29 , 30 varying during music presentation, 32 , 35 and not consistent across studies. 11 , 17 Several studies also report an increase in RR in response to music (when compared with silence). 11 , 13 , 27 , 32 Interestingly, even simple isochronous auditory pulses (without melody, rhythm, or harmonies) can elicit such effects on HR 16 andRR. 32 This shows that the tactus (or ‘beat’) of music alone has a pivotal role in ANS responses to music.

Heart rate variability

Similar to HR, HRV is modulated by limbic and paralimbic brain structures and is thus affected by emotional processes. 36 Consonant with the effects of music on HR, the HRV in terms of the standard deviation of the beat-to-beat intervals (SDNN) appears to be lower during exciting than tranquilizing music (probably because HRV is usually negatively correlated with HR), 16 , 17 , 19 , 37 , 38 and lower during music compared with silence (see also Figure 1 ). 16 However, these statements have to be treated with caution because surprisingly few music studies report SDNN data.

Effects of music on heart rate variability. The figure shows a decrease of HRV (SDNN) in response to music (pleasant, unpleasant) or isochronous tones compared with a rest condition (silence) in four independent groups of subjects (left panel: n = 76; middle panel: n = 30; right panel healthy subjects: n = 32; right panel Crohn's disease patients: n = 19). The left panel shows that HRV reduces even in response to isochronous tones (i.e. even by a simple tactus, or ‘beat’ without melody, harmony, or rhythm). The middle panel shows that similar HRV occurs in response to slower (90 beats per minute) and faster musical stimuli (120 beats per minute) when arousal is balanced (there was no significant difference in felt arousal between slow and fast music). Note that the valence of the music (felt pleasantness/unpleasantness) had no systematic effects on the HRV, and that HRV modulations by music were virtually identical for healthy individuals and patients with Crohn's disease (right panel). Silence: rest condition without music or any other stimulus; pleasant : pleasant music; unpleasant : unpleasant music; isochronous tones : sequences of ascending so-called Shepard-tones; Lg SDNN : logarithmized standard deviation of NN intervals. Filled squares (healthy subjects) and diamonds (Crohn's disease patients) indicate estimated marginal means with 95% confidence intervals. Figure modified with permission from Krabs et al. 16

Likewise, only tentative statements can be made regarding frequency domain measures of the HRV. The high-frequency (HF) spectral power was reported to be lower during music than silence, 16 , 34 and lower during exciting music compared with less exciting music. 17 , 37 Similarly, the low-frequency (LF) spectral power was reported to be lower in response to exciting music compared with less exciting music, 38 or in response to music compared with silence. 16 Although the interpretation of LF and HF as measures of sympathetic and parasympathetic outflow has been challenged as being overly simplistic, 39 there is consensus that reductions of HF and LF during music listening reflect a modulation of both sympathetic and parasympathetic tone.

Inconsistent results have been reported regarding the LF to HF ratio. 13 , 16 , 34 As with studies on music and HR, the methods, the styles of the musical stimuli, and the quality of these studies vary greatly. Note that a stronger reduction in LF than in HF leads to a reduction in LF/HF, while a stronger reduction in HF than in LF leads to an increase in LF/HF. Also note that musical stimuli can have both exciting and relaxing effects: For example, already at the brainstem level, the musical beats of a piece of heavy metal music elicit visceromotor (autonomic) responses. 2 On the other hand, for a heavy metal enthusiast, such music can have stress-reducing effects (including endocrine and immune changes). 40 Thus, music can elicit both exciting and relaxing effects at the same time, involving both autonomic and endocrine activity, making it challenging to pin down peripheral physiological effects of music to specific emotional processes. Future studies are necessary to specify how reduction of stress, relaxation, or activation with music contributes to changes in the spectral components of HRV.

Effects of music-evoked emotions on regional heart activity

To investigate effects of music on the heart, measures of regional activity of the heart might also be informative, in addition to HR and HRV. Regional cardiac function (such as conduction of excitation, conduction velocity, contractile force, coronary circulation, and aspects of cardiac valve function) is reflected in amplitudes and timing of electrocardiogram (ECG) waves. Regional heart activity is modulated by the activity of neurons within the cardiac nerve plexus, which are influenced by emotions and affective traits via several pathways: (i) Autonomic activity is transmitted into the cardiac nerve plexus by both parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve fibres. 41 As mentioned above, autonomic outflow to the heart is modulated by forebrain structures which are involved in music-evoked emotions. 2 Note that left and right brain hemispheric differences in emotions and affective traits 42 contribute to asymmetric autonomic outflow that modulates regional heart activity, due to innervation of the anterior surface of the heart by the right cardiac nerve, and of the posterolateral and posterior surface by the left cardiac nerve. 43 , 44 (2) Emotions (such as anxiety, stress, or relaxation) have effects on circulating hormones (such as adrenalin and angiotensin II). 40 (3) Blood pressure and blood gases are modulated by breathing frequency and breathing depth (which are affected by emotions).

In clinical groups, the diverse effects of affective traits on the heart have been demonstrated by a plethora of clinical and experimental evidence implicating anger, hostility, depression and anxiety in the occurrence of arteriosclerosis, coronary artery disease, hypertension, myocardial ischaemia and infarction, cardiac arrhythmia formation, and sudden cardiac death. 45 Thus, studying effects of music on the brain–heart-axis can potentially have great clinical significance. For example, it was shown that regional cardiac activity differs between individuals with flattened affect and normal controls, 46 and that a cardiac amplitude signature of flattened affect (see Figure 2 A ) is associated with reduced neural activity in the hippocampal formation in response to music. 6 , 46 Moreover, this cardiac amplitude signature appears to change slightly during musical frissons (see Figure 2 B ). 26 Thus, ECG amplitudes as electrophysiological markers of regional cardiac activity are highly promising and highly innovative parameters for future research on effects of (music-evoked) emotions on the heart, including potential preventive and therapeutic interventions.

Effects of music on regional activity of the heart. ( A ) In addition to heart rate and heart rate variability, new approaches investigate effects of music on the regional activity of the heart as reflected in the amplitudes of ECG waves. For example, the computation of the ECG amplitudes indicated in red according to the formula shown in the right panel results in a value ( E κ ) shown to be associated with flattened emotionality (low E κ values correspond to flattened emotionality). 6 , 46 ( B ) During frissons with piloerection (evoked by music and film clips) E κ values transiently increase (solid line) compared with when no frisson is experienced during the same stimuli (dashed line, black filled circles indicate significant differences from zero, 568 piloerection incidences were recorded from 25 individuals, E κ was not correlated with HR). 26 The increase in E κ during frissons reflects changes in the regional activity of the heart.

Emotional valence

Some studies investigating the effects of emotional valence (i.e. pleasure or displeasure) evoked by music reported that compared with negative valence (displeasure), positive valence (pleasure) is associated with higher HR, 11 , 23 , 32 , 47 as well as higher electrodermal activity (EDA, a physiological marker of sympathetic activity), 11 , 16 , 23 , 48 , 49 and higher respiratory frequency. 32 However, often it is difficult to separate effects of pleasure from arousal effects, 23 and other studies did not demonstrate associations between the valence of music and HR, 16 , 50 nor EDA, 50 , 51 or HRV. 11 , 16 The combined findings suggest that HR and HRV are influenced more strongly by emotional arousal, rather than by felt pleasantness. 15 However, future studies are needed to specify the effects (and the size of effects) of music and music-evoked emotions on HR and HRV (see Methodological recommendations).

In patients with heart disease, as well as in other clinical groups, the reduction of anxiety with music is a relatively consistent finding (as will be reviewed below). The reduction of pain is also relatively consistent, but small. However, other physiological and clinical effects of music on the heart in studies with clinical groups (such as BP, wound healing, or duration of hospitalization) are inconsistent.

Four meta-analytic Cochrane reviews consistently reported that music can reduce anxiety in patients with coronary heart disease, 52 mechanically ventilated patients, 53 cancer patients, 54 and patients awaiting surgical procedures. 55 Based on these reviews, Bradt et al . 55 concluded that music interventions appear to provide a viable alternative to sedatives and anti-anxiety drugs for reducing anxiety. Supporting these findings, two further reviews report reduction of pre- 56 and perioperative 57 anxiety by music, as well as reduction of anxiety in patients receiving mechanical ventilatory support. 58 Although no meta-analysis is available on heart catheterization or coronary angiography, a meta-analysis by Bechtold et al . 59 reported anxiety reduction in patients undergoing colonoscopy. Thus, it is likely that music also reduces anxiety, thus increasing well-being, in patients undergoing coronary angiographic procedures. This notion is supported by a randomized controlled study on this topic. 60 Particularly relevant for heart patients is that the reduction in anxiety (i.e. psychological stress) with music is also associated with a reduction ofHR, 52 , 53 , 55 and perhaps of systolic BP 52 (but see also Bradt et al . 55 who reported effects on diastolic, but not systolic BP). However, it is important to note that all mentioned reviews suffer from a high risk of bias due to methodological weaknesses of the included studies (such as lack of blinding, small sample size, or lack of control stimuli). Therefore, there is dire need for high-quality studies on the effects of music on the heart in both healthy individuals and patients.

Blood pressure

The anxiety-reducing effects of music are probably also associated with (small) reductions in BP. In addition, music has been used in hypertensive patients to lower BP by guiding slow and regular breathing. 61 Such effects of music on BP are consistent with meta-analytic data indicating (small) reductions of RR and BP in patients due to music interventions. 54

Another Cochrane meta-analysis reported pain-reducing effects of music in coronary heart disease patients, 52 consistent with two other Cochrane meta-analyses on the use of music for pain relief in patients. 54 , 62 However, the analyses state that the magnitude of the pain reduction is small 52 , 62 to moderate. 54 These effects are probably due to effects of music on brain opioid and oxytocin mechanisms 2 , 63 (associated with music-evoked activity changes within diencephalon-centred- and hippocampus-centred-affected systems). 2 , 64 Supporting this notion, a study by Nilsson reported an increase in oxytocin in response to soothing music during bed rest after open-heart surgery. 65

Other potential effects and applications

In addition to the clinical settings mentioned above, music has been used to reduce anxiety and pain during chair-rest after open-heart procedure, 66 and after percutaneous coronary interventions in patients undergoing a C-clamp procedure. 67 Moreover, in addition to the studies showing reductions of anxiety and pain, a meta-analysis by de Niet et al . 68 (later substantiated by Kamioka et al . 69 ) reported improvement of sleep quality due to music-assisted relaxation.

Music and depression

It is well established that depression and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are related. For example, patients with early-onset depression are at increased risk for developing CVD. 70 This adverse effect was present even when statistically correcting for cardiovascular risk factors, and even in the absence of a diagnosis of major depression. Depression increases the risk for CVD by 1.5–2 times in otherwise physically healthy individuals. 71 Correspondingly, depression is more common in patients with CVD such as stroke, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, and myocardial infarction. 72 Since several studies have demonstrated that pleasant music can activate the reward system (including the mesolimbic dopaminergic reward pathway) 2 music might also be useful in treating depression and CVD associated with depression. However, the evidence for beneficial effects of music therapy in the treatment of depression is surprisingly weak (mainly due to the lack of high-quality studies), 73 calling for more research in this area, in particular with regard to depression-related CVD.

As reviewed above, there is great heterogeneity of methods and, correspondingly, of results of studies on effects of music on the heart. Moreover, many studies (in particular clinical studies) suffer from numerous methodological shortcomings. Therefore, the following recommendations are aimed at helping to overcome methodological problems in future research (see Table 2 for summary).

We advocate an accurate characterization of musical and acoustical features of the stimuli used. Stimuli, or stimulus sets, need to be characterized with regard to musical genre, tempo, instrumentation, loudness, and ideally also pulse clarity, variation of fundamental frequency, key strength, as well as spectral components (including sensory consonance/dissonance). Moreover, it is important to characterize the emotional impact of the stimuli to participants. This should at least comprise measures of felt valence (pleasantness/unpleasantness) and arousal/relaxation. Note that music can often evoke mixed emotions and that, although sadness is an emotion with negative valence, sad music is often perceived as positive. 74

Although this is a hotly debated topic, we recommend using different sets of music prepared by the experimenter (e.g. Classic, Jazz, Country, etc.) from which participants can choose. Thus, music stimuli of different sets can be well matched (and acoustically as well as musically analysed and characterized), and there is a high likelihood that the music has positive valence for the participants. Note that in clinical practice, there are three major advantages if the physician ‘prescribes’ specially selected music (with a style according to the participant's taste and preference): (a) beneficial effects will be stronger due to additional placebo-effects (for pain see Cepeda et al . 62 ), (b) the physician is less likely to be bothered by the music, and (c) the patient is not worried that the physician is bothered by the music. 75 Our recommendation comes with the caveat that participant-selected music is more appropriate when investigating very intense emotional reactions to music (such as frissons, or being moved to tears), because such reactions are in most individuals evoked only by very specific musical pieces. 21–26

It is important to assess musical preferences for the intended listening situation. The emotional effects of a piece of music (and thus effects on the heart) also depend on the listening situation (such as the location or event where the music is perceived, and the fit of the music with a current mood). 74 , 76 For example, although an individual might have a strong preference for the music of Wagner, s/he might not want to listen to Wagner when lying on the operating table.

Clinical studies should include a control group with an acoustical control stimulus (e.g. to avoid placebo-effects or to ensure that effects in the music group are not simply due to perception of fewer threatening noises originating from the medical procedure). Possible control stimuli are audio books, or nature sounds such as breaking waves (the latter is particularly suited as a control stimulus if the musical stimulus is not based on an isochronous pulse). Moreover, studies should follow a double-blinded study design. The latter is often only possible with the use of headphones (so that the experimenter does not know which stimulus is presented).

We recommend that clinical studies include (a) psychologically relevant outcome variables such as mood (which can be measured with the profile of mood states, POMS), anxiety (which can be measured with the state/trait anxiety inventory, STAI), and Pain (which can be measured with a visual analogue scale, VAS), and (b) economically relevant outcome variables (e.g. length of hospitalization, patient satisfaction, opioid intake, and requirements of sedative drugs).

Methodological recommendations summary

Music has effects on the heart as indicated by the findings that HR, as well as RR, is higher (and HRV lower) during exciting music compared with tranquilizing music. Correspondingly, HR (and RR) increases during musical frissons, especially when associated with piloerection. It also appears that, compared with silence, music increases HR and RR, and that HR and RR are higher during pleasant than unpleasant music. New findings suggest that music also has effects on the regional activity of the heart, as reflected in changes of ECG amplitude patterns. In clinical settings, music can reduce pain and anxiety, associated with reductions in BP and RR. Thus, music is potentially a low-cost and safe adjuvant for intervention and therapy. However, the effects of music on the heart are small, and results of studies on this topic are often inconsistent. Therefore, there is pressing need for systematic high-quality research on the effects of music on the heart in both healthy individuals and patients.

The authors thank Heather O'Donnell for proof reading this article.

Conflict of interest: none declared.

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• Published: 17 January 2018

Musical auditory stimulus acutely influences heart rate dynamic responses to medication in subjects with well-controlled hypertension

• Eli Carlos Martiniano 1 , 2 ,
• Milana Drumond Ramos Santana 1 , 2 ,
• Érico Luiz Damasceno Barros 1 , 2 ,
• Maria do Socorro da Silva 1 , 2 ,
• David Matthew Garner   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8114-9055 3 ,
• Luiz Carlos de Abreu 2 &
• Vitor E. Valenti   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7477-3805 4  

Scientific Reports volume  8 , Article number:  958 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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• Cardiac device therapy
• Interventional cardiology

Music can improve the efficiency of medical treatment when correctly associated with drug action, reducing risk factors involving deteriorating cardiac function. We evaluated the effect of musical auditory stimulus associated with anti-hypertensive medication on heart rate (HR) autonomic control in hypertensive subjects. We evaluated 37 well-controlled hypertensive patients designated for anti-hypertensive medication. Heart rate variability (HRV) was calculated from the HR monitor recordings of two different, randomly sorted protocols (control and music) on two separate days. Patients were examined in a resting condition 10 minutes before medication and 20 minutes, 40 minutes and 60 minutes after oral medication. Music was played throughout the 60 minutes after medication with the same intensity for all subjects in the music protocol. We noted analogous response of systolic and diastolic arterial pressure in both protocols. HR decreased 60 minutes after medication in the music protocol while it remained unchanged in the control protocol. The effects of anti-hypertensive medication on SDNN (Standard deviation of all normal RR intervals), LF (low frequency, nu), HF (high frequency, nu) and alpha-1 scale were more intense in the music protocol. In conclusion, musical auditory stimulus increased HR autonomic responses to anti-hypertensive medication in well-controlled hypertensive subjects.

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Introduction.

Recently, adaptations in life-style have gained attention as a primary preventive of hypertension 1 , 2 , 3 . Music therapy is therefore a complementary intervention currently being investigated in cardiovascular physiology 4 , 5 and hypertension treatments 6 .

A recent systematic meta-analysis investigated the effects of music therapy on blood pressure in hypertensive patients. The review selected references based on population, comparison, intervention, outcome and study type fundamentals to define the eligibility criteria. Only three studies achieved their rigorous inclusion conditions. The samples located in the study references ranged between 30 and 60 subjects with a patient mean age of 60 to 93 years. The review indicated that music therapy had significant positive effects on systolic arterial pressure (SAP) (−6.58 mmHg; 95% CI, −9.38 to −3.79 mmHg; p < 0.0001), but no significant statistical influence on diastolic arterial pressure (DAP) (−1.76 mmHg; 95% CI: −5.61 to 2.09 mmHg; p = 0.37) in hypertensive subjects 6 .

However, another systematic review did not support these findings. Kühlmann et al . 7 followed the PRISMA guidelines and examined publications that evaluated the effects of music on arterial pressure in hypertensive patients through PubMed, Medline, Cochrane Central, Embase, Web of Science and Google Scholar. They found 10 studies among the preliminary 1689 references that satisfied the inclusion criteria. Yet the randomized controlled trials selected in the review reported a reduction in SAP from 144 mmHg to 134 mmHg and a decrease in DAP from 84 mmHg to 78 mmHg. No statistical significance was achieved.

The acute effects of music on cardiovascular parameters have been investigated in this context. Vlachopoulos et al . 8 evaluated the short-term effect of music on arterial stiffness and wave reflections in healthy humans. They reported that classical and rock music reduced aortic stiffness and wave reflections.

Vanderlei et al . 9 assessed cardiac autonomic function through heart rate (HR) variability (HRV), a non-invasive method that studies vagal and sympathetic influence on HR 10 in healthy young women during exposure to the musical genres of baroque classical music and heavy-metal. In order to avoid the influence of sex hormones, the authors selected only females. The heavy metal music used was “Heavy Metal Universe” from Gamma Ray, which is based on an excitatory rhythm composed of a lead voice, guitar and bass. The classical music applied was the Canon in D by Johann Pachelbel, which is originally scored for three violins and basso continuo, and paired with a gigue. Both movements are in D major. It combines the forms of canon and ground bass. Three voices are engaged in canon, while a fourth voice and the basso continuo play an independent ground bass. The authors reported that heavy-metal music reduced parasympathetic control of HR while no significant change was achieved for classical music when applying nonlinear techniques for assessment. This was possibly due to the excitatory responses related to the heavy metal music style.

Roque et al . 11 investigated the effects on healthy women of listening to baroque classical music and found no significant effect on linear indices of HRV. Also, it was conveyed that baroque classical music acutely decreased global modulation of HR through geometric HRV analysis. This effect was due to the sound intensity of the music 12 .

Accordingly, subjects of either gender diagnosed with irreversible pulpitis or pulp necrosis of the upper front teeth were exposed to music during endodontic treatment 13 . The subjects were randomly divided into two groups: one group submitted to surgical endodontic treatment without music, the other submitted to endodontic treatment while being exposed to music throughout the surgical procedures. The authors documented that although salivary cortisol levels were unaffected by music, music acutely attenuated HR autonomic responses during surgical treatment.

The studies mentioned above encourage us to investigate the association of music with cardiovascular interventions. Although earlier studies have already evaluated the acute effects of music on autonomic HR control, it is unclear whether music might influence the effect of medication on HRV, SAP and DAP. This information might assist clinicians in improving new pharmacological interventions for hypertension. With this in mind, we evaluated the acute effects of musical auditory stimulus associated with anti-hypertensive medication on cardiovascular variables in hypertensive subjects.

In the resting state, there was no significant difference between the control and music protocols regarding SAP (p = 0.25), DAP (p = 0.53) and LF/HF (p = 0.58). Reduced values of resting HR (p = 0.0014, Cohen’s d = 0.69, medium effect size), LF (nu) (p = 0.04, Cohen’s d = 0.39, small effect size) and alpha-1 (p = 0.0006, Cohen’s d = 0.75, medium effect size) were observed in the music protocol. Resting SDNN (p = 0.032, Cohen’s d = 0.41, small effect size), RMSSD (p = 0.02, Cohen’s d = 0.46, small effect size), pNN50 (p = 0.0.1, Cohen’s d = 0.56, medium effect size) and HF (nu) (p = 0.04, Cohen’s d = 0.39, small effect size) indices were higher in the music protocol.

Although the patients were clinically diagnosed hypertensive, only five patients had SAP ≥ 140 mmHg (maximum: 140 mmHg) and DAP ≥ 90 mmHg (maximum: 95 mmHg) because they were undergoing anti-hypertensive therapy.

With regard to the SAP and DAP responses to music after medication, we documented similar responses of SAP (control protocol: Cohen’s d = 1.17, large effect size; music protocol: Cohen’s d = 0.95, large effect size) and DAP (control protocol: Cohen’s d = 1.01, large effect size; music protocol: Cohen’s d = 0.6, medium effect size) in both procedures. SAP and DAP decreased after medication in the music and control protocols during the 60 minutes following medication (Fig.  1 ).

Systolic (SAP) and diastolic arterial pressure (DAP) and heart rate (HR) before and after medication in the music and control protocols. m* p < 0.05 vs. Pre- for music protocol; m** p < 0.05 vs. 60 min for music protocol; c* p < 0.05 vs. Pre- for control protocol; @ p < 0.05 Control vs. Music protocol; Pre: Before medication.

With the music protocol, HR decreased during minutes (pre-vs. 40 min – Cohen’s d: 0.75, medium effect size) and 60 minutes after medication (pre-vs. 60 min – Cohen’s d: 0.86, medium effect size) compared to before medication and reduced for 20 minutes compared to 60 minutes after medication (20 min vs. 60 min – Cohen’s d: 0.44, small effect size). With the control protocol, HR was unaffected after medication (Fig.  1 ).

There was a significant protocol interaction (control protocol vs. music protocol) for HR; we found values reduced in the music protocol by 20 minutes (Cohen’s d = 1, large effect size), 40 minutes (Cohen’s d = 1, large effect size) and 60 minutes (Cohen’s d = 1, large effect size) after medication equated to the control protocol at the same instants (Fig.  1 ).

With regard to the time domain analysis for HRV, SDNN was reduced in the control protocol after 20 minutes of medication compared to control (pre-vs. 20 min, Cohen’s d: 0.53, medium effect size) and 40 minutes compared to 20 minutes after medication (20 min vs. 40 min, Cohen’s d: 0.28, small effect size). In the music protocol SDNN was lessened 20 minutes (pre-vs. 20 min, Cohen’s d: 0.33, small effect size), 40 minutes (pre-vs. 40 min, Cohen’s d: 0.25, small effect size) and 60 minutes (pre-vs. 60 min, Cohen’s d: 0.36, small effect size) after medication compared to before medication. RMSSD increased 60 minutes compared to 20 minutes (20 min vs. 60 min: Cohen’s d: 0.96, large effect size) and 40 minutes after medication (40 min vs. 60 min: Cohen’s d: 0.54, medium effect size) in the control protocol. In the music protocol, RMSSD increased 40 minutes after medication compared to before (pre-vs. 40 min: Cohen’s d: 0.3, small effect size) and 60 minutes after medication (40 min vs. 60 min: Cohen’s d: 0.14, below the threshold) (Fig.  2 ).

Time domain indices of HRV before and after medication in the control and music protocols. Pre: Before medication; pNN50: the percentage of adjacent RR intervals with a difference of duration greater than 50 ms; RMSSD: root-mean square of differences between adjacent normal RR intervals in a time interval; ms: milliseconds; SDNN: Average standard deviation of normal RR intervals; ms: milliseconds. m* p < 0.05 vs. Pre- for music protocol; c** p < 0.05 vs. 20 min for control protocol; c*** p < 0.05 vs. 60 min for control protocol, m** p < 0.05 vs. 40 min for music protocol; @ p < 0.05 Control vs. Music protocol.

We observed the interaction of the procedure (control protocol vs. music protocol) for RMSSD and pNN50. RMSSD was elevated 40 minutes after medication in the music protocol (Cohen’s d: 2.35, large effect size) and pNN50 was higher 20 after minutes (Cohen’s d: 0.87, medium effect size) and 40 minutes after medication in the music protocol (Cohen’s d: 1.04, large effect size) compared to the control protocol at the same times (Fig.  2 ).

Spectral analysis of HRV is shown in Figs  3 and 4 . LF (nu) declined 60 minutes after medication compared to 40 minutes after medication (60 min vs. 40 min, Cohen’s d: 0.38, small effect size) in the control protocol while it decreased 20 minutes (pre-vs. 20 min, Cohen’s d: 1.03, large effect size), 40 minutes (pre-vs. 40 min, Cohen’s d: 1.04, large effect size) and 60 minutes (pre-vs. 60 min, Cohen’s d: 0.71, medium effect size) after medication compared to before medication in the music protocol.

Frequency domain indices of HRV in normalized units before and after medication in the control and music protocols. Pre: Before medication; LF: low frequency; HF: high frequency; LF/HF: low frequency/high frequency ratio; ms: milliseconds. m* p < 0.05 vs. Pre- for music protocol; c* p < 0.05 vs. Pre- for control protocol; c*** p < 0.05 vs. 60 min for control protocol; @ p < 0.05 Control vs. Music protocol.

Frequency domain indices of HRV in absolute units before and after medication in the control and music protocols. Pre: Before medication; LF: low frequency; HF: high frequency; LF/HF: low frequency/high frequency ratio; ms: milliseconds; @ p < 0.05 Control vs. Music protocol.

HF (nu) increased 20 minutes (pre-vs. 20 min, Cohen’s d: 1.03, large effect size), 40 minutes (pre-vs. 40 min, Cohen’s d: 1.04, large effect size) and 60 minutes after medication compared to before medication (pre-vs. 60 min, Cohen’s d: 0.75, medium effect size) in the music protocol whereas no significant changes were revealed in the control protocol regarding HF (nu).

The LF/HF ratio was reduced 20 minutes after medication compared to before medication (pre-vs. 20 min, Cohen’s d: 0.79, medium effect size) in the control protocol (Fig.  3 ).

There was a procedure interaction (control protocol vs. music protocol) for LF (nu) and LF/HF. The LF band decreased 20 minutes (Cohen’s d: 1.24, large effect size) and 40 minutes (Cohen’s d: 1.21, large effect size) after medication in the music protocol compared to the control protocol at the same time. The LF/HF ratio was higher 40 minutes (Cohen’s d: 0.83, medium effect size) after medication in the music protocol compared to the control protocol at the same time (Fig.  3 ).

Regarding frequency domain indices in absolute units, there was no moment of interaction for LF. Equally, we noted a procedure interaction (control protocol vs. music protocol) for the HF band. HF at 40 minutes in the music protocol was increased compared to 40 minutes after medication in the control protocol at the same time (Cohen’s d: 0.85, medium effect size) (Fig.  4 ).

Nonlinear analysis of HRV by Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA) indicated that alpha-1 decreased 20 minutes (Cohen’s d: 0.88, medium effect size) after medication compared to before medication in the music protocol whereas no change was noted in the control protocol (Fig.  5 ).

Fractal correlation property of HRV before and after medication in the control and music protocols. Pre: Before medication; m* p < 0.05 vs. Pre- for music protocol; @ p < 0.05 Control vs. Music protocol.

We noticed a procedure interaction (control protocol vs. music protocol) for the alpha-1 scale, which was reduced 20 minutes (Cohen’s d: 3.9, large effect size), 40 minutes (Cohen’s d: 1.23, large effect size) and 60 minutes (Cohen’s d: 2.91, large effect size) after medication in the music protocol compared to the control protocol at the same times (Fig.  5 ).

Hypertension is increasingly regarded as a widespread global disease. As such, it is looked upon as an important factor in the development of conditions aggravating the cardiovascular system, marking it as an important public health problem 14 . According to Santos et al . 1 there are several ways to establish an effective treatment but controlling blood pressure alone is inadequate. Music therapy has been investigated as a possible contributor to the treatment of hypertension 6 .

We set out to evaluate the acute effects of musical auditory stimulus associated with anti-hypertensive medication on HRV in well-controlled hypertensive patients. Of chief importance, we detected that music acutely intensified the effect of anti-hypertensive medication on HRV. The effect size calculations for spectral analysis and DFA upheld the added intense response of HR dynamics when medication was linked with music, equated to medication administrated in the absence of music.

The period of the medication response changes in relation to the type of treatment and its configuration. In most cases the effects begin to appear around 15 to 20 minutes after administration and approaches the optimum therapeutically around 60 minutes later 15 .

All medical drugs in this study generate significant changes in vagal control of HR as stated in the research literature 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 . Based on our results, anti-hypertensive medication presented more intense effects on HR when associated with music, even taking into account that resting HR was reduced during the music protocol, thus reinforcing the influence of music on parasympathetic responses induced by such medications.

Similarly, the influence of music on changes in HRV induced by medication were observed in the HF band, indicating the parasympathetic regulation of HR 10 . Spectral analysis of HRV revealed that HF significantly increased in normalized units for the entire 60 minutes after medication administration associated with music, while it remained unchanged when the medication was administered alone. Statistical analysis via protocol interaction demonstrated that HF in absolute units (ms 2 ) significantly increased 40 minutes after medication in the music protocol compared to the control protocol for the same period. This reinforces the view that music enhances the therapeutic effects anti-hypertensive medication had on HRV.

Furthermore, we detected increased RMSSD values 40 minutes after medication in the music protocol compared to the control protocol at the same time. Also, higher pNN50 values were noted in the music protocol 20 minutes and 40 minutes after medication compared to the control protocol at the same times, suggesting that music augmented the pharmacological effects.

The influence of music on HRV responses to anti-hypertensive medication is supported by the large effect size found in the HF band (nu) for moment interaction, which can also be observed in pNN50 and RMSSD for protocol interaction.

Previous studies verified the effect of music on vagal HR regulation 4 . Nakamura et al . 5 studied gastric vagal nerve activity in urethane-anesthetized rats during exposure to a relaxant music. The investigators observed elevated parasympathetic activity when rats were exposed to relaxant music (Schumann: Traeumerei). But during white noise there was no significant change in vagal activity. Through expression of c-Fos protein, it was revealed that this mechanism was dependent on the auditory cortex.

An additional study investigated the effect of Mozart’s music on HRV in 64 Taiwanese children whose ages ranged from 7 ± 3 years old (extending from 2 years 11 months to 15 years 4 months) 21 . The researchers determined that changes in parasympathetic modulation of HR is involved in the reduction of epileptiform discharges during exposure to Mozart’s music.

We therefore support the view that the intensification of HR responses to anti-hypertensive medication in the music protocol is because music can intensify the vagal activity response induced by such pharmacological treatments. We accept that music could activate the parasympathetic system, as stated by Nakamura et al . 5 causing an increase in gastrointestinal activity, thus accelerating the absorption of anti-hypertensive medication and intensifying the effects on HRV.

However, previous studies have reported conflicting results regarding the reduction of HR vagal regulation induced by music. Roque et al . 11 detected that young adult women exposed to classical baroque music (Pachelbel: Canon in D) delivered no change in parasympathetic regulation of HR. The same judgement was supported by da Silva et al . 22 . Then again, Ferreira et al . 23 stated increased global modulation of HR followed exposure to the same classical baroque music.

A methodological factor that could explain the opposing results concerning musical effects on HR autonomic control is associated with the musical genre applied. The studies mentioned above prescribed different music compared to the music evaluated in our investigation. Under these circumstances, musical genre is a critical consideration when investigating the influence music has on HRV 24 .

Similarly, we completed nonlinear dynamic analysis of HR after anti-hypertensive medication alone and then accompanying music. The research literature reports that adrenergic blockers increase the nonlinear behavior of HR dynamics, which is advantageous 25 .

Based on our statistics, alpha-1 scale was unstable between 1.2 and 1.4 in the control protocol, while it decreased and remained close to 1.0 in the music protocol. Cohen’s d displayed medium effect size for moment interaction in the music protocol and large effect size for protocol interaction. The most complex structure based on fractal fluctuations is alpha equal to 1.0 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 . Thus, our results demonstrate that anti-hypertensive medication increases the nonlinear dynamics of HR. This response was exaggerated by the musical stimulus.

Our study contains further points which need highlighting. Auditory equivalent levels were not measured, therefore it is impossible to detect any effect related to sound intensity. Musical empathy scale was not applied since such a questionnaire was not validated in the subjects’ language. We did not choose specific pharmacological agents, since the medications directed encompassed diuretics, calcium channel blockers and beta-blockers. This would have delivered essential information regarding which hormone or neurotransmitter is involved in the HRV responses to medication associated with the music applied. There was a significant age range among the sample, 28 to 83 years old, however, the sample investigated is characteristic of the clinical population.

Different periods of medication response are a constraint in our study. We attempted to minimize this bias by matching the groups according to the length of time they had been taking medication, specifically patients were under anti-hypertensive treatment for between six months and one year.

One clarification of the positive acute effects of music on anti-hypertensive medication is that the musical sequence was repeated four times. A recent study applied repeated songs and evaluated HRV in subjects under stressful conditions. Santana et al . 13 stated that it positively influenced HRV during endodontic treatment. In this context, we suggest that the repeated music sequences used in our study may become familiar to the patient and elicit a calming effect.

Here, we investigated a specific group of well-controlled hypertensive patients. We strongly encourage additional investigation under different pathological conditions to perform further experiments to detect whether music has a significant influence on pharmacological action.

It has recently been suggested that treatment of hypertension should be based on life-style behaviors including physical activity and/or giving up smoking 3 . In this context, complementary therapies applied to assist hypertensive treatment may further decrease dependence on pharmacological intervention. This is always beneficial.

Musical auditory stimulus intensified HR autonomic responses to anti-hypertensive medication in well-controlled hypertensive subjects.

Study population

We enrolled 37 subjects clinically diagnosed as hypertensive (14 men; 64.6 ± 12.54 years old, 1.64 ± 0.11 m, 64.41 ± 11.88 kg, 23.89 ± 2.95 kg/m 2 ) with controlled blood pressure (systolic arterial pressure (SAP) 123.87 ± 10.5 [105–140] mmHg; diastolic arterial pressure (DAP) 80.25 ± 7.5 [60–90] mmHg) who had been undergoing anti-hypertensive treatment for between six months and a year. Medications taken by subjects included Hydrochlorothiazide 25 mg (HCTZ) (7), HCTZ 25 mg/Captopril 25 mg (6), HCTZ 25 mg/Losartan 50 mg (2), Enalapril 5 mg (4), Captopril 25 mg (7), Atenolol 25 mg (4), Anlodipine 2,5 mg (4) and Losartan 25 mg (3).

All subjects gave their confidential informed written consent to participate in the research study. The Ethics Committee in Research of the Faculty of Juazeiro do Norte approved all study procedures (No. 1.458.187) and were in accordance with National Health Resolution 466/2012.

We did not include subjects with cardiorespiratory, neurological and endocrine disorders associated with hypertension, smokers or subjects suffering from related diseases that did not permit performance of the protocols or subjects under treatment but with no anti-hypertensive medication. Athletes and physically active subjects were also excluded in order to homogenize the population because the literature indicated that physical activity influences HRV 30 .

HRV analysis

HRV was recorded using the Polar RS800CX device (Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland) previously validated to identify beat-to-beat HR 31 and assessed from stationary sequences manually selected, which were defined by the stability of the mean duration and the variance of the RR interval duration. Stationary sequences matched the periods with the lowest changes in HRV over time. These RR interval sequences are related to periods with homogeneous HRV and resembled periods with limited environmental influences. We examined a 10-minute time window for HRV analysis and cubic spline interpolation of RR intervals was standardized to 4 Hz. Details of HRV analysis have been described previously 32 .

The Polar transmitter identifies all RR intervals through electrical signals and the data recorded transmits the signal to the computer with a tool through Bluetooth.

We performed digital filtering to eliminate artifacts. The digital filtering in the software was based on an algorithm that calculated median and moving average. The algorithm in the software calculated several more matching RR intervals to substitute the detected errors. Before creating the preview curve, the algorithm checks the difference between consecutive RR intervals and makes a series of corrected values (typically 2–4 intervals) to follow an indistinguishable discrepant coefficient. The algorithm accurately maintains the total period of HR recording and the number of RR intervals is precisely the same as the elapsed period. We standardized six bpm for the minimum protection zone ( http://support.polar.com/en/support/tips/How_R-R_Data_is_Filtered ).

After we performed digital filtering followed by manual filtering for the elimination of artifacts, we selected 256 stable RR intervals. We included series with less than 5% artefact 32 .

HRV Time and Frequency Domain Indices

We evaluated the following time domain indices of HRV: RMSSD – is the root-mean square of differences between consecutive RR intervals; SDNN – standard deviation of RR intervals and; pNN50 – percentage of adjacent RR intervals with a difference higher than 50 ms 33 (Table  1 ).

In relation to the spectral analysis of HRV analysis, the RR intervals underwent mathematical processing, generating a tachogram that showed the variation of RR intervals as a time function. The tachogram has a signal that ranges in time and was processed by the mathematical Fast Fourier Transform algorithm 10 . The Welch periodogram method based on Fast Fourier Transform was used with a window overlap of 50% and a window width of 256 seconds.

High frequency (HF- ranging from 0.15 to 0.4 Hz) and low frequency (LF- ranging from 0.04 to 0.15 Hz) spectral parameters were selected in normalized (nu) and absolute units (ms 2 ). The ratio between LF and HF in absolute values (LF/HF) corresponds to the relative value of each spectral parameter related to total power minus very and ultra low frequency components 10 (Table  1 ).

We used the Kubios HRV ® v.1.1 for Windows software to measure the linear indices 33 .

Nonlinear HRV analysis

Nonlinear analysis was undertaken by DFA, alpha-1 determined the short term (4–12 beats) correlations between successive heart beats. Details regarding DFA were previously described 26 , 27 , 28 .

We considered α = 0.05 as no correlation (the signal consists of white noise); when α = 1.5 we considered random walk (Brownian motion); and when 0.5 < α < 1.5 we considered positive correlations. If alpha is close to 1.0 it indicates a more complex (non-linear) system; if it reaches values above 1.0 the system tends to be less complex and linear 26 , 27 , 28 .

Data collection was undertaken in the same room for all subjects; the temperature was controlled between 21 °C and 25 °C and the relative humidity was between 40% and 60%. Subjects were told not to ingest alcohol, caffeine or other substances likely to stimulate the autonomic nervous system for 24 hours before the evaluation, maintaining an empty bladder with only a light meal 2 to 3 hours before collection of the experimental data. Data sets were obtained between 8:00 and 16:00 to standardize circadian influences.

HRV was analyzed seated at rest under spontaneous breathing in the following periods: 1) control protocol - the 10-minute period before the medication; 2) 20 minutes after oral medication; 3) 40 minutes after oral medication and; 4) 60 minutes after oral medication. HRV was analyzed in the final 5 minutes of each period.

Each subject was submitted to two procedures performed on two random days.

For the music protocol, after 10 minutes of rest under spontaneous breathing, the volunteers were submitted to the following music stimulus via an earphone: 1-Someone like you (instrumental piano) – by Adele; 2-Airstream – by Electra; 3-Hello (instrumental piano) – by Adele; 4-Amazing grace [my chains are gone] [instrumental] by Chris Tomlin and 5-Watermark by Enya. The music sequence was repeated 4 times. Music was played throughout the 60 minutes after medication with the same volume for all subjects. The volunteers were told to keep at rest and avoid conversation during the protocol.

In the control protocol, the subjects continued similarly with the earphone turned off.

Figure  6 presents a scheme of the experimental design.

Scheme of the experimental design.

Statistical analysis

The sample size calculation was based on the rest RMSSD index according to the study by Moreno et al . 34 . We assumed a magnitude of the difference for 11 ms, and considered a standard deviation of 16.2 ms, beta risk of 80% and alpha risk of 5%. A minimum of 18 subjects were attained.

The Shapiro-Wilk goodness-of-fit test verified the normal Gaussian distribution of the data (z value > 1.0).

Comparisons of HRV values between procedures (control and music) and times (rest vs. recovery periods) were carried out through the analysis of variance technique to model repeated measures on the two factors scheme. Data from repeated measurements were verified for evaluation of sphericity using the Mauchly test. Greenhouse-Geisser correction was applied when the sphericity was violated.

To consider the two phases (rest vs. recovery periods) we applied the Bonferroni post-test for parametric distribution or Dunn’s post-test for non-parametric distribution. We considered statistical significance for p < 0.05.

To compute the magnitude of difference between groups and between two time-periods, the effect size was calculated using Cohen’s d for significant differences. Large effect size was considered for Cohen’s d ≥ 0.9, medium for Cohen’s d between 0.9 and 0.5 and small for Cohen’s d between 0.5 and 0.25 35 .

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Acknowledgements

This study received financial support from UNESP, Faculdade de Medicina do ABC, Faculdade de Juazeiro do Norte and FAPESP. We thank Dr. Hani K. Atrash that significantly helped us with English Grammar and Spelling. BA FGMS FIAL (LOND) HONFASC also performed professional review of English Grammar and Spelling. We really appreciate the important and valuable review performed by the reviewers that anonymously collaborated to our manuscript.

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Eli Carlos Martiniano, Milana Drumond Ramos Santana, Érico Luiz Damasceno Barros & Maria do Socorro da Silva

Laboratório de Delineamento de Estudos e Escrita Científica, Faculdade de Medicina do ABC, Santo André, SP, Brazil

Eli Carlos Martiniano, Milana Drumond Ramos Santana, Érico Luiz Damasceno Barros, Maria do Socorro da Silva & Luiz Carlos de Abreu

Cardiorespiratory Research Group, Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Oxford, OX3 0BP, United Kingdom

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E.C.M. collected data, performed conduction of experiments and draft the manuscript. M.D.R.S. supervised the study, performed statistical analysis, wrote discussion section and gave final approval for the version submitted for publication. E.L.D.B. participated in the conduction of experiments. M.S.S. participated in the conduction of experiments. D.M.G. improved the manuscript and participated in statistical analysis and acquisition of data. L.C.A. extensively reviewed the manuscript. V.E.V. supervised the study, performed statistical analysis, wrote discussion section and gave final approval for the version submitted for publication. All authors reviewed and approved the manuscript.

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Martiniano, E.C., Santana, M.D.R., Barros, É.L.D. et al. Musical auditory stimulus acutely influences heart rate dynamic responses to medication in subjects with well-controlled hypertension. Sci Rep 8 , 958 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-19418-7

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September 18, 2021

How Music Can Literally Heal the Heart

Its structural attributes and physiological effects make it an ideal tool for learning cardiology, studying heart-brain interactions and dispensing neurocardiac therapy

By Elaine Chew , Psyche Loui , Grace Leslie , Caroline Palmer , Jonathan Berger , Edward W. Large , Nicolò F. Bernardi , Suzanne Hanser , Julian F. Thayer , Michael A. Casey & Pier D. Lambiase

Dragan Todorovic Getty Images

In a maverick method, nephrologist Michael Field taught medical students to decipher different heart murmurs through their stethoscopes, trills, grace notes, and decrescendos to describe the distinctive sounds of heart valves snapping closed, and blood ebbing through leaky valves in plumbing disorders of the heart.

Separately, in music based on electrocardiographic (ECG) traces of heart rhythm disorders, one of us—musician-mathematician Elaine Chew—used music notation to capture the signature rhythms of electrical anomalies of the heart. Collaged from extant music fragments matching the heartbeats, Brubeck’s Blue Rondo à la Turk provided the 2:4:3 rhythmic tattoo of ventricular early beats, Piazzolla’s Le Grand Tango remixed produced the irregular rhythms of atrial fibrillation. Little Etudes for piano , with pedagogical descriptions by cardiologist Pier Lambiase, provided a layperson’s introduction to electrical aberrations of the heart .

The reason these heart-music mappings work is because abnormal heart rhythms tend to form simple inter-beat-interval ratios . In fact, the distinctive rhythms in Beethoven’s music so closely resemble those of heart rhythm disorders that cardiologists have speculated that they may be transcriptions of Beethoven’s possible arrhythmia , his interoceptive awareness of his own heartbeat enhanced by his deafness.

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This is but one of multiple reasons music should be part of every heart physician’s toolkit. Music and the heart have been romantically linked in popular consciousness due to their shared connections to human emotions and the brain. History is replete with examples of emotionally charged events followed almost immediately by the death of the person. The surgeon John Hunter famously pronounced, “My life is at the mercy of any scoundrel who should put me in a passion,” before collapsing and dying after a heated board room meeting.

Cardiologists Peter Taggart and Pier Lambiase have been studying how emotions alter the conductive properties of individual heart cells . Mental stress changes the recovery period of heart cells after each heartbeat, called the action potential duration. Taggart co-authored a study in which patients whose hearts were paced at a steady rate watch the harrowing “cut the rope” scene from Vertical Limit (2000). The patients’ action potential duration shortened under the stress . This may explain how more extreme stress coupled with underlying cardiac disease could precipitate life-threatening arrhythmias.

Acute stress produces dramatic effects in the heart, but slow-burning chronic stress due to protracted insecurity also predispose sufferers to disease and mortality. The sympathetic nervous system’s default state of high alertness is suppressed when safety is perceived; these safety brakes are lifted under duress. The Generalized Unsafety Theory of Stress co-written by psychophysiologist Julian Thayer links the unconsciously perceived unsafety of prolonged stressors like low social status, early life adversity or loneliness to hypervigilance that increases the odds of developing heart disease.

Music moves us in part because it draws on our primal intuitions about the heartbeat. Until the mid-19th century when it was replaced by the mechanical metronome, the human heartbeat provided the standard unit of measure for musical time. In his 1496 treatise, the Practica Musicae , the composer-theorist Franchinus Gaffurius wrote that the proper measure of the musical beat should be the pulse of a healthy human, noting that the pulses of “fevered persons” undergo an increase or become unequal in ways that worry physicians.

When we connect to the pulse of the music, we sense another’s physiological states. The steady pulse at the beginning of Schubert’s Trio, Op. 100 , sets a strong but serene pace for its haunting melody. The breathless octaves in the opening of Der Erlkrönig evokes the rapid heart palpitations of the fevered boy in his father’s arms, galloping through the stormy, windswept night. Hearing just heartbeats, pulse-only music, has been found to increase listeners’ ability to sense what others are feeling in a study co-authored by musician-scientist Grace Leslie.

Music changes our heartrates, breathing, and blood pressure, and alters our heart rate variability, indicators of cardiac and mental health . Neuroscientist Psyche Loui and colleagues have traced music-induced physiological changes to a central node in the brain ’s networks, called the anterior insular, with dense connections to the vagus nerve, responsible for unconscious regulation of body functions.

The anterior insula is associated with empathetic mirroring of external and internal experiences. It is also connected to parts of the brain responsible for hearing (the auditory cortices) and for pleasure (the dopaminergic reward system). These auditory and reward network pathways likely subserve the mind’s ability to form predictions and expectations during music listening. The systematic fulfilment and violation of expectations are thought to underlie emotion and meaning in music.

Music is an ideal catalyst for inducing physiological changes in heart-brain studies because it can be dissected systematically into features based on note content and the way this content is communicated in performance. Evidence suggests that these musical attributes trigger brain responses at a basic level. Analyzing listeners’ brain imaging data in the OpenFMRI Study Forrest dataset , composer-neuroscientist Michael Casey found that specific music features induced predictable activation patterns in regions of listeners’ brains . The activation patterns were consistent enough for machines to infer the music the listener heard or its genre simply from their fMRI scans.

Music features have also been linked to physiological responses. In a study co-authored by physicians Luciano Bernardi and Peter Sleight, loudness increases in vocal and orchestral music produced vascular constriction and blood pressure increases proportionate to these crescendos. Verdi arias with ten-second-long phrases—the period of Mayer waves, the body’s natural blood pressure oscillation— caused listeners’ heart and respiratory signals to sync with the music envelop . Such unconscious physiological responses are thought to be the progenitors of music-induced emotions.

Music also has a communal impact on human physiology. People listening to the same music tend to synchronize not only their movements, but also their breathing and heart rhythms. Some of this heartbeat coherence is due to breathing together, but partial coherence (linear relationships) remained higher between the heartbeats of people vocalizing long notes together, over the baseline or breathing together, even after removing the effect of respiration.

The cognitive and physical demands of playing music also have measurable effects on musicians’ heart rhythms and breathing patterns. Psychologists Caroline Palmer and Shannon Wright showed that repetitiveness of musicians’ heart rhythms show greater rigidity (predictability) when playing unfamiliar musical melodies, and also when playing first thing after waking in the morning rather than in the evening.

For cardiac patients, music-based interventions can also modulate cerebral blood flow, reduce pre-operative anxiety and post-operative stress, improve surgery outcomes, and lower cortisol levels. Music interventions are found to significantly affect heartrate and blood pressure in coronary heart disease patients . Listening to relaxing music not only reduced heart and respiration rates but also oxygen demand of the heart in patients who have had a heart attack.

Technological advances in biofeedback sensors means that physiological parameters like heartbeats and heart rate variability can be harnessed to guide music interventions in cardiac therapy. Physiological feedback can be used to select or shape music to influence listeners’ heart rates and breathing , for example, to increase heart rate variability. With widespread adoption of biofeedback devices, the tailoring of music interventions to individual cognitive or neural-cardiac states is now well within reach enabling a “musical prescription” for improved mental and physical wellbeing.

This is an opinion and analysis article; the views expressed by the  author or authors  are not necessarily those of Scientific American .

This article has been developed from an exploratory multidisciplinary seminar on Music and the Heart at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University involving physicians, neuroscientists and musicians with a specific interest in music and its effects on human physiology.

EC’s and PDL's work is supported in part by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant agreement Nos. 788960 and 957532).

EL’s work is supported in part by the National Science Foundation (NSF) under an NSF STTR Phase I Grant No. 2014870. Any opinions, findings and conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), and do not necessarily reflect those of the funding agencies .

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Heart Rate Experiment: Does music affect heart rate?

Ever wonder how music affects the body? In this activity, we will learn to measure our heartbeats per minute and use the scientific method to see how music can affect our heart rate.

Did you know that calm music can lower our heart rate, making us more relaxed? The opposite can be said of heavy metal music which is characterized by heavy guitar, powerful drumming, extra low-range bass notes, and aggressive or throaty vocals.

In this experiment we will see how listening to heavy metal music affects our heart rate.

Supplies Needed: • Stethoscope (optional) • Timer/watch/phone • Calculator • Heavy metal music youtube video– ( AC/DC, Aerosmith, Def Leppard, Judas Priest, Kiss, Metallica, Motley Crue, Ozzy Osbourne)

• Heart Rate Worksheet
• Group Average Heart Rate worksheet

We will ask the Testable Question – Will listening to heavy metal music affect my heart rate? If so, how?

Our Hypothesis is – Listening to heavy metal music will accelerate my heart rate. If exposed to this type of music for long periods of time, it may hurt my health.

Our Variables are– The normal environment which is quiet (no music). The other variable is adding heavy metal music.

Materials  we need to conduct the experiment (not included) – Cell phone, access to heavy metal music (Youtube), and a calculator

Materials (included) heart rate chart for each student, cumulative heart rate chart for class if conducting the experiment with multiple participants.

Our Procedure for this experiment–

• Practice taking your heart rate, from your neck for 20 seconds. To take your pulse, use two fingers and place your index and third fingers on your neck to the side of your windpipe.  Optional: use a stethoscope
• Practice multiplying by three to get the heart rate per minute. Refer to the heart rate worksheet.
• Now get the baseline heart rate before adding the music. Sit and record heart rate. Repeat two or three times.
• Calculate averages (midpoint between the two recordings or average of three).
• Now that we have collected the baseline heart rate without music, begin measuring heart rate while listening to heavy metal music.
• Now sit and record your heartbeat with heavy metal. Repeat three more times.
• Calculate averages (same as number 4)

Data – Make a chart of all participant’s before and after average heart rates using the attached group heart rate worksheet.

Results and Interpretation – Review chart. What was the average heart rate before and after music? What are some things that could interfere with the experiment (music stopped, having trouble feeling the pulse, etc.).

Conclusion –  What results did you get from this experiment? Was our hypothesis correct? Did heavy metal music cause our heart rate to increase or decrease?

Discussion –  If the heart rate increased when listening to heavy metal music, how could that hurt your health?

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Effects of Interactive Music Tempo with Heart Rate Feedback on Physio-Psychological Responses of Basketball Players

Affiliations.

• 1 Office of Physical Education, National Yang-Ming Chiao-Tung University, Hsinchu City 300093, Taiwan.
• 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, National Yang-Ming Chiao-Tung University, Hsinchu 300093, Taiwan.
• PMID: 35457676
• PMCID: PMC9032355
• DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19084810

This paper introduces an interactive music tempo control with closed-loop heart rate feedback to yield a sportsperson with better physio-psychological states. A total of 23 participants (13 men, 10 women; 16−32 years, mean = 20.04 years) who are professionals or school team members further guide a sportsperson to amend their physical tempo to harmonize their psychological and physical states. The self-tuning mechanism between the surroundings and the human can be amplified using interactive music tempo control. The experiments showed that listening to interactive music had a significant effect on the heart rate and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) of the basketball player compared to those listening to asynchronous music or no music during exercise (p < 0.01). Synchronized interactive music allows athletes to increase their heart rate and decrease RPE during exercise and does not require a multitude of preplanned playlists. All self-selected songs can be converted into sports-oriented music using algorithms. The algorithms of synchronous and asynchronous modes in this study can be adjusted and applied to other sports fields or recovery after exercise. In the future, other musical parameters should be adjusted in real-time based on physiological signals, such as tonality, beats, chords, and orchestration.

Keywords: asynchronous music; basketball player; beat per minute (BPM); heart rate feedback; interactive music tempo; rating of perceived exertion (RPE); sports-oriented music; synchronous music.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Counterbalanced Design.

Tasks ( a ) Shuttle…

Tasks ( a ) Shuttle runs in 60 s (time-limited) and ( b…

Correlated music tempo with heart…

Correlated music tempo with heart rate (HR) in BPM.

Two modes effects in the…

Two modes effects in the app, ( a ) Synchronous mode and (…

The Nutext format example.

RM-ANOVA spherical flowchart.

Heart Rate Response during the…

Heart Rate Response during the tasks with IM and NM conditions ( a…

( a ) The heart…

( a ) The heart rate response, ( b ) the average heart…

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Does Music Directly Affect a Person’s Heart Rate?

David Sills (1) and Amber Todd (2)

(1) Dayton Regional STEM School, Dayton, Ohio, (2) Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio

Feb 04, 2015

Music can have a profound effect on a person’s body, in that it may cause people to dance and move around, but does it have a direct and significant effect on a person’s heart rate if they are still? In this study, 24 high school students’ heart rates were recorded while listening to 6 selections of 6 different genres of music. The effect of different types of music was tested using heart rate monitors, data collection software, and music from free music archives. We found that music has a significant impact on heart rate. Average heart rates were significantly higher after listening to rock music, despite that selection having the slowest tempo of the six genres tested. Heart rates also significantly decreased after listening to classical music and significantly increased after listening to the subjects’ favorite musical selections. This indicates that someone may be able to decrease or increase their heart rate by simply listening to music. While significant patterns emerged, the study was limited, in that the order of the music was the same for every individual, the sample size was relatively small (n = 24), and heart rates were highly variable between subjects.

This article has been tagged with:

Exercise & Heart Rate Experiments

If you and your child are searching for a good experiment for your local school district science fair and you've never done one before, don't panic -- there are many experiments you can choose from. Experiments that involve exercise and heart rate are relatively easy to do and don't require much in the way of materials.

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When you do a science fair project you need to start out with a theory or prediction and develop a testing method and list of materials for your project. The materials you need for many heart rate experiments are easy to come by: A clock with a second hand or a stopwatch, a pencil and a science notebook or recording sheet. In some experiments you'll also want simple exercise equipment, such as a jump rope or bicycle.

Sample Experiment

A simple experiment is predicting which type of physical activity will raise your heart rate the most. For example, you can test running , walking, riding a bike and jumping rope. After making your prediction, establish a baseline by measuring your resting heart rate. Before starting each activity, make sure to measure your resting heart rate. Leave enough time between activities so that your heart rate returns to its normal resting level. Do each type of exercise for 15 minutes and measure heart rate after 0, 1, 5, 10 and 15 minutes of the activity. You take your heart rate just before you start to ensure your heart rate is back at its resting rate before you start measuring a new activity. Create a graph that shows time vs. heart rate for each.

There are several variations you can use with the experiment that measures which activity raises heart rate the most. For example, make a prediction about which activity will increase your heart rate the fastest, thus causing the greatest slope on your graph. Or, predict which activity is best for elevating your heart rate to your target zone for aerobic exercise, which is 50 to 75 percent of your maximum heart rate. Calculate maximum heart rate with the simple formula 220 minus age.

Another Basic Experiment

Another experiment simply measures the effect of exercise on the human heart. You'll make a prediction about the effect steady exercise such as walking or stepping on and off of a stair for a chosen number of minutes will have. For example, you'll predict that a person's heart rate will continue to increase over time when an exercise is performed at a steady pace. You will measure resting heart rate and then measure heart rate at preset intervals. Perform three or more trials and use an average based on the three trials. For example, in experiment one you may find heart rate goes up to 140 beats per minute after five minutes in the first trial, 148 in the second trial and 146 in the third. The average that you'll use for the five-minute time frame is 145.

• Science Buddies: Science Fair Project Ideas – Heart Health
• National Research Council Canada: Science Experiment: Monitoring Your Heart Rate
• Brian MacKenzie: Maximum Heart Rate
• Ipl.org: Science Fair Project Resource Guide

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• Clinics (Sao Paulo)
• v.68(7); 2013 Jul

The effects of auditory stimulation with music on heart rate variability in healthy women

Adriano l. roque.

I Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNESP), Post Graduation Program in Cardiology, São Paulo/SP, Brasil.

Vitor E. Valenti

II Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Faculty of Philosophy and Sciences, Department of Speech Language and Hearing Therapy, Marília/SP, Brasil.

Heraldo L. Guida

Mônica f. campos.

III Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Department of Physical Therapy, Presidente Prudente/SP, Brasil.

André Knap

Luiz carlos m. vanderlei.

IV Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Department of Physical Therapy, Presidente Prudente/SP, Brasil.

Lucas L. Ferreira

Celso ferreira, luiz carlos de abreu.

Roque AL, Campos MF, Guida HL, Knap A, Ferreira LL and Valenti VE performed data collection. Ferreira C, Valenti VE, Guida HL, Abreu LC and Vanderlei LC participated in the revision of the manuscript. Ferreira C, Valenti VE, Guida HL, Abreu LC and Vanderlei LC determined the design and interpreted the text. Roque AL, Abreu LC, Valenti VE, Vanderlei LC and Guida HL drafted the manuscript. All of the authors read the manuscript and approved its final revised version.

OBJECTIVES:

There are no data in the literature with regard to the acute effects of different styles of music on the geometric indices of heart rate variability. In this study, we evaluated the acute effects of relaxant baroque and excitatory heavy metal music on the geometric indices of heart rate variability in women.

We conducted this study in 21 healthy women ranging in age from 18 to 35 years. We excluded persons with previous experience with musical instruments and persons who had an affinity for the song styles. We evaluated two groups: Group 1 (n = 21), who were exposed to relaxant classical baroque musical and excitatory heavy metal auditory stimulation; and Group 2 (n = 19), who were exposed to both styles of music and white noise auditory stimulation. Using earphones, the volunteers were exposed to baroque or heavy metal music for five minutes. After the first music exposure to baroque or heavy metal music, they remained at rest for five minutes; subsequently, they were re-exposed to the opposite music (70-80 dB). A different group of women were exposed to the same music styles plus white noise auditory stimulation (90 dB). The sequence of the songs was randomized for each individual. We analyzed the following indices: triangular index, triangular interpolation of RR intervals and Poincaré plot (standard deviation of instantaneous beat-by-beat variability, standard deviation of the long-term RR interval, standard deviation of instantaneous beat-by-beat variability and standard deviation of the long-term RR interval ratio), low frequency, high frequency, low frequency/high frequency ratio, standard deviation of all the normal RR intervals, root-mean square of differences between the adjacent normal RR intervals and the percentage of adjacent RR intervals with a difference of duration greater than 50 ms. Heart rate variability was recorded at rest for 10 minutes.

The triangular index and the standard deviation of the long-term RR interval indices were reduced during exposure to both music styles in the first group and tended to decrease in the second group whereas the white noise exposure decreased the high frequency index. We observed no changes regarding the triangular interpolation of RR intervals, standard deviation of instantaneous beat-by-beat variability and standard deviation of instantaneous beat-by-beat variability/standard deviation in the long-term RR interval ratio.

CONCLUSION:

We suggest that relaxant baroque and excitatory heavy metal music slightly decrease global heart rate variability because of the equivalent sound level.

INTRODUCTION

Exposure to classical music presents positive effects on the cardiovascular system ( 1 ). Bernardi et al. ( 1 ) studied 24 healthy young adults and evaluated the effects of music with vocals (for Puccini “Turandot”), orchestra (Beethoven's “Ninth Symphony”) and progressive crescendos (Bach's Cantata BWV 169 “Gott soll allein mein Herze haben”) on heart rate (HR), respiratory rate, blood pressure and middle cerebral artery flow. The authors indicated that specific musical auditory stimulation may synchronize intrinsic cardiovascular regularity, thereby modulating cardiovascular physiology.

Similarly, the “Mozart effect” refers to the enhanced performance or neurophysiological activity that is associated with listening to Mozart's musical auditory stimulation. The effect can be observed in the spatial IQ tests performed before and after listening to Mozart. ( 2 ).

Exposure to heavy metal music presents negative effects related to stress. The responses induced by heavy metal music exposure include sleep disorders, fatigue, exhaustion and immunologic activity impairment ( 3 ). We hypothesized that whereas relaxant music auditory stimulation reduces the sympathetic nervous system activity, heavy metal music auditory stimulation increases the sympathetic nervous system activity.

As a noninvasive method for investigating the autonomic nervous system (ANS), heart rate variability (HRV) describes the oscillations of the intervals between consecutive heartbeats (RR intervals), which is influenced by the sinus node ( 4 ).

The methods used for analyzing HRV include the geometric methods — triangular index (RRtri), triangular interpolation of NN interval histogram (TINN) and Poincaré plot. These methods convert RR intervals into geometric patterns and allow us to analyze HRV through the geometric or graphical properties of the resulting pattern ( 4 , 5 ). The RRtri and TINN are calculated from the construction of a histogram of the density of normal RR intervals, which contains the length of the RR intervals on the x-axis and the frequency with which they occur on the y-axis. Joining the points of the histogram columns forms a shape like a triangle from which these indices are extracted ( 4 ).

The Poincaré plot is a two-dimensional graphical representation of the correlation between consecutive RR intervals, in which each interval is plotted against the following interval. We can qualitatively analyze the data by assessing the shape formed by its attractor, which shows the degree of complexity of the RR intervals. We can quantitatively analyze the Poincaré plot by fitting an ellipse to the shape formed by the plot, which yields the following indices: SD1, SD2 and the SD1/SD2 ratio. The Poincaré plot analysis is based on nonlinear dynamics ( 4 ).

Although the beneficial effects of musical auditory stimulation have been reported ( 6 ), no previous studies have investigated the short-term effects of classical baroque and heavy metal music on HRV. Additionally, Bernardi and co-workers ( 1 ) suggested that the autonomic activity on the heart depends on the time at which the music is heard. Because the HRV analysis requires a minimum of 256 RR intervals, we believe it is important to investigate its behavior during a single exposure to each style of music. Knowing the physiological responses induced by music exposure is important for developing future therapies that might contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular disorders. Therefore, we evaluated the acute effects of relaxant baroque and excitatory heavy metal musical auditory stimulation on the geometric HRV indices in women.

Study population

We analyzed 40 healthy female subjects, who ranged between 18 and 35 years of age and were selected from our institution. We divided the subjects into two groups: Group 1 consisted of 21 healthy women, who were exposed to relaxant classical baroque musical and excitatory heavy metal auditory stimulation; and Group 2 consisted of 19 healthy women, who were exposed to both styles of music and white noise auditory stimulation. We informed all the volunteers about the procedures and objectives of the study. After agreeing to participate in our study, the subjects signed an informed consent. All study procedures were approved by the Ethics Committee in Research of the Faculty of Sciences of the Universidade Estadual Paulista, Campus of Marilia (Case No. CEP-2011-382) and were in accordance with resolution 196/96 National Health 10/10/1996.

Exclusion criteria

We considered the following exclusion criteria: auditory and cardiopulmonary disorders, neurological and other impairments that might prevent the subject from performing procedures and treatment with drugs that might influence cardiac autonomic regulation. We excluded subjects with previous experience with musical instruments or classical ballet music and volunteers who like heavy metal and baroque music styles because this musical preference might affect their cardiovascular responses ( 7 ).

Initial evaluation

Before the experimental procedure, we recorded data on the volunteers by collecting the following information: age, gender, weight, height and body mass index (BMI). We measured weight with a digital scale (W 200/5, Welmy, São Paulo/SP, Brazil) with a precision of 0.1 kg. We measured height with a stadiometer (ES 2020, Sanny, São Paulo/SP, Brazil) with a precision of 0.1 cm and 2.20 m of extension. We calculated the BMI using the following formula: weight (kg)/height (m 2 ).

HRV analysis

The R-R intervals, which were recorded with a portable HR monitor (with a sampling rate of 1000 Hz), were downloaded to the Polar Precision Performance program (v. 3.0, Polar Electro, Finland). The software enabled us to visualize the HR and extract a cardiac period (R-R interval) file in “txt” format. After digital filtering complemented with manual filtering to eliminate premature ectopic beats and artifacts, we used at least 256 R–R intervals for the data analysis. We included only data series with more than 95% sinus rhythm ( 4 , 8 ). To calculate the indices, we used HRV analysis software (Kubios HRV v.1.1 for Windows, Biomedical Signal Analysis Group, Department of Applied Physics, University of Kuopio, Kuopio, Finland).

Time and frequency domain indices of HRV

To analyze the HRV in the frequency domain, the low frequency (LF = 0.04 to 0.15 Hz) and high frequency (HF = 0.15 to 0.40 Hz) spectral components were used in ms 2 and normalized units. In addition, the ratio between these components (LF/HF) represents a value that is relative to each spectral component in relation to the total power minus the very low frequency (VLF) components. We calculated the spectral analysis using the Fast Fourier Transform algorithm ( 9 ).

The time domain was analyzed by means of the standard deviation of normal-to-normal (SDNN) R-R intervals, the percentage of the adjacent RR intervals with a difference of duration greater than 50 ms (pNN50) and root-mean square of differences (RMSSD) between the adjacent normal RR intervals in a given time interval ( 9 ).

Geometric HRV indices

The HRV analysis was performed using the following geometrical methods: RRtri, TINN and Poincaré plot (SD1, SD2 and SD1/SD2 ratio). The RRtri was calculated from the construction of a density histogram of RR intervals, which contains the horizontal axis of all possible RR intervals measured on a discrete scale with 7.8125 ms boxes (1/128 seconds) and on the vertical axis, the frequency with which each occurred. The union of points of the histogram columns forms a triangle-like shape. The RRtri was obtained by dividing the number of RR intervals used to construct the histogram by their modal frequency (i.e., the RR interval that most frequently appeared on RR) ( 4 ).

The TINN consists of the measure of the base of a triangle. The method of least squares is used to determine the triangle. The RRtri and the TINN express the overall variability of the RR intervals ( 4 ).

The Poincaré plot is a map of points in Cartesian coordinates that is constructed from the values of the RR intervals. Each point is represented on the x-axis by the previous normal RR interval and on the y-axis by the following RR interval.

For the quantitative analysis of the plot, an ellipse was fitted to the points of the chart, with the center determined by the average RR interval. The SD1 indices were calculated to measure the standard deviation of the distances of the points from the diagonal y = x, and SD2 measures the standard deviation of the distances of points from the line y = -x+RRm, where RRm is the average RR interval. The SD1 is an index of the instantaneous recording of the variability of beat-to-beat and represents the parasympathetic activity, whereas the SD2 index represents the long-term HRV and reflects the overall variability. The SD1/SD2 shows the ratio between the short- and long-term variation among the RR intervals ( 10 ).

The plot was qualitatively analyzed using HRV analysis software based on the figures formed by its attractor. The expected shapes were described by Tulppo et al. ( 10 ) as:

1) Figures in which an increase in the dispersion of RR intervals is observed with increased intervals, characteristic of a normal plot.

2) Small figures with beat-to-beat global dispersion without increased long-term dispersion of RR intervals.

Measurement of the auditory stimulation

The equivalent sound levels were measured in a soundproof room, using an SV 102 audiodosimeter (Svantek, Finland). The audiodosimeter was programmed to collect measurements in the "A" weighting circuit, indicating a slow response.

The measurement was made during a session, which lasted 4 minutes 50 seconds for the relaxant classical baroque music and 5 minutes 15 seconds for the excitatory heavy metal music. We used the insert-type microphone (microphone in real ear), which was placed inside the auditory canal of the subject, just below the microphone, and connected to the personal stereo.

Before each measurement, we calibrated the microphones using the calibrator acoustic CR: 514 model (Cirrus Research Plc.).

Experimental protocol

Data were collected in a room with the temperature set between 21°C and 25°C and relative humidity regulated between 50% and 60%. The volunteers were instructed not to drink alcoholic or caffeinated beverages for 24 hours before the evaluation. The data were collected on an individual basis between 8 AM and 12 PM to minimize the confounding effects of the circadian rhythm. The procedures necessary for the data collection were explained on an individual basis; the subjects were instructed to remain at rest and avoid talking during the data collection.

After the initial evaluation, we placed the heart monitor belt over the subject's thorax, aligned with the distal third of the sternum, and the Polar RS800CX heart rate receiver (Polar Electro, Finland) was placed on the wrist. The subjects were seated and remained at rest with spontaneous breathing for 10 minutes with the earphones turned off.

After 10 minutes of rest, the subjects were exposed to excitatory heavy metal (Gamma Ray's “Heavy Metal Universe”) or relaxant baroque (Pachelbel's "Canon in D Major”) musical auditory stimulation for 5 minutes each. Subsequently, the individuals remained at rest for 5 minutes and thereafter were exposed to musical auditory stimulation for 5 minutes. The sequence of songs was randomized for each individual. In an additional protocol with a different group of women, the subjects were exposed to both styles of music and white noise auditory stimulation (90 dB) to investigate whether the variation in the equivalent sound level of the songs influences HRV.

Statistical analysis

Standard statistical methods were used to calculate the means and standard deviations. The normal Gaussian distribution of the data was verified by the Shapiro-Wilk goodness-of-fit test (z value of >1.0). For parametric distributions, we applied the one-way ANOVA for repeated-measures followed by the Bonferroni post-test. For nonparametric distributions, we used the Friedman test followed by Dunn's post-test. We compared the geometric indices of HRV between the three moments (Group 1, control condition vs. classical baroque vs. excitatory heavy metal; Group 2, control condition vs. classical baroque vs. excitatory heavy metal vs. white noise). The differences were considered significant when the probability of a Type I error was less than 5% ( p <0.05). We used the Software GraphPad StatMate version 2.00 for Windows (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA).

The volunteers were exposed to an equivalent sound level between approximately 70 and 80 dB. Figure 1 shows the measurement for the baroque music; Figure 2 presents the equivalent sound level during heavy metal music stimulation.

Equivalent sound level of auditory musical stimulation in the baroque style.

Equivalent sound level of auditory musical stimulation in the heavy metal style.

Table 1 presents the basal diastolic (DAP) and systolic (SAP) arterial pressures, HR, mean RR, weight, height and BMI of the volunteers.

Baseline diastolic (DAP) and systolic arterial pressure (SAP), heart rate (HR), mean RR interval, weight, height and body mass index (BMI) of the volunteers.

Table 2 demonstrates that the SD1 index when listening to the two musical styles tended to be reduced compared with the control group but showed no significant changes (Friedman test followed by Dunn's post-test, p  = 0.09). The same result occurred with the index TINN, which tended to be decreased in response to exposure to relaxant baroque and excitatory heavy metal music (Friedman test followed by Dunn's post-test, p  = 0.2). In contrast, the RRtri showed a significant reduction during exposure to relaxant baroque music and excitatory heavy metal music (ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post-test, p  = 0.03). Moreover, the SD2 index showed a significant reduction during both relaxant baroque and excitatory heavy metal music compared with the control condition (Friedman test followed by Dunn's post-test, p  = 0.04). With regard to the SD1/SD2 ratio, we observed no significant changes (ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post-test, p  = 0.56).

Average values followed by their standard deviations for analysis of geometric indices of HRV.

RRtri, triangular index; TINN, triangular interpolation of RR intervals; SDI, standard deviation of the instantaneous variability of the beat-to-beat heart rate; SD2, standard deviation of long-term continuous RR interval variability; SD1/SD2 ratio, ratio between the short- and long-term variation of the RR intervals.

* p <0.05 vs. control.

To analyze whether the changes in the equivalent sound level influences HRV, we applied an additional inclusion of white noise auditory stimulation. As shown in Table 3 , the SD1 index was not different between the four moments (Friedman test followed by Dunn's post-test, p  = 0.5). The TINN index (Friedman test followed by Dunn's post-test, p  = 0.1) and RRTri (ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post-test, p  = 0.1) tended to be decreased at the time of exposure to excitatory heavy metal music compared with control condition. The SD2 index tended to decrease during both relaxant baroque and white noise compared with the control condition (Friedman test followed by Dunn's post-test, p  = 0.09). Regarding the SD1/SD2 ratio, we observed no significant changes (ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post-test, p  = 0.39).

Average values and their standard deviations for the analysis of the time domain, frequency domain and geometric HRV indices.

RRTri, triangular index; TINN, triangular interpolation of RR intervals; SD1, standard deviation of the instantaneous variability of the beat-to-beat heart rate; SD2, standard deviation of long-term continuous RR interval variability; SD1/SD2 ratio, ratio between the short- and long-term variations of RR intervals; SDNN, standard deviation of normal-to-normal R-R intervals; RMSSD, root-mean square of differences between adjacent normal RR intervals in a time interval; pNN50, percentage of adjacent RR intervals with a difference of duration greater than 50 ms; LF, low frequency; HF, high frequency; LF/HF, low-frequency/high-frequency ratio.

In the time domain, there was no significant difference between the four moments regarding the SDNN (ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post-test, p  = 0.37), RMSSD (ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post-test, p  = 0.3) and pNN50 (ANOVA followed by Bonferroni's post-test, p  = 0.17) indices ( Table 3 ). In the frequency domain analysis, we observed no changes regarding LF in either normalized (Friedman test followed by Dunn's post-test, p  = 0.12) or absolute (Friedman test followed by Dunn's post-test, p  = 0.2) units and HF in absolute units (Friedman test followed by Dunn's post-test, p  = 0.19). The HF index was reduced in absolute units during exposure to white noise compared with the control condition (Friedman test followed by Dunn's post-test, p  = 0.04). In contrast, the LF/HF ratio tended to be increased in the same situation compared with the control condition, but this result did not reach significance (Friedman test followed by Dunn's post-test, p  = 0.08).

Figure 3 shows an example of the Poincaré plot patterns from one subject during no music (A), relaxant baroque musical auditory stimulation (B) and excitatory heavy metal musical auditory stimulation (C).

Visual pattern of the Poincaré plot observed in one subject during the control condition (A), exposure to relaxant baroque music (B) and exposure to excitatory heavy metal music (C).

Considering the relevance of musical therapy and auditory stimulation during rehabilitation ( 13 - 15 ), we evaluated the acute effects of excitatory heavy metal and relaxant baroque music on the geometric, time and frequency domain indices of HRV in two groups of healthy women. The results obtained by the HRV geometric indices in the Group 1 showed that exposure to both styles of music decreased the HRV because the RRTri and SD2 indices decreased. In the Group 2, the RRTri and SD2 indices did not show significant differences, although they tended to be reduced during similar conditions. The frequency domain analysis indicated that the parasympathetic activity on the heart decreased during white noise auditory stimulation. We suggest that acute exposure to relaxant classical baroque and excitatory heavy metal musical auditory stimulation slightly reduces the HRV due to their equivalent sound level.

In this study, we reported that the SD1 index was unchanged during exposure to both styles of music. This index represents the transverse axis of the Poincaré plot; it indicates the standard deviation of the instantaneous variability of the beat-to-beat HR. This index represents the influence of the parasympathetic activity on the sinoatrial node ( 4 ). A reduction in vagal modulation has been observed in another study related to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), in which the SD1 index was reduced in volunteers with COPD compared with subjects without the disease ( 10 ), which suggests an increased sympathetic tone in the patients with COPD. Moreover, in a study of obese and eutrophic children ( 12 ), the authors evaluated the SD1 index and observed a significant reduction in the obese subjects compared with the control group. This reduction is associated with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality from all causes and the development of various risk factors. Nonetheless, we found no effects of acute relaxant baroque music and excitatory heavy metal music on the SD1 index.

Based on our data, the SD2 index in the first group was decreased during exposure to both relaxant baroque and excitatory heavy metal musical auditory stimulation compared with no music stimulation. However, in the second group, this index tended to decrease but did not reach significance. The SD2 index expresses the overall variability of RR intervals. This long-term component of HRV usually accounts for all other HR changes, including changes associated with the baroceptor reflex loop and thermoregulation, when analyzed for 24 hours ( 4 ). Our results suggest that this stimulation presents slight effects on the global variability of HR.

Chuang and co-workers investigated the effects of long-term, 8-month music therapy intervention on autonomic function in anthracycline-treated breast cancer patients. The authors observed that the musical therapy improved the time and frequency domain indices of HRV. The authors' protocol was divided into two activities. During the first part of the study, the subjects were exposed to popular Taiwanese songs with moderate, pleasant rhythms and tempos. The second part of the study was spent learning how to play diverse musical instruments, such as hand bells, ukuleles, egg shakers, Cadeson bongos, metallophones and recorders. Our findings suggest that the relaxant baroque musical auditory stimulation acutely reduces the overall HRV.

The reduction of the RRTri indices in response to acute relaxant baroque and excitatory heavy metal music in the first group and the absence of significance in the second group support the hypothesis that acute musical auditory stimulation has slight effects on global HRV. The RRTri presented a close association with the standard deviation of all RR intervals and did not suffer from the influence of ectopic beats and artifacts because the artifacts and ectopic beats are located outside the triangle ( 16 ). Our group previously reported reduced values of RRTri in adult patients with COPD ( 10 ) and in obese children ( 12 ), which suggests that decreased RRTri is related to increased cardiovascular impairment risks. Taken together, the subjects in our study tended to present decreased global HRV during exposure to auditory stimulation with music.

The qualitative visual analysis of Poincaré plot revealed slight changes during excitatory heavy metal exposure, showing a greater beat-to-beat dispersion of RR intervals and a greater dispersion of RR intervals over the long term. The qualitative analysis supports the increased responses of the SD2 and RRTri indices during this condition compared with the control; this finding indicates that the global HRV is reduced during heavy metal musical auditory stimulation.

As we anticipated, the excitatory heavy metal music exposure reduce the global HRV. Both the SD2 and RRTri indices were decreased compared with control period, which included seated rest. Nevertheless, another index that corresponds to the global HRV, the TINN, was unchanged during relaxant baroque or excitatory heavy metal musical auditory stimulation. We believe that the acute effects of the music selected induced slight but significant responses, as observed with the geometric HRV indices. Although previous studies have evaluated the effect of different musical styles on stress, the influence of different styles of musical auditory stimulation on physiological responses has not been widely investigated. The existing studies observed the relaxing effect of classical music whereas genres such as techno music, hip hop and heavy metal are commonly associated with physiological arousal ( 17 , 18 ). We believe that acute excitatory heavy metal music can acutely induce stress responses and reduce HRV, as observed by analyzing the geometric indices.

As a main finding, both styles of music reduced the geometric HRV indices, which represent the overall variability of the RR intervals. We wonder whether acoustic stimulation reduces the global HRV. Conversely, Roy and co-workers ( 19 ) investigated the effects of a novel auditory binaural stimulus, called rotating acoustic stimulus, on the cardiac autonomic responses. The authors observed a decrease in the HR and an increase in the time domain RMSSD, SD1, SD2 and the SD1/SD2 ratio after the stimulation. They suggested that rotating acoustic stimulation may be a beneficial stimulus for cardiac autonomic regulation. Music presents different effects on HRV compared with different styles of auditory stimulation.

Classical music tends to relax the body and possibly stimulates the parasympathetic nervous system ( 6 ). Nevertheless, there is no direct evidence of a relationship between acute classical music and specific components of HRV. The elegant study performed by Bernardi and et al. ( 1 ) observed that during relaxant classical musical auditory stimulation, there is a moment during which sympathetic activation is accompanied by increases in cerebral blood flow velocity and arterial blood pressure, tachycardia and skin vasoconstriction. The authors ( 1 ) showed that sympathetic and parasympathetic activation depends on the music period. In our study, the volunteers were exposed to the same music that contains the same rhythm and decibel level. However, the music stretches that may influence the ANS with more intensity were not separated because the analysis of HRV requests a minimum of 256 RR intervals; if we separate the music stretch, the RR interval number would not reach this number at rest. Our group is presently studying a protocol to verify this important issue.

An important variable that we investigated was the music intensity. The absence of white noise is a limitation of many studies that have investigated the effects of music on the cardiovascular system. We reported that exposure to white noise significantly decreased the parasympathetic activity on the heart, which is indicated by the reduction of HF index, and tended to increase the sympathetic activity ( p  = 0.08). Nakamura et al. ( 20 ) observed that the number of c-Fos–reactive cells increased in the auditory cortexes of rats exposed to white noise compared with nonstimulated rats. In another study ( 21 ), the same group observed no effect of white noise auditory stimulation on gastric vagal nerve activity. In both cases, the animals were anesthetized using urethane, which may have influenced the responses compared with the conscious state. Our findings suggest that the equivalent sound level is involved in the global HRV decrease caused by exposure to excitatory heavy metal musical auditory stimulation.

The responses observed in our study may be explained by a physiological mechanism associated with the brain ( 15 ). A previous study performed in rats indicated that musical auditory stimulation decreases the renal sympathetic activity and arterial blood pressure through histaminergic neurons that are located at the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus ( 20 ). The dopamine release in the mesolimbic reward system, specifically the nucleus accumbens, was proposed to be involved in emotional stimulation when listening to music ( 22 ). Another investigation in rats indicated that musical auditory stimulation enhances calcium/calmodulin-dependent dopamine synthesis in the brain, thus decreasing blood pressure ( 23 ). An important issue is the style of music used by the authors because each study used different music. Thus, we must be careful when we interpret data.

In our study, we investigated only women because the literature indicates that there are differences between men and women regarding their physiological responses to musical auditory stimulation ( 16 ). During excitatory heavy metal music exposure, women presented a higher increase in the sympathetic nervous system responses compared with men. The sympathetic responses were evaluated by analyzing skin conductance and finger temperature. Men presented more intense autonomic responses after heavy metal musical auditory stimulation, as observed by an increased secretion of salivary amylase. This response is induced by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve activities stimulation ( 17 ). Therefore, our data should not be extrapolated to men.

In conclusion, relaxant baroque and excitatory heavy metal musical auditory stimulation present slight effects on the global HRV, as observed through an analysis of the geometric HRV indices. We suggest that the acute effects of relaxant music are different from its chronic effects on HRV and that the equivalent sound level is also involved in this mechanism. Our results report the transient nature of music-related patterns and suggest that additional investigations regarding the relationship between musical auditory stimulation and cardiac autonomic regulation are necessary to expand the potential practice of music stimulation in therapeutic applications.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Our study received financial support from FAPESP.

No potential conflict of interest was reported.

Music Genres Effect on Heart Rate

Author: Rishubh Madaboosi Naperville Central High School October 1, 2021

Purpose : The purpose of this investigation was to determine if different genres of music had an effect on heart rate.

Procedure : Firstly, please go to a quiet room with all required materials, then record initial heart rate on google form using the heart rate monitor. After this, please connect headphones to the device and set volume to medium setting. Then please start to listen to the song given in the google form’s description, and at the halfway mark of the song, please record your heart rate on google form using the heart rate monitor. After finishing the song, please record the final heart rate in google form using the heart rate monitor.

Conclusion : After analyzing the data, the result was consistent with what the hypothesis assumed. When looking at the initial, ongoing, and final heart rates for classical music, 100% of the volunteers recorded a lower ongoing and final heart rate when compared to the initial heart rate. When looking at rock music, 60% of the volunteers recorded a lower ongoing and final heart rate when compared to the initial heart rate, while the other 40% recorded higher ongoing and final heart rates when compared to the initial heart rate.

Safety Sheet and Endorsements

All the volunteers in this experiment were asked to listen to music while recording their initial, ongoing, and final heart rates. Therefore, There are no safety concerns in this experiment.

Acknowledgements

I would like to acknowledge Mr. Golab for helping through the entire process of my research and for helping me understand how to do proper research at a higher standard. I would like to thank Dr. Rohit Loomba for helping to advise me and guide me through my research project. I would also like to thank all the people who helped during the testing stage of my experiment for volunteering and taking the time out of your day to help me in my research. I would like to thank my family for helping motivate me to push through with my work. I would also like to thank them for recommending me to take up this program.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine if different genres of music had an effect on the heart rate of a human.

If classical music was chosen to lower heart rate, it would be more successful in doing so when compared to rock music

Rationale: Classical music triggers certain emotions through different dopamine levels to order the brain to send messages through the nervous system to the sinus node telling it to either lower or increase the heart rate.

Review of Literature

Music is a big part of people’s lives and sometimes affects us in ways that we don’t always notice. With the growing popularity of listening to music while doing various activities like reading, exercising, etc, the question that comes to mind which music is best? The answer depends on the activity that is being accomplished. This is because different genres of music can have different effects on your body, like heart rate, blood pressure, and others. The purpose of this investigation, then, is to determine if different genres of music have an effect on heart rate. This will be done in order to inform the people on how certain genres can be beneficial in certain circumstances.

According to an article from the National Library of Medicine, “How Does Music Affect the Human Body,” music is known to have certain effects on different parts and physiological variables of the body. To figure out how it could have an affect on a human’s heart rate, we need to examine how the body regulates the heart rate in different circumstances. According to royalsocietypublishing.org, the brain controls the heart rate directly through the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. These two systems are a part of a bigger nervous system called the autonomic nervous system. According to an article from byjus.com titled Difference Between Sympathetic And Parasympathetic, the sympathetic nervous system is used to respond to perceived dangers, and the parasympathetic nervous system is used as a calming mechanism. These systems release different hormones that either accelerate or decelerate the heart rate. The sinus node is the pacemaker on the heart’s right atrium that releases electric impulses which start each beat of the heart. In an article from medicinenet.com, they say that the autonomic nervous system is said to directly control the sinus node which starts the cardiac cycle. The article goes on to say that the sinus node initiates the cycle by “generating electrical impulses and conducting them throughout the muscle of the heart, stimulating the heart to contract and pump blood.”.

It makes sense then, how the brain can send a message through the nervous system towards the sinus node to either speed up or slow down the heart rate. Music affects the heart rate of a human being because certain types of music trigger certain emotions in our body. According to dailygood.org, music can be used to peak emotions by increasing the amount of dopamine in your body. Dopamine is known as a feel good hormone, meaning that an increase in dopamine in a person’s body would make them feel very happy. Music acts as an independent variable by changing the amount of dopamine that flows through the body depending on the genre of music. Dopamine therefore can be used to change a person’s emotions depending on how much of it is used. A change in emotion can cause the brain to order different organs to act in a manner that best fits the setting that the human is in. To summarize this, music triggers a certain emotion through different dopamine levels and the brain sends messages through different nervous systems ordering the heart to change its pace.

The independent variable in this experiment are the genres of music because the genres are the variables being changed in order to get a different result from the heart rate. The dependent variable is the heart rate because the level of heart rate depends on what genre of music is being played.

In previous experimentation, an article titled, “Effects of music on systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and heart rate: a meta-analysis”, Dr. Rohit S. Loomba and Rohit Arora came to the conclusion that music has a beneficial effect in settings like emergency care units and other high anxiety environments, because it reduced heart rate, systolic, and diastolic blood pressure. This helps us understand that music does have an effect on our emotions, which in consequently has an effect on heart rate.

Other concepts that relate to the investigation could be, “What effect do different tones, tempos, and rhythms have on the entire body and the brain?” This question is similar to the different genres of music because different genres of music usually have different rhythms and beats that go along with them.

In conclusion, different genres of music cause different emotions to form based on the amount of dopamine that is produced as a result of listening to a certain genre. This then tells the brain to order certain actions from different organs to adjust to the new environment. One of these messages travel as neurons through the nervous system and go to the heart, where they order the sinus node to change the pace of the heartbeat. Based on this research, I can hypothesize that different genres of music will have an effect on heart rate and it will differ based on which genre of music is used.

• 1 heart rate monitor(or any device that can record heart rate)
• device to play music
• A quiet room to do experiment
• go to a quiet room with all required materials
• record initial heart rate on google form using the heart rate monitor
• connect headphones to device and set volume to medium setting
• listen to the song given in the google form’s description
• at halfway mark of the song, record heart rate on google form using the heart rate monitor
• after finishing the song, record final heart rate in google form using the heart rate monitor
• Independent variable: Genre of music (Rock or Classical)
• Controlled variables: gender, age, setting of location, volume, length of each song (within 30 seconds of each other)
• Dependent variable: heart rates recorded
• Control: A comparison among the two genres of music

Data Analysis: The data shows the heart rates for each song from different genres. Song 1 is rock and song 2 is classical music. Along with the heart rates, the table also shows the average heart rate for each song, the standard deviation, standard error, and 95% confidence interval. The graph shows the average for each time when listening to the song (initial, ongoing, and final). The error bars represent the 95% confidence intervals.

Statistical analysis: In the graphs, the error bars are not overlapping which means that the data is significant, which shows that different genres of music have an effect on heart rate. In this experiment, there was evidence showing that classical music causes a decrease in heart rate 100% of the time, and rock music causes an increase in heart rate 60% of the time.

Error analysis: one of the main causes of error in the experiment could have been the preference of music. Because different people prefer different types of music to others, this can cause an increase in dopamine which can affect the heart rate of a person. For example, someone who enjoys rock music would most likely have a more evident heart rate change, whereas someone who does not enjoy it or has no opinion on it would have a less evident heart rate change or a heart rate change that is opposite to the trend.

To conclude my research, the data suggests that different genres of music do have an effect on heart rate. The data shows this idea because classical music is shown to lower the heart rate 100% of the time, while rock music is shown to increase the heart rate 60% of the time. The data is significant because the error bars between the two graphs do not overlap. Some things that could have been done to make the data more accurate is to find test subjects that do not have a preference for a certain genre of music, and do not have a disliking for a certain genre of music.

Reference List

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Bhandari, S. (2019, June 19). Dopamine: What It Is & What It Does. Retrieved January 11, 2021, from https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/what-is-dopamine#1

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Loomba, R., Arora, R., Shah, P., Chandrasekar, S., & Molnar, J. (2012, May). Effects of music on systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and heart rate: A meta-analysis. Retrieved January 11, 2021, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3860955/ M;, M. (n.d.). [How does music affect the human body?]. Retrieved January 31, 2021, from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10863350/#:~:text=Research%20has%20shown%20that%20mu sic,influences%20immune%20and%20endocrine%20function.

Music & the Brain: The Fascinating Ways Music Affects Your Mood and Mind. (n.d.). Retrieved January 11, 2021, from http://www.dailygood.org/story/1613/music-and-the-brain-the-fascinating-ways-music-affects-yo ur-mood-and-mind/#:~:text=Listening%20to%20music%20can%20create,brain’s%20reward%20 and%20pleasure%20centers.&text=The%20study%20incorporated%20specific%20songs% 20to%20portray%20different%20emotions.

Seladi-Schulman, J. (2018, July 23). What Part of the Brain Controls Emotions? Retrieved January 6, 2021, from https://www.healthline.com/health/what-part-of-the-brain-controls emotions#:~:text=The%20limbic%20system%20is%20a,for%20behavioral%20and%20emotional%20responses

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About the author

Rishubh Madaboosi

Rishubh is a Senior at Naperville Central High school in Naperville, Illinois. He has a passion for behavioral science and different fields involving biology. Besides his academic interests in biology and history, he enjoys playing tennis for the school team and playing clarinet in his free time.