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Monitoring urban physical growth in tsunami-affected areas: a case study of Banda Aceh City, Indonesia

• Published: 02 January 2021
• Volume 87 , pages 1929–1944, ( 2022 )

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• Ikhwan Amri 1 &
• Sri Rum Giyarsih   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2602-1427 1  

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Building back better-based urban planning is an integral part of efforts to increase urban resilience. Therefore, urban physical growth needs to be monitored to prevent built-up areas from expanding into hazard zones. This study analyzed the dynamics of urban physical growth and its driving forces in tsunami-affected areas of Banda Aceh after the 2004 tsunami. Built-up areas were extracted from Landsat images. The annual growth rate equation was used to estimate the growth characteristics in the tsunami-affected and safe areas. In-depth interviews and extensive literature reviews were also conducted to identify the determinant factors of urban redevelopment in tsunami-affected areas. Results showed that the annual growth rate was high in the areas during the disaster recovery period (2005–2009). Nevertheless, urban physical growth dominated in the safe areas during 2009–2019. The study also identified several driving forces of urban physical growth in the hazard zones: (1) population growth, (2) spatial planning, (3) distance to old city center, (4) land ownership and prices, and (5) socio-economic factors. This study provided new insights for urban planners to reduce disaster risk in urban areas.

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The authors would like to thank Dr. Djaka Marwasta and Dr. Rini Rachmawati for their meaningful suggestions to improve this paper.

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IA contributed to conceptualization, formulated the research design, coordinated the data collection, performed the analysis and interpreted the data, and drafted the manuscript. SRG participated in the research design and helped to draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Amri, I., Giyarsih, S.R. Monitoring urban physical growth in tsunami-affected areas: a case study of Banda Aceh City, Indonesia. GeoJournal 87 , 1929–1944 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-020-10362-6

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• Published: 08 January 2018

Socio-economic consequences of post-disaster reconstruction in hazard-exposed areas

• Jamie W. McCaughey   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1490-5022 1 , 2 ,
• Patrick Daly 1 ,
• Ibnu Mundir 3 ,
• Saiful Mahdi 4 &
• Anthony Patt 2  

Nature Sustainability volume  1 ,  pages 38–43 ( 2018 ) Cite this article

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• Climate-change adaptation
• Natural hazards
• Psychology and behaviour
• Socioeconomic scenarios
• Sustainability

With coastal populations growing and sea levels rising, reconstruction decisions after coastal disasters are increasingly consequential determinants of future societal vulnerability and thus the sustainability of development. The humanitarian sector tends to favour rebuilding in-place to avoid the social disruptions of mass relocation, yet evidence on what affected people want is mixed. Using the case of post-tsunami Banda Aceh, Indonesia, we investigate whether a policy to rebuild in-place in the disaster-affected area suits an urban population that was previously unaware of the hazard. We show that following the tsunami, a substantial proportion of the population prefers to live farther from the coast. This has caused a new price premium for inland properties and socio-economic sorting of poorer households into coastal areas. These findings show that offering reconstruction aid predominantly within a hazard-exposed area can inadvertently transfer disaster risk to the poor.

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Acknowledgements

This research is supported by the National Research Foundation Singapore and the Singapore Ministry of Education under the Research Centres of Excellence initiative. This work was funded by the Earth Observatory of Singapore (EOS) and is EOS Contribution Number 132. The International Centre for Aceh and Indian Ocean Studies facilitated this research in collaboration with Syiah Kuala University. Nizamuddin, Ardiansyah and M. Affan carried out geospatial analyses. Hayatullah, N. Anwar, Z. Ak, A. Uzia, C. Murnita, F. Nailufar, Fitriani, I. Fitria, Israyani, Jihan, Safrina and S. Tahir helped to refine research instruments and carried out field research. N. Elviera, I. Fitria, J. Yong, R. Zahara, S. Novita and D. Hundlani assisted with data management and verification. E. Maida, C. Dian Fitri and I. Arisandy provided operational support. P. Adamek provided comments on the manuscript.

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J.W.M., I.M., P.D. and A.P. designed the research. S.M. designed the sampling strategy. J.W.M. and I.M. carried out the research and analysed the data. All authors contributed to writing the manuscript.

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McCaughey, J.W., Daly, P., Mundir, I. et al. Socio-economic consequences of post-disaster reconstruction in hazard-exposed areas. Nat Sustain 1 , 38–43 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-017-0002-z

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Research Article

Evaluation of Settlement Development and Future Challenges in The Tsunami Disaster Risk Area Case Study: Banda Aceh Coastal Areas

Widya Soviana, Ashfa Achmad, Syamsidik Syamsidik, Firmansyah Rachman, and 1 more

This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal.

https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3928087/v1

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The cataclysmic tsunami in 2004 profoundly impacted the city of Banda Aceh, resulting in significant redevelopment efforts in the coastal areas. This research examines the spatial development of settlements in these regions, mainly focusing on their vulnerability to future tsunami hazards. Surveys, literature reviews, and Geographic Information System analyses assessed how current urban growth aligns with the directives outlined in the Regional Spatial Layout Plan and disaster mitigation strategies. The findings reveal a notable escalation in settlement development within Banda Aceh City, with a 73.70% increase in directed sites. However, establishing sufficient tsunami rescue facilities has yet to accompany this growth adequately. Only 3.4% of the population has access to vertical evacuation infrastructure, highlighting inadequacies in the city's preparedness for future tsunami events. This deficiency in safety infrastructure poses an elevated risk to the expanding population residing in these areas. The study underscores the need to reassess urban planning and disaster mitigation strategies comprehensively. We emphasize the urgent requirement for the government to implement policies regulating urban expansion in high-risk coastal areas and enhancing the availability and distribution of vertical evacuation facilities. These measures are of utmost importance in safeguarding the lives of Banda Aceh's residents against potential future tsunamis, thereby contributing to the city's sustainable urban development and resilience. The study also provides valuable insights and recommendations for government policymaking in urban planning, focusing on prioritizing the safety and well-being of coastal communities in regions prone to tsunamis.

Settlements

Coastal Areas

Spatial Planning

Geographic Information Systems

1. Introduction

Settlements, as residential areas, include multiple homes with essential infrastructure, facilities, and public utilities [ 1 ]. They should offer safety and comfort, but in places like Banda Aceh City, the coastal regions are vulnerable to tsunamis. Banda Aceh's proximity to continental and oceanic faults increases the risk of sea-related disasters, including strong winds and coastal erosion. While the city's flat and low-lying terrain provides some relief from floods in the rainy season, it still faces several hazards.

Considering the risk of disasters, Banda Aceh's spatial planning has been strategically designed for disaster prevention. The city's Regional Spatial Layout Plan (RTRW) was updated in 2009, as per Qanun Number 4 of 2009 [ 2 ], replacing the 2003 version. This was further modified by Qanun Number 2 of 2018 [ 3 ] in response to evolving development needs. In Banda Aceh, 'Qanun' signifies local legislation. The plan explicitly allocates land in the coastal region for various purposes, including housing, offices, educational institutions, commercial spaces, religious sites, ports, fisheries, and other public amenities. The designated area for coastal settlements is 734.59 hectares [ 4 ].

The Banda Aceh Municipal Government has designated specific zones for development, placing office and business areas along the main roads and residential areas behind them. This layout aims to create an aesthetically pleasing urban landscape. Following the 2004 tsunami, the rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts have successfully restored housing in the affected areas [ 5 ]. In the coastal region near Ulee Lhee port, 91% of the land use has been recovered as residential settlements, reflecting a return to pre-tsunami development levels [ 6 ].

Residents have returned to their original homes in Banda Aceh, assuming that tsunamis occur over long intervals [ 7 ]. This has led to increased housing construction, even in the northern parts of the city, which are at risk of tsunamis. In Banda Aceh, there is a religious belief that disasters are acts of God and signify divine judgment. The community sees death as a fixed event in time, thus viewing relocation as futile [ 8 ]. This mindset contributes to the continued population increase in areas vulnerable to tsunamis.

After the completion of disaster recovery activities in Banda Aceh City, there has been a significant rise in population in the affected areas. The most substantial growth was in Meuraxa District, the area hardest hit by the tsunami. In the five years post-disaster, Meuraxa and Kuta Raja sub-district populations have notably increased. This increase is partly due to disaster survivors returning and partially because new residents are drawn by the area's strategic importance and affordable living costs [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ].

Limited land availability complicates land management by authorized owners, often leading to failures [ 12 ]. This issue is pronounced in coastal regions prone to tsunamis, as seen in Banda Aceh City's Meuraxa, Jaya Baru, Kuta Alam, and Syiah Kuala districts, which have a history of severe disasters. Rapid and unregulated development in these coastal areas can lead to environmental, social, and economic difficulties [ 13 ][ 14 ].

Several research studies have been undertaken on the coastal area of Banda Aceh City, aiming to provide insights into sustainable coastal area management and development. These studies have explored various potential hazards, including the effects of rising sea levels and the likelihood of tsunami disasters. The increasing sea level is particularly threatening for the city's coastal cultivation ponds and may convert undeveloped land into residential areas [ 15 ]. Approximately two-thirds of the city's developed area is at risk from tsunami threats and rising sea levels [ 16 ]. While previous studies have modeled potential hazards for Banda Aceh City, this study evaluates coastal land cover based on post-tsunami regional spatial planning guidelines.

2. STUDY OF AREA

Figure 1 depicts the map of Banda Aceh city. As the capital city of Aceh Province, Banda Aceh is a vital location for various local, national, and international activities. Its coastal areas, including the districts of Meuraxa, Kuta Raja, Kuta Alam, and Syiah Kuala, are close to the sea. Banda Aceh is encircled by the Aceh Besar District and the Malacca Strait to its north. With a mostly flat terrain, the city lacks elevated areas for disaster evacuation, standing at an average of 0.8 meters above sea level (asl) [ 17 ].

After the tsunami, there has been notable development and expansion in land use within Banda Aceh City's coastal regions. The city saw a 90.8% increase in residential areas between 2005 and 2009, covering an area of 1,016 hectares. Banda Aceh's role as a central hub for services, tourism, cultural activities, and education drives this growth, leading to further development, environmental changes, and population expansion [ 18 ].

The coastal region of Banda Aceh City is at risk from tsunamis, as evidenced by the devastating event on December 26, 2004. This tsunami, triggered by an earthquake off Aceh's southwest coast, caused significant loss of life and widespread damage to infrastructure. The quake, measuring magnitude 9.3 and originating 250 km away at a depth of 30 km, created a 1,600 km fault line. This resulted in tsunami waves reaching as far as 6 km inland, impacting Aceh's shores and nearby islands [ 19 ], [ 20 ], [ 21 ].

To reduce the impact of future tsunamis, Banda Aceh City's coastal residents need to understand their risk. Improving local capabilities and decreasing vulnerability can help lower the threat [ 22 ]. Areas right by the sea will bear the brunt of a tsunami, making communities near the coast more susceptible than those further inland. Tsunami waves, capable of reaching speeds up to 500 km/h, can severely damage structures and even push ships from the Meuraxa District port inland, as seen with the National Electricity Company's (PLN) generator ship during the last disaster [ 23 ].

Properly planning building layouts in coastal regions, including spacing between structures, can mitigate tsunami damage by preventing water flow turbulence. Despite this, observations show that buildings further back often sustain more damage than those at the forefront [ 24 ]. Consequently, adopting square or circular layouts for buildings is more effective in reducing damage than elongated or L-shaped configurations [ 25 ].

Post-tsunami, Banda Aceh City saw significant land development and urban expansion, with a 90.8% increase in built-up areas, totaling 1,016 hectares from 2005 to 2009 [ 18 ]. The city's growth in infrastructure, environmental changes, and population is driven by its role as a hub for service trade, tourism, culture, and education. A comparison of population growth in areas affected by the disaster versus safer regions is depicted in Fig.  2 . A significant increase in the population occurred five years after the tsunami disaster.

Over 15 years since the tsunami, population dynamics in Banda Aceh City's coastal areas have fluctuated. In 2005, the population was markedly lower in high-risk regions, at just over 60,000, compared to around 120,000 in low-risk areas. By 2010, both areas witnessed a significant population increase, with high-risk zones reaching nearly 120,000 and low-risk zones slightly surpassing 120,000. By 2020, there was a slight reduction in the population of high-risk areas to below 120,000, while low-risk areas saw their population numbers return to approximately the 2010 level.

There was a significant population shift between 2005 and 2010 in high-risk and low-risk areas, with growth being more pronounced in high-risk zones. However, by 2020, the population in high-risk areas declined somewhat, while the population in low-risk regions saw a slight increase. This could imply a range of potential social, economic, or environmental factors influencing population movements, such as improved risk awareness, changes in local economies, or developments in risk mitigation and disaster preparedness.

The study utilized surveys, direct observations at the research site, and remote sensing data from satellite images accessed through the Esri imagery satellite in 2021. The survey focused on monitoring the growth of community settlements in Banda Aceh City's coastal region. Additionally, detailed inspections were performed to evaluate the state of facilities and infrastructure in the area.

The research incorporated secondary data from a review of legislative documents, including Qanun Number 2 of 2018, updates Banda Aceh City's Qanun Number 4 of 2009 regarding the urban planning strategy for 2009–2029, alongside the Mayor of Banda Aceh City's Regulation Number 13 of 2021, detailing the Urban Spatial Planning and Zoning Regulations for the years 2021–2041. Relevant literature related to the research topics was also examined.

Using a Geographic Information System (GIS) for spatial analysis, the study processed primary and secondary data through overlay techniques. The analysis proceeded with a detailed review of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030). This guideline incorporates insights from past experiences, pinpoints shortcomings, and tackles upcoming disaster management challenges [ 26 ]. The framework's strategic priorities include (i) Understanding disaster risk, (ii) Strengthening disaster risk governance and disaster risk management, (iii) Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience, and (iv) Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and building back better in recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Banda Aceh City is strategically divided into protected and cultivated zones. The protected zones aim to enhance safety by mitigating flood risks, controlling erosion, preventing seawater intrusion, and preserving soil fertility [ 4 ]. Consequently, these areas are classified into two main types: locally protected areas, focused on coastal and riverside protection, and green open spaces, designated for urban forests, city parks, cemeteries, and green belts along roads.

The mainland types in Banda Aceh City's coastal region include agricultural fields/ponds, vacant plots, urban zones, lagoons, mangroves, paddy fields, and waterways. Since the 2017 tsunami, urban development, agricultural spaces/ponds, and unused land have consistently been the most prevalent [ 15 ].

Banda Aceh City's Agricultural Zone is set aside for farming, reflecting the area's natural, human, and infrastructural capabilities. Additionally, this zone accommodates residential, commercial, and office spaces, public amenities, and sectors like tourism and fishing [ 4 ]. The layout of conservation and farming zones along the city's coast is detailed in Fig.  3 .

The coastal zone of Banda Aceh City covers a total of 3,477.73 hectares, divided into 1,150.43 hectares of conservation land and 2,327.29 hectares of agricultural land. This distribution results in a protected-to-cultivation area ratio of 1:2, where 33% is reserved for protection, and 67% is used for cultivation.

Survey findings indicate that mangrove forests along the coast are spread unevenly. Some coastal sections feature constructed levees parallel to the shoreline to prevent flooding from tides, waves, and storms in low-lying areas. On the city's east coast, pristine beaches span roughly 5 km. The present state of the beaches in Banda Aceh City is depicted in Fig.  4 .

Post-2004 tsunami, the spatial planning in Banda Aceh City has identified three main zones: areas for environmental preservation, zones where development is controlled, and regions encouraged for growth. These measures are in place to lower the risk of future disasters. Plans for urban development are also directed towards the south of Banda Aceh City, moving the population away from areas at risk of tsunamis.

The community's wish to rebuild their homes on their original sites was realized through the post-tsunami recovery efforts 2004. Ideally, living in areas vulnerable to disasters requires the provision of safety and emergency services, implementation of earthquake and tsunami-resistant construction techniques, damage potential-based zoning reviews, and strategic housing planning for fishermen and other residents.

The allure and historical appeal of Banda Aceh's old downtown has drawn people to live in areas vulnerable to disasters. As a result, housing construction is still ongoing in the city's northern part, under the condition that it remains within environmental carrying capacities [ 4 ]. Consequently, certain coastal residential areas fall within high-risk tsunami zones, where wave heights can surpass 3 meters [ 27 ], [ 28 ]. The overall tsunami risk assessment for Banda Aceh City indicates that 85% of the area is at high risk, 10% is at medium risk, and only 5% is at low risk for tsunamis [ 29 ].

In regions of Banda Aceh City classified with high hazard levels, land utilization encompasses residential areas, educational institutions, office buildings, commercial spaces, medical centers (hospitals), religious sites, harbors, stations, high-rise evacuation points, and various public infrastructures. Additionally, these areas include undeveloped plots, lagoons, ponds, parks/green spaces, levees, and coastal plants serving as protective barriers. For a detailed view of coastal land use in Banda Aceh City, refer to Fig.  5 below.

According to Fig.  5 , the coastal zone of Banda Aceh City's developed land encompasses residential areas, office buildings, educational facilities, commercial spaces, religious sites, maritime and fishing harbors, bus stations, medical institutions, and other public structures. Conversely, the undeveloped sections include water features like lagoons, parks and green spaces, empty plots, ponds, and coastal forest areas. The coastal region spans 3,477.73 hectares, with 1,645.67 hectares accounted for by developed areas and 1,832.06 hectares by undeveloped ones. The division of land results in 47.32% being set and 52.68% remaining undeveloped. This distribution aligns with urban planning standards that require a minimum of 30% green space, as stipulated by spatial planning regulations [ 30 ]. Detailed measurements of each area are provided in Table  1 .

According to Table  1 , the largest share of land, 1,276.40 hectares or 36.70%, is used for settlements. This is succeeded by vacant land and ponds, occupying 681.62 hectares (19.60%) and 353.45 hectares (10.16%), in that order. Lagoons account for 303.86 hectares or 8.74% of the land. Meanwhile, smaller areas are designated for facilities such as evacuation buildings, apartment complexes, bus depots, and sports arenas, each comprising less than 0.1% of overall land use.

There's a notable variation in how activities are spread out across sub-districts. Kuta Raja, for example, features a large number of lagoons, while Syiah Kuala focuses on educational facilities and open green areas. This variation reflects the diverse planning approaches and land use strategies adapted to the unique characteristics of each sub-district.

The analysis of activity areas in the coastal parts of Banda Aceh City reveals a nuanced approach to urban coastal land management. The emphasis on residential areas points to urban sprawl and the critical demand for living spaces, driven by population increase and the city's socio-economic growth. The varied land use patterns in Banda Aceh City's sub-districts illustrate the city's targeted approach to urban planning. The concentration on lagoon areas in Kuta Raja highlights an emphasis on conserving natural resources or providing recreational spaces, aiding biodiversity and potentially offering flood mitigation. Conversely, Syiah Kuala's emphasis on education and greenery shows an investment in educational development.

The limited space allocated for emergency services and public amenities prompts important questions about the city's disaster resilience and the sufficiency of its infrastructure for the community. Considering Banda Aceh's susceptibility to tsunamis and other natural calamities, the need for more land for vertical evacuation sites and disaster prevention efforts is evident and requires increased focus and resources.

Moreover, the zoning strategy for residential areas along the coast of Banda Aceh City, as stipulated by Regional Regulation (Qanun) Number 2 of 2018 and Mayor Regulation Number 13 of 2021, organizes housing into low, medium, and high-density sectors. These designated areas are subject to comprehensive building codes and environmental regulations, including integrating artificial and natural barriers for coastal protection [ 31 ]. The specified building requirements include earthquake-resilient structures complemented by environmental criteria like effective drainage systems. The zoning designations based on the RDTR for Banda Aceh City are detailed in Table  2 .

Residential zoning in Banda Aceh City's coastal regions covers 734.57 hectares, accounting for 29.31% of the total allocated settlement area [ 4 ]. Spatial analysis, however, reveals the actual residential space to be 1,276.40 hectares—541.83 hectares more than the designated zoning allows per the official spatial plan. This discrepancy highlights unregulated expansion in these coastal residential zones. To address this, government policies aimed at controlling development rates, focusing on tsunami disaster prevention, are essential for managing growth in Banda Aceh City's coastal settlements [ 32 ].

The tsunami previously had devastating effects on numerous developed sectors within Banda Aceh City. Projections suggest that within the next 50 years, the area impacted by tsunamis could expand to include two-thirds of the city [ 16 ]. Current figures indicate that at least 117,626 residents are at risk of tsunami hazards. This figure will likely rise when accounting for tourists and temporary residents, like students in Banda Aceh. Therefore, ongoing emergency preparedness and community education are essential [ 33 ].

Vertical evacuation options in Banda Aceh are limited, supporting only 4,000 individuals or 3.4% of the population, necessitating widespread horizontal evacuation [ 30 – 31 ]. In reality, tsunami evacuation planning necessitates evacuation places such as evacuation buildings [ 34 ]. To address this, identifying public buildings as makeshift vertical shelters could increase evacuation capacity by up to fourfold [ 33 – 34 ], [ 37 ]. However, public buildings are unevenly distributed, unlike residential areas. The local government might explore constructing elevated areas in certain zones, especially fishing communities, for improved vertical evacuation [ 38 ].

5. Conclusion

Assessing settlements through surveys, literature reviews, and spatial analysis helps understand the ground realities. This step is crucial for reviewing regional planning as a tsunami disaster mitigation efforts component. Banda Aceh's coastal regions are highly susceptible to tsunamis, yet development persists to support the community and the city's role in hosting various activities. As the town grows northward, more residents face the threat of tsunamis.

Development in Banda Aceh's coastal regions has outpaced the city's 2018 spatial planning by 73.70%, with potential for more significant expansion if spatial oversight is lax. Some coastal segments are fortified with embankments and mangroves, yet many areas lack artificial defenses, featuring inadequate natural coastal buffers. The tsunami risk escalates due to the limited vertical evacuation facilities, which can serve only 3.4% of residents. The government must urgently formulate diverse evacuation strategies and ready facilities such as high-rise safe havens or designated evacuation mounds.

The aim is for this information to act as a foundation for government and relevant bodies to undertake comprehensive research, developing adequate protection and rescue strategies for the populace against future tsunami threats.

Declarations

Author contribution.

Widya Soviana contributed as the main manuscript author, data collector, and data processor in this research. Firmansyah Rahman assisted in writing this manuscript. Ashfa Achmad, Munirwansyah, and Syamsidik served as supervisors, initiators, and manuscript overseers. All authors were involved in reviewing this manuscript.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the Government of Indonesia for providing this doctoral scholarship.

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• M. I. Sumtaki, G. Pasau, and S. H. J. Tongkukut, “Simulasi Penjalaran Gelombang Tsunami di Sofifi– Tidore Kepulauan Maluku Utara sebagai Upaya Mitigasi Bencana,” J. MIPA , vol. 6, no. 1, p. 83, 2017, doi: 10.35799/jm.6.1.2017.16176.
• S. Diposaptono, Tsunami . Penerbit Buku Ilmiah Populer, 2006.
• F. Dall’Osso, D. Dominey-Howes, C. Tarbotton, S. Summerhayes, and G. Withycombe, “Revision and improvement of the PTVA-3 model for assessing tsunami building vulnerability using ‘international expert judgment’: introducing the PTVA-4 model,” Nat. Hazards , vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 1229–1256, 2016, doi: 10.1007/s11069-016-2387-9.
• Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), “Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030,” 2015.
• Fauziah, E. Fatimah, and Syamsidik, “Penilaian Tingkat Risiko Bencana Tsunami Untuk Kawasan Kota Banda Aceh Berdasarkan Skenario Tsunami Desember 2004,” J. Tek. Sipil , vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 145–156, 2017.
• Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (BNPB), Rencana Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana 2015-2019 . 2014.
• M. Sugimoto, H. Iemura, and R. Shaw, “Tsunami height poles and disaster awareness: Memory, education and awareness of disaster on the reconstruction for resilient city in Banda Aceh, Indonesia,” Disaster Prev. Manag. An Int. J. , vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 527–540, 2010, doi: 10.1108/09653561011091869.
• Government of Banda Aceh City, “Aceh Regional Regulation No. 19 of 2013 Regarding the Spatial Planning Plan of Aceh for the Year 2013-2033.” 2013.
• Pemerintah Aceh, “Rencana Tata Ruang Wilayah Kota Banda Aceh Provinsi Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam Tahun 2006-2016,” 2006.
• A. Achmad, M. Irwansyah, and I. Ramli, “Prediction of future urban growth using CA-Markov for urban sustainability planning of Banda Aceh , Indonesia Prediction of future urban growth using CA-Markov for urban sustainability planning of Banda Aceh , Indonesia,” Earth Environ. Sci. , 2018, doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/.
• S. E. L. Mowafy, H. M. El-barmelgy, and H. M. Ammar, “An Egyptian Tsunami Contingency Plan,” vol. 10, pp. 111–136, 2022, doi: 10.13189/cea.2022.101406.
• S. Scheer, A. Gardi, R. Guillande, G. Eftichidis, V. Varela, and B. De Vanssay, Handbook of Tsunami Evacuation Planning . 2011. doi: 10.2788/34292.
• W. Soviana and H. A. Rani, “Study of alternative building for tsunami evacuation in Kuta Alam sub-district Banda Aceh,” IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. , vol. 674, no. 1, 2019, doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/674/1/012021.
• A. Jihad et al. , “Tsunami evacuation sites in the northern Sumatra (Indonesia) determined based on the updated tsunami numerical simulations,” Prog. Disaster Sci. , vol. 18, p. 100286, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.pdisas.2023.100286.
• Syamsidik, T. M. Rasyif, H. M. Fritz, Y. Idris, and I. Rusydy, “Fragility based characterization of alternative tsunami evacuation buildings in Banda Aceh, Indonesia,” Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. , vol. 88, no. 8, p. 103607, 2023, doi: 10.1016/j.ijdrr.2023.103607.
• R. S. Dewi, “A-Gis Based Approach of an Evacuation Model for Tsunami Risk Reduction,” J. Integr. Disaster Risk Manag. , vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 108–139, 2012, doi: 10.5595/idrim.2012.0023.

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Rehabilitation of Urban Settlements in the Early Reconstruction Stage after a Tsunami–A Case Study of Banda Aceh Municipality in Indonesia–

2007, Journal of Asian architecture and …

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Tsunami + 10: Housing Banda Aceh After Disaster

A decade after the Indonesian tsunami, a devastated city rebuilds. What can rehousing initiatives teach us about the ongoing struggle for urban resilience?

Lawrence Vale, Shomon Shamsuddin & Kian Goh

December 2014

Few disasters can compare to the devastation caused by the tsunami that struck the north coast of Sumatra on December 26, 2004. After a 9.1 magnitude earthquake in the Indian Ocean, immense waves — some thirty meters high 1 — swept through the Indonesian province of Aceh, leaving at least 163,000 people dead or missing, including 60,000 in the capital, Banda Aceh. 2 It was the largest sudden loss of urban life in a generation — in fact, one of the largest in modern history. 3 More than 60 percent of Banda Aceh’s buildings were destroyed; entire coastal communities were swept away. In many villages, the vast majority of residents were killed, survivors left homeless, and children orphaned. Aid agencies estimated that 90,000 housing units would need to be replaced. 4 Along the coast, some 70 square kilometers were left barren . Throughout this ruined terrain of mud, salt, and erosion, verifiable evidence of land tenure disappeared, as legal documents were lost and the tsunami’s power obliterated even “natural [boundary] markers like trees and footpaths.” 5

When does post-disaster planning give way to the everyday challenge of managing a city?

Almost as staggering as the loss of life and livelihood was the challenge of rebuilding Banda Aceh from the ground up. In the months and years that followed, a rush of international aid — a wave of more than 500 groups that some have called the “second tsunami” — transformed the physical, cultural, and political landscape. 6 That wave has since receded, leaving 140,000 new houses, 1,700 schools, nearly 1,000 government buildings, 36 airports and seaports, and 3,700 kilometers of roads, funded by $12 billion in foreign support. 7

Ten years later, the world has turned its attention to other problems, leaving Banda Aceh all but forgotten. One local report states bluntly, “Since 2009, no assistance has been available from donors,” before offering this reassuring conclusion: “Aceh has, to a large extent, returned to normal.” 8  But what can “normal” mean in these circumstances? How does “recovery” begin and when does it end? When does post-disaster planning give way to the everyday challenge of managing a city? We visited Banda Aceh this past summer to study how rehousing initiatives have fared. 9 How well did planners anticipate the problems of reconstruction?

The New Normal

Banda Aceh is a low-rise metropolis with a quarter million residents living along the delta of the Aceh River. The spare skyline has changed in ways that were unimaginable a decade ago. The domes and minarets of the mosques are interspersed with multi-story hotels — built to accommodate aid workers and visiting donors but now used by tourists — and eight “escape buildings” that loom over the coastal landscape. A novel architectural type, the escape building is essentially a form of man-made high ground — a series of landings connected by a reinforced-concrete ramp designed for vertical evacuation of about 15 meters. In less desperate times, the buildings serve as community centers. One escape building in Banda Aceh is home to the Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation Research Center, and another to the imposing Tsunami Museum . Housing memories of disaster, the museum simultaneously provides the means to escape a future one.

Other changes to the skyline are more surreal, like the 2,600-ton, iron-hulled barge that crashed two kilometers inland during the tsunami. Previously used as an offshore electricity generator, it now affords an expansive view of the city center from an observation deck 20 meters high. Equally famous, the “Boat on the Roof” is a fishing vessel that came to rest in a residential neighborhood of Gampong Lampulo, where it provided refuge for 56 people fleeing the rising waters. 10 Banda Aceh officials have capitalized on the ambiguous attractions of disaster tourism — marketing a narrative that is sometimes uplifting, often macabre, and always jarring. One tourist map matter-of-factly presents “Mass burial ground” next to the icon for “Play Ground.” [ PDF ]

In Banda Aceh and the surrounding communities, we found conflicting signs of a recovery that is remarkably widespread and sustained, but also partial and contested. While the international organizations that funded much of the recovery tend to focus on measurable outputs suited to their financial investment and the limited timeframe of their commitment, residents on the ground have taken a broader view. They understand that true “recovery” is impossible, but that does not deter them from moving ahead with the day-to-day tasks of rebuilding lives and communities. If recovery has succeeded in Banda Aceh, it is largely because political leaders and residents have defined the process broadly, on their own terms. Rather than focusing solely on reconstructing the physical city, or recharging the economy, or attending to the emotional needs of traumatized survivors, they have viewed recovery through multiple lenses. Housing recovery cannot be defined with simple metrics like the number of new units constructed. 11

Housing can be, and should be, connected to issues of livelihood, environment, security, and governance.

In our research, we view housing in the context of urban resilience . Housing is not merely a means of shelter but also a means of engaging an improved quality of life. 12 A robust housing recovery requires a long-term commitment beyond the initial provision of free dwellings to surviving households. Truly affordable housing affords access to economic livelihoods — either because it is co-located with a workplace, or because it is sited near employment opportunities that match the education and skill levels of inhabitants. It affords a healthy environment by reducing vulnerability to environmental hazards, from floodwaters to toxins. It affords personal and familial security, so essential in a place like Banda Aceh that has suffered not only traumatic disaster but also the political violence of a long separatist conflict . Finally, it affords community empowerment and self-governance. New housing can bring together residents to negotiate community standards, norms, and expectations, and can create new forms of neighborhood association and village management.

The post-disaster building spree in Banda Aceh provides an opportunity to study how housing can be, and should be, connected to these issues of livelihood, environment, security, and governance. Taking a comprehensive view of housing and its role in society, we sought to assess the effectiveness of the reconstruction, and to more fully understand how housing plays a key role in disaster recovery and urban resilience. Briefly, we present three case studies.

Gampong Lambung: Returning Home

When asked for an example of successful redevelopment, Banda Aceh officials inevitably point to Gampong Lambung, considered a “model village” in large part because survivors followed the government’s reconstruction plan. Located near the center of Banda Aceh and less than a kilometer from the coast on a flat deltaic plain, Lambung could not have been more vulnerably situated. Of the village’s 5000 inhabitants and 700 households, only 60 people survived the 10-meter-high waves — many because they were out fishing at the time.

After the tsunami, the Indonesian government tried to prohibit permanent construction of new buildings within two kilometers of low-lying coastal areas. 13 That rule, intended to shift rebuilding activities inland, would have required thousands of people, including the Lambung survivors, to abandon their home communities and move away from sources of economic livelihood. 14 This mode of “adaptation” is increasingly common in efforts to cope with climate change but the consequences often fall hardest on those with the least resources. 15 While some Lambung survivors chose to relocate, others refused to abandon their ancestral home. Many returning residents embarked in a cooperative form of land readjustment that entailed a shared sense of community sacrifice and future vision, voluntarily ceding a portion of their land to make way for better roads.

In mid-2005, the government rescinded the building ban and the village was reconstructed on its original site. At its center is a new public space, an escape building donated by the Japanese Government, which doubles as a community center. The ground floor provides a badminton court, while other levels contain a performance stage, a wedding venue and a prayer area. From the roof, anyone can survey the reconstructed village and assess the relative turbulence of the sea.

The new Gampong Lambung is about half its former size, with housing for 300 families provided by various organizations. Indonesia’s Agency for Rehabilitation and Reconstruction (BRR) coordinated recovery efforts but was not empowered to set unified standards, and individual NGOs built houses according to their own preferred designs. 16 Most houses are elevated about a half-meter on concrete slabs, providing limited protection against future floods. Nevertheless, the continued existence of Lambung is an affirmation of community will. Its residents have defended the idea that is possible to avoid disaster by ramping up a building, rather than by ramping up policies to remove coastal populations.

But is repopulating the coastal plain a good idea? Aceh residents got a reality check in April 2012 when a magnitude 8.6 earthquake struck 270 miles offshore. Fortunately, that quake did not cause another tsunami, but as the first real test of Aceh’s emergency response systems, it was a warning sign. In some areas, people ignored emergency sirens that had previously triggered “too many false alarms.” In others, sirens were out of order. Lacking an early warning signal that could be conveyed by cell phone, many people simply started running when they felt the earthquake. Dr. Ella Meilianda, program manager at the Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation Research Center, reported that people ran straight past the escape buildings, apparently preferring a “horizontal evacuation to a vertical one.” Some traumatized residents, she said, were “not responsive at all,” while others ran frantically in every direction. Still others, she said, seemed unfamiliar with evacuation protocols. Some 60 percent of Banda Aceh residents live inland, and they were confused: “why should they run toward the city” to reach an escape building, if that means running toward the sea? 17 An official from the Aceh Disaster Management Agency, Yudhie Satria, described “complete panic” on the streets. “Parents thought they had to go to schools to pick up their kids because they didn’t trust teachers to take over.” Those with their own motorized transportation often “took all of their cars,” resulting in major traffic jams. 18

Planners are developing new emergency procedures, including protocols for shifting major roads to uni-directional evacuation routes. But if people continue to inhabit low-lying coastal areas like Lambung, those systems will be further tested by climate change and rising seas. That has some wondering, wouldn’t it be more sensible to move villagers up into the hills?

Jackie Chan Village: Inland Isolation

An imposing gateway spans the only road into the resettlement community known officially as the Indonesia-China Friendship Village, dedicated in 2007. More commonly it is known as “Jackie Chan Village,” after the Hong Kong movie star who made a donation and paid a brief visit. Located 300 meters above sea level and 1.5 kilometers inland, with expansive views of the ocean, the village elevates residents above the reach of any future wave. The BRR gave free houses to former homeowners displaced by the tsunami, as well as some former renters. A Chinese contractor built 606 houses, mostly single family homes with yellow concrete walls and maroon metal roofs. Residents pay a modest charge for water and a share of electricity for the pump, equivalent to about $2.50 per month. Shared amenities include a kindergarten building, a village clinic, and a large covered concrete slab to accommodate an open market that, unfortunately, has never functioned properly.

They let their land be acquired … [and] didn’t think about how they would then be able to earn a living.

When it opened, the resettlement village rehoused some 2,400 people, an unusually diverse community that included about 100 Chinese households, as well as Acehnese, mixed Acehnese-Javanese, and other ethnicities. Village Chief Wahid (who also oversees six other villages) views Jackie Chan as a “unique place” that brings together people of different faiths to create a “peaceful little community.” Since the BRR selected residents from different areas and backgrounds, no one group dominates the community government. “If only two or three different villages had been represented, they might compete over heads of neighborhoods,” Wahid said. “It is better to have no dominant village. … This is why Jackie Chan Village works.” 19

A survey conducted three years after resettlement found that most residents were satisfied with the houses and valued them almost as highly as their pre-tsunami homes, even though they were smaller. However, the village’s remote location, seventeen kilometers from Banda Aceh, creates employment pressures for the fishermen, becak drivers, traders, service workers, and small-scale entrepreneurs who resettled here. There is “nothing they can earn a living on here based on their skills,” Wahid said. For residents with older children, the absence of a nearby high school creates additional expense. Survey respondents expressed dissatisfaction with the insufficient public transportation, the lack of a village market, and concern about their limited influence on decisions about planning, design, and construction. 20 And the farmers who surrendered land for the village have lost an important source of livelihood. “They let their land be acquired to be redeveloped without a second thought,” Wahid said. “They didn’t think about how they would then be able to earn a living.”

Seven years later, only about 1,200 settlers remain. Some have moved closer to Banda Aceh but are still registered as living in the new village, and local officials seem to tolerate it when they rent out their village homes. We found Jackie Chan Village to be an attractive settlement with flawed logic. It is a notable example of intergovernmental cooperation, and its cohesive, integrated construction is an inspiring alternative to the often hodgepodge recovery efforts in villages served by multiple aid agencies. Its privileged siting offers safety and beauty. Resettlement policies fostered diversity in a region previously wracked by conflict. And yet, its physical isolation creates difficulties for infrastructure provision and poses often insurmountable challenges for residents trying to maintain their livelihoods.

Uplink Banda Aceh: Participatory Reconstruction

Our third example emphasizes the role of housing recovery in promoting community involvement and local governance. Soon after the tsunami, the anti-poverty network Uplink Banda Aceh (UBA) took the strong stance that villagers should be encouraged to rebuild where they previously lived. At a time when most NGOs abided by the government’s “no-build zone,” UBA organized protests against the regulation and provided temporary shelter, food, and cooking supplies in coastal villages, rather than limiting food provision to refugee camps as the government preferred. With international funding, they quickly developed resident-driven reconstruction practices in 23 villages in and around Banda Aceh. They worked directly with community members to plan and rebuild housing and infrastructure, including community centers and mosques. 21 A report by the Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation Research Center quoted one inhabitant of Ulee Lheue village: “We waited a couple of months for help, but because of the policy … no NGOs dared to build here. But then we saw that Uplink was working with 14 villages [within this zone] and joined them so that we could stay and rebuild here.” 22

International donors viewed the tsunami victims as the objects, rather than the subjects, of the aid.

Most international donors, according to the report, “viewed the tsunami victims as the objects, rather than the subjects, of the aid. They thought of the tsunami victims as weak, so most of the aid programs were targeted to short-term needs and physical projects and took a paternalistic attitude, and the format of the aid was not in accordance with local needs.” UBA embodied a very different philosophy, that “outside parties who want to help disaster victims should empower the communities and consider the role of local institutions, so that community rebuilding post-disaster is initiated by the local people themselves.” 23

In March 2005, UBA helped form Jaringan Udeep Beusaree (JUB), a grassroots organization whose name means “the village solidarity network.” Together, they documented pre-tsunami village demographic characteristics, including the residential history and employment experience of survivors, so that they could better target recovery efforts. 24 By that summer, UBA and its partners had salvaged enough wood from the tsunami debris to construct 450 temporary shelters across 23 villages, the first step in a participatory effort to plan and build more than 3,000 permanent homes by February 2007. 25 While global organizations such as the World Bank were still arguing about processes for hiring people to certify land holdings in advance of any actual reconstruction, UBA had already surveyed villages, obtained local buy-in, and started building.

Jakarta architect Marco Kusumawijaya worked with UBA between March and September 2005, and was in Banda Aceh when the government declared that residents should not return to coastal areas. “We defied that,” he said. “We organized people to go back, and did 3,000 houses before the World Bank started.” 26 UBA’s activism helped turn public opinion against the government policy. Faced with the political and logistical problem of relocating 20,000 families in coastal communities, the BRR loosened the policy in mid-2005. 27

As coastal rebuilding began, most architects “wanted a ‘clean slate’ like Lambung,” but Kusumawijaya urged his colleagues to learn from the structure of the original villages. He admired the village road pattern and mosque-centered layout and felt “it would be wrong to erase” it. UBA teams worked with residents to preserve attributes of the coastal villages, but they also advocated for enhancements like better escape roads and access to quality land that could enable a move to higher elevations. They imported laser-guided total station surveying equipment to define plot boundaries supported by community consensus and witness accounts.

One heartbreaking issue was how to support orphans who had land rights but were not yet old enough to head a household. UBA proposed building houses for the orphans, who would remain in the care of community members until they were old enough to occupy their own houses. Kusumawijaya remembered a European NGO worker’s incredulous reaction to this “irresponsible” plan: “How can you let that community take care of a child after that trauma!?” But this was “a non-issue,” Kusumawijaya said, because “in every village, everyone is connected.” He meant that literally. Extended families can comprise sixty or more people, so even villages with hundreds of residents may have only a few dozen families, who are socially interdependent.

Throughout the recovery, UBA teams refused to limit their role to the construction of housing and infrastructure.  Physical rebuilding, they contended, was merely the entry point for capacity building, self-determination, and psychological healing. The residents managed construction of their own homes, as UBA sought to rebuild not just housing, but trust. They organized art therapy programs and social events. They also helped restore income-generating opportunities. Much of the farmland was damaged by saltwater, so they taught villagers how to make compost and fertilizer, and they connected farmers with techniques for enhancing agricultural productivity in high-salinity soil. 28

We visited Gampong Meunasah Tuha, the largest of the UBA partner villages, where 280 of 3,000 residents survived the tsunami. A decade later, the village houses some 500 farmers and fishermen; about 50 of the 250 houses are unoccupied, waiting for their orphan-owners to come of age. Many of the houses are UBA designs, nearly all single-story and in reasonably good condition. When the village chief returned from his prayers at the mosque funded by USAID, we asked about his experience with UBA. Were the community’s wishes respected? He reported that his fellow residents are “generally very happy — just getting a donated house is more than they could expect.” 29

As part of a menu of five different earthquake-resistant house designs, UBA offered villagers the possibility of two-story homes raised above the ground. This design offered greater protection from floodwaters or minor tsunamis, while yielding a covered, protected space on the ground floor that could be used to store fishing and farming equipment or support a small business. Some villagers enthusiastically embraced this option, while others resisted it. Residents in the villages of Lamteungoh and Lamtutui said they preferred the one-story houses because the two-story design used wood for the wall and staircase, which they feared would impose high maintenance costs. Moreover, they had been told that construction of two-story houses could not begin immediately for technical reasons, which raised concerns that if they waited they might not get a house at all. 30 Kusumawijaya said other villagers objected to the two-story design because it did not comport with “their idea of modernity.” Apparently, rebuilding the psychic space of the home trumped rational concerns of minimizing future disaster.

Banda Aceh’s Anxious Resilience

As these examples show, housing is not simply about putting a roof over someone’s head. Recovery is an ongoing process that extends beyond the bounds envisioned by planners who arrive immediately after a disaster. At some point the aid agencies go home, leaving communities to fend for themselves. Residents are better able to meet that challenge when post-disaster housing meets the four criteria we have identified: when it supports economic livelihood, reduces environmental risks, enhances personal security, and improves the means for self-governance, even in fractured communities.

Perhaps not surprisingly, others who have studied post-tsunami reconstruction in and around Banda Aceh have found that houses built with community participation are generally in better condition than houses built by outside developers. 31 Participatory approaches, dominant in the villages where UBA operated but also present elsewhere, conceive housing in the broadest sense, as a way to leverage the other necessary aspects of recovery.

Ten years after the tsunami, Banda Aceh is still feeling the cultural aftershocks. In August 2005, the Indonesian government and the separatist Free Aceh Movement reached a peace accord in Helsinki, Finland, that ended years of political conflict that had yielded violence and uncertainty. The government understood that for recovery to take hold, residents had to feel personally secure. As TDMRC’s Teuku “Alvis” Alvisyahrin observed, “From a political standpoint, [they couldn’t] proceed with the redevelopment otherwise.” 32

Residents have responded to disaster by actively defining and redefining their own recovery.

And yet, instability has increased in other areas. Meilianda noted, “We escaped from a very long-term conflict, very isolated from the outside world. Then, because of the tsunami, everybody [came] in.” The massive, if temporary, influx of global aid and attention brought fundamental transformations in cultural practices. “We heard strange stories that we never heard before,” she said. “Strange values, submerged under the radar, now appeared.” Even as Banda Aceh residents have begun to accept the globalizing effect of contact with foreigners, the provincial government resists. Recently, Aceh adopted an Indonesian-inflected version of Sharia. Cultural norms and expectations are shifting in Acehnese society, and it is an uneasy time. There is both greater openness and greater policing of behavior.

Ten years on, the village residents and city officials we met struck a uniformly pragmatic tone. They recounted staggering losses with sobering calm. But the tsunami and the recovery have also provoked a sustained reflection about gains and losses among those who now contemplate the region’s future. Dr. Khairul Munadi, head of TDMRC, went so far as to suggest profound ambivalence about the tsunami’s impact: “On one side, it’s a disaster. On the other side, [it’s] a blessing.” 33 That it is possible to see the tsunami as a blessing is a mark of just how troubled Banda Aceh was before catastrophe struck. But it also says something about how residents have responded to disaster by actively defining and redefining their own recovery. The process of rehousing Banda Aceh is but one vector of that recovery — a window into the ongoing struggle for urban resilience.

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Authors' Note

The authors wish to thank Dr. Teuku Alvisyahrin of the Tsunami Disaster and Mitigation Research Center for graciously facilitating the wide variety of interviews and meetings we were able to conduct with city and provincial officials, village chiefs, and residents in and around Banda Aceh.

• Helen Gibbons and Guy Gelfenbaum, “ Astonishing Wave Heights Among the Findings of an International Tsunami Survey Team on Sumatra ,” Soundwaves , United States Geological Survey newsletter, March 2005.
• Provincial figures are from Indonesia’s National Disaster Relief Coordination Agency, as reported in Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation Research Center, Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004: Recovery in Banda Aceh , Recovery Status Report 05 (Banda Aceh: TDMRC, January 2012). The Banda Aceh figure is from T. Buchari, (Head, Banda Aceh Development Planning Agency), “Post Tsunami 2004 Development in Banda Aceh City,” presentation on July 7. 2014. See also United Nations Information Management Service and Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency, Tsunami Recovery Status Report , December 8, 2005.
• For accounts of other major 20th-century urban disasters, see Beatrice Chen, “‘Resist the Earthquake and Rescue Ourselves’: The Reconstruction of Tangshan After the 1976 Earthquake,” and Carola Hein, “Resilient Tokyo: Disaster and Transformation in the Japanese City,” in Lawrence J. Vale and Thomas J. Campanella, eds., T he Resilient City: How Modern Cities Recover From Disaster (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 235-254 and 213-234.
• Florian Steinberg, “Housing Reconstruction and Rehabilitation in Aceh and Nias, Indonesia—Rebuilding Lives,” Habitat International 31 (2007), 150-166.
• TDMRC Report, 3, 5.
• Ade Syukrizal, Wardah Hafidz, and Gabriela Sauter, Reconstructing Life After the Tsunami: The Work of Uplink Banda Aceh in Indonesia (London: International Institute for Environment and Development, 2009), 1, 14-15; Kate Lamb, “Banda Aceh: Where Community Spirit Has Gone But Peace Has Lasted,” The Guardian , 27 January 2014.
• Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency of Aceh-Nias (BRR), 10 Management Lessons for Host Governments Coordinating Post-disaster Reconstruction . (2009), 4.
• TDMRC Report, 1, 5.
• Our research trip was part of the Resilient Cities Housing Initiative , founded at MIT in 2013.
• John M. Glionna, “Aceh’s Tsunami Boats Stand as Signs of Nature’s Power,” Jakarta Globe , November 2, 2009.
• Lawrence J. Vale, Shomon Shamsuddin, Annemarie Gray, and Kassie Bertumen, “What Affordable Housing Should Afford: Housing for Resilient Cities,” Cityscape 16, 2 (2014), 21-49; Lawrence J. Vale, “The Politics of Resilient Cities: Whose Resilience and Whose City?,” Building Research and Information 42, 2 (2014), 191-201.
• Vale, et al., “What Affordable Housing Should Afford.”
• Marie J. Aquilino, ed., Beyond Shelter: Architecture and Human Dignity (New York: Metropolis Books, 2011); J. Hewitt, R. Potangaroa, and S. Wilkinson, “Levels of Governance in Post-Disaster Urban Planning,” Urban Design and Planning 162, DP2 (2009), 77.
• Steinberg, “Housing Reconstruction.”
• Vale, “Politics of Resilient Cities.”
• Syukrizal, et al., 14; interview with Dr. Teuku Alvisyahrin, July 2014.
• Interview with Dr. Ella Meilianda, July 2014.
• Interview with Mr. Yudhie Satria, BPBA, July 2014.
• Interview with “Jackie Chan Village” Chief Wahid, July 2014.
• TDMRC Report, 46-50.
• Uplink Banda Aceh is an arm of Urban Poor Linkage, or Uplink, a nationwide network of community organizations established in 2002 by Indonesia’s Urban Poor Consortium. Its recovery efforts in Banda Aceh were funded principally by the international organizations Misereor, Development and Peace, and Plan International. See Syukrizal, Hafidz, and Sauter, 13, and TDMRC Report, 12.
• Nilawati, quoted in TDMRC Report, 6.
• TDMRC Report, 10.
• Aquilino; Syukrizal, Hafidz, and Sauter; Steinberg, 153.
• Syukrizal, Hafidz, and Sauter.
• Interview with Marco Kusumawijaya, Jakarta, July 2014.
• Sisura Jayasuriya and Peter McCawley, The Asian Tsunami: Aid and Reconstruction After a Disaster (Cheltenham, UK: Asian Development Bank Institute and Edward Elgar, 2010), 89-90.
• Syukrizal, Hafidz, and Sauter; Steinberg.
• Interview with Meunasah Tuha village chief, July 2014.
• Interviews, conducted for authors by Dr. Teuku Alvisyahrin, with Mr. Mawardi, head of Associated Villages (Mukim) of Lamteungoh, and Mr. Teuku Tabran, resident of Lamteungoh, July 2014.
• TDMRC Report, 6.
• Interview with Teuku Alvisyahrin, July 2014. For discussion of the peace accord, see Jayasuriya and McCawley, 91-93.
• Interview with Khairul Munadi, July 2014.

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Case Study: Sumatra and Thailand and the 2004 Tsunami

The Importance of Tsunami Warning Systems and the challenges of warning communication.

Think back to the video you watched in Module 7 – which included scenes of the 2004 tsunami event in Indonesia. The beginning of the video focused on the Banda Aceh area of Sumatra, where fishing communities and small coastal cities were completely destroyed, and the end of the video featured the Phuket area, where more tourist beaches were affected.

Through your reading and watching the videos, you hopefully gained an idea of what it is like to be caught in a tsunami with no advanced warning, and how frantic the attempts to get out of the way must be. Imagine what it would be like to try to move small children, sick or elderly people out of the way of a tsunami with before the wave strikes and with no time to spare!

In Module 7, the events in Phuket, Thailand, are described, with tourists enjoying their vacation on the beach at Christmas 2004. Many are oblivious to the dangers of the approaching tsunami. What could have been done differently? If this were to happen again, would these communities be better informed and prepared?

In Module 7 we also mentioned that early warning systems are very tricky because of the challenges of getting the message out soon enough after the earthquake and before the tsunami waves arrive at a particular shoreline. For example, the towns on the west coast of Sumatra are so close to the Andaman fault that they had almost no time to react, so a warning may not have worked, regardless of how well it was transmitted. Banda Aceh, on the northern tip of Sumatra, was devastated in 2004 because people did not have time to react, while there is evidence that some small nearby island communities fared better where traditional knowledge of the natural warning signs such as the sudden receding of the tidal waters was employed, and residents were able to flee to higher ground. Meanwhile, the tourist destinations of Phuket and Phi Phi, and nearby locations in Thailand had 2 hours, but the warnings were lacking. Visitors lacked necessary knowledge of nature’s warning signs and how to react, and may not have felt the earthquake, so many lives were lost.

In response to the enormous loss of life in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the Global Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System was put in place. The Indian Ocean tsunami warning system now integrates the signals from seismographs and DART Buoys and transmits data to 26 national centers. Warnings at the local level are generated in the form of SMS messages, mosque loudspeakers, sirens, and other methods to warn citizens. How well the warnings translate into lives saved due to rapid response and appropriate behaviors by the citizens depends on each step working properly. The failure of one of the steps can lead to disaster. If the citizens do not have the knowledge needed to take effective action, then the process will not work, and lives will be lost.

In 2012 another earthquake occurred near Banda Aceh in the Indian Ocean, so the newly implemented warning systems were put to the test. In this case, no tsunami was generated by the earthquake, but unfortunately, the weaknesses in the system were revealed. Despite the efforts expended to increase levels of tsunami preparedness since 2004, including new tsunami evacuation shelters and education programs, chaos ensued. Hearing the tsunami warning, people panicked and tried to flee by car, resulting in gridlock on the roads. It was clear that better guidance from the local government was needed, including clear evacuation route signage and regular drills. For more detail on this topic, read the National Geographic article Will Indonesia Be Ready for the Next Tsunami? Clearly, more work is still needed and ongoing to address these weaknesses.

Learning Check Point

We will spend a few minutes also revisiting the accounts of historic tsunami events – in particular, the 1960 event and its effects in Chile and Hilo, Hawaii, and the important messages about how to survive a tsunami. Please re-read some of the accounts of survival during tsunami events in Heed Natural Warnings .

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What was the location of the earthquake that caused the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004?

• Where are the Maldives?
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Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004

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• Academia - Tsunami 2004
• National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Impact of 2004 Tsunami in the Islands of Indian Ocean: Lessons Learned
• NOAA - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration - JetStream Max: 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami
• Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)

What was the magnitude of the earthquake that caused the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004?

The magnitude of the earthquake that caused the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 was 9.1.

On December 26, 2004, an undersea earthquake struck off the coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra. This quake caused the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004, which reached out across the Indian Ocean, devastating coastal areas with waves that in some places reached a height of 30 feet (9 metres) or more when they hit the shoreline.

How long did the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 last?

The Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 lasted for seven hours and reached out across the Indian Ocean, devastating coastal areas of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Maldives, and Thailand, and as far away as East Africa.

How many people died in the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004?

The Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 killed at least 225,000 people across a dozen countries, with Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Maldives, and Thailand sustaining massive damage.

Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004 , tsunami that hit the coasts of several countries of South and Southeast Asia in December 2004. The tsunami and its aftermath were responsible for immense destruction and loss on the rim of the Indian Ocean.

On December 26, 2004, at 7:59 am local time, an undersea earthquake with a magnitude of 9.1 struck off the coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra . Over the next seven hours, a tsunami —a series of immense ocean waves—triggered by the quake reached out across the Indian Ocean , devastating coastal areas as far away as East Africa . Some locations reported that the waves had reached a height of 30 feet (9 metres) or more when they hit the shoreline.

The tsunami caused one of the largest natural disasters in recorded history, killing at least 225,000 people across a dozen countries, with Indonesia , Sri Lanka , India , Maldives , and Thailand sustaining massive damage. Indonesian officials estimated that the death toll there alone ultimately exceeded 200,000, particularly in northern Sumatra’s Aceh province. Tens of thousands were reported dead or missing in Sri Lanka and India, a large number of them from the Indian Andaman and Nicobar Islands territory. The low-lying island country of Maldives reported more than a hundred casualties and immense economic damage. Several thousand non-Asian tourists vacationing in the region also were reported dead or missing. The lack of food, clean water, and medical treatment—combined with the enormous task faced by relief workers trying to get supplies into some remote areas where roads had been destroyed or where civil war raged—extended the list of casualties. Long-term environmental damage was severe as well, with villages, tourist resorts, farmland, and fishing grounds demolished or inundated with debris, bodies, and plant-killing salt water .

Past, present and future morphological development of a tsunami-affected coast: a case study of Banda Aceh

• Marine and Fluvial Systems

Research output : Thesis › PhD Thesis - Research UT, graduation UT

Access to Document

• 10.3990/1.9789036528290
• Thesis E. Meilianda Final published version, 9.37 MB

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• Investigation Earth and Planetary Sciences 100%
• Coast Earth and Planetary Sciences 100%
• Tsunami Earth and Planetary Sciences 100%
• Subsidence Earth and Planetary Sciences 50%
• Magnitude Earth and Planetary Sciences 50%
• Land Earth and Planetary Sciences 37%
• Earthquake Earth and Planetary Sciences 25%
• Sand Earth and Planetary Sciences 25%

T1 - Past, present and future morphological development of a tsunami-affected coast

T2 - a case study of Banda Aceh

AU - Meilianda, Ella

PY - 2009/6/19

Y1 - 2009/6/19

N2 - This thesis investigated a thorough geomorphology of Banda Aceh, a coast on the north tip of Sumatra Island, Indonesia which was severely affected by the earthquake and tsunami occurred on 26 December 2004. The response and development of the Banda Aceh coast before and after the tsunami was thus not well-understood. The main objective was to increase the understanding of the future development of a coastal system that is prone to the large-scale natural interventions of tectonic land subsidence and tsunami. Explorative methodologies were used and the time-scale-related issues were emerged on the coastal morphological processes. The research flow was driven by a wide span of geomorphological interpretation, field observations, spatial data analysis from satellite images, topographic and bathymetric maps, analysis of forcing factors magnitudes and frequencies as well as sediment budget analysis of the littoral transport. Banda Aceh coast is a sand-poor environment contains only a thin layer of loose sand on top of a consolidated Holocene prograding delta. The earthquake and tsunami of 26 December 2004 have affected the morphological units that have been established in the Holocene period which responses were different under different geomorphic settings. This research suggests that the damage caused by the probable recurrence of tsunami and land subsidence events to the coastal morphology within a century can be an order of magnitude greater than the effect of the well-known sea-level rise due to global climate change, which is often considered important in modern coastal management practices. In a time scale of a century, tsunami and land subsidence events due to tectonic activities are not unprecedented. More frequent but smaller magnitude tsunami and subsidence may occur; i.e. once every 20 to 30 years. Management of such coastal area in future should consider such magnitudes of intermittent forcing factors in the coastal morphological development analysis.

AB - This thesis investigated a thorough geomorphology of Banda Aceh, a coast on the north tip of Sumatra Island, Indonesia which was severely affected by the earthquake and tsunami occurred on 26 December 2004. The response and development of the Banda Aceh coast before and after the tsunami was thus not well-understood. The main objective was to increase the understanding of the future development of a coastal system that is prone to the large-scale natural interventions of tectonic land subsidence and tsunami. Explorative methodologies were used and the time-scale-related issues were emerged on the coastal morphological processes. The research flow was driven by a wide span of geomorphological interpretation, field observations, spatial data analysis from satellite images, topographic and bathymetric maps, analysis of forcing factors magnitudes and frequencies as well as sediment budget analysis of the littoral transport. Banda Aceh coast is a sand-poor environment contains only a thin layer of loose sand on top of a consolidated Holocene prograding delta. The earthquake and tsunami of 26 December 2004 have affected the morphological units that have been established in the Holocene period which responses were different under different geomorphic settings. This research suggests that the damage caused by the probable recurrence of tsunami and land subsidence events to the coastal morphology within a century can be an order of magnitude greater than the effect of the well-known sea-level rise due to global climate change, which is often considered important in modern coastal management practices. In a time scale of a century, tsunami and land subsidence events due to tectonic activities are not unprecedented. More frequent but smaller magnitude tsunami and subsidence may occur; i.e. once every 20 to 30 years. Management of such coastal area in future should consider such magnitudes of intermittent forcing factors in the coastal morphological development analysis.

U2 - 10.3990/1.9789036528290

DO - 10.3990/1.9789036528290

M3 - PhD Thesis - Research UT, graduation UT

SN - 978-90-365-2829-0

PB - University of Twente

CY - Enschede

• Science & Math
• Earth Sciences

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Vulnerability and development of a tsunami-affected coast: A case study of Banda Aceh, Indonesia Paperback – December 29, 2009

• Print length 140 pages
• Language English
• Publication date December 29, 2009
• Dimensions 5.91 x 0.32 x 8.66 inches
• ISBN-10 9783838335513
• ISBN-13 978-3838335513
• See all details

Product details

• ASIN ‏ : ‎ 3838335511
• Publisher ‏ : ‎ LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing (December 29, 2009)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 140 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 9783838335513
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-3838335513
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 7.6 ounces
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 5.91 x 0.32 x 8.66 inches

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Berita Banda Aceh

Memori kolektif orang aceh terhadap tsunami di ambang lupa, memorygraph bantu menyelamatkannya, peristiwa tsunami dahsyat pada tahun 2004 yang melanda aceh misanya, kini sudah memasuki usia hampir 20 tahun., penulis: yarmen dinamika | editor: amirullah.

Laporan Yarmen Dinamika l Banda Aceh 

SERAMBINEWS.COM - Lupa kolektif (bersama-sama) terhadap sebuah peristiwa adalah lumrah di kalangan masyarakat tertentu. Apalagi bila peristiwa itu semakin jauh berjarak dengan generasi penerus yang kini eksis.

Peristiwa tsunami dahsyat pada tahun 2004 yang melanda Aceh misanya, kini sudah memasuki usia hampir 20 tahun. Dengan jarak kejadian yang sudah dua dekade itu, besar kemungkinan orang-orang mulai melupakan peristiwa tersebut.

Akan tetapi, para ilmuwan dari Center for Southeast Asian Studies (CSEAS) Kyoto University, Jepang, punya cara jitu untuk merawat ingatan itu agar terap terjaga.

CSEAS  memperkenalkan aplikasi MemoryGraph pada masa menjelang 20 tahun pascatsunami Aceh.

"Aplikasi MemoryGraph ini membantu orang untuk mengambil foto-foto yang berkomposisi sama dengan foto referensi, serta mencari identitas lokasi di mana foto arsip yang tidak diketahui di mana diambil," kata Assoc Prof Dr Yoshimi Nishi dari CSEAS Kyoto University yang sudah hampir seminggu berada di Banda Aceh mengisi serangkaian presentasi. 

Salah satunya ia menjadi narasumber pada sebuah workshop di Balai Arsip Statis dan Tsunami (BAST), kawasan Bakoy, Aceh Besar.

Baca juga: Mulai Tinggalkan Media Sosial, Shin Tae-yong Akui Kehilangan Banyak Pengikut 

Yoshimi Nishi mengatakan, seiring dengan pesatnya perkembangan teknologi digital,  pendokumentasian sejarah dan budaya semakin mudah dengan adanya aplikasi inovatif. 

Salah satu aplikasi dimaksud adalah MemoryGraph. Aplikasi ini dikembangkan oleh  ROIS-DS Center for Open Data in the Humanities dan Center for Southeast Asian Studies (CSEAS) Kyoto University, Jepang.

Dengan adanya CSEAS yang memperkenalkan aplikasi MemoryGraph pada masa menjelang 20 tahun pascatsunami Aceh, Nishi mengharapkan kerja sama antara instansi/lembaga di Aceh kiranya dapat ditingkatkan demi memfasilitasi pemulihan memori kolektif di ambang terlupakan pascatsunami, pascakonflik, dan pascarekonstruksi.

Lembaga yang diharapkan Nishi menjalin kerja sama itu adalah CSEAS Kyoto University bersama Tsunami and Disaster Mitigation  Research Center  Universitas Syiah Kuala (TDMRC USK) serta Balai Arsip Statis dan  Tsunami (BAST) Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia (ANRI). Tak terkecuali Dinas Perpustakaan dan Kearsipan Aceh.

Baca juga: Ragu dengan Jumlah Rakaat dan Lupa Sujud Sahwi, Begini Hukum Shalatnya Menurut UAS

"Kolega saya di Universitas Kyoto, Doktor Yamamoto Hiroyuki pernah menulis dalam bukunya bahwa, 'Bentang alam bukan hanya ruang fisik dan geografis, melainkan juga tempat di mana kenangan didasarkan dan budaya dilestarikan',” ujar Nishi.

Artinya, lanjut Nishi, pemandangan atau lanskap di suatu daerah adalah tambatan atau fondasi bagi memori kolektif di lokasi setempat. 

Kalau ada perubahan lanskap mendadak, artinya tambatan kenangan daerahnya juga ikut hilang. 

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Indonesia lleva a cabo un simulacro de evacuación por tsunami en Banda Aceh

Banda aceh (indonesia), 22 ago (efe/epa).- la agencia de búsqueda y rescate de la indonesia aceh lle....

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Banda Aceh (Indonesia), 22 ago (EFE/EPA).- La Agencia de Búsqueda y Rescate de la indonesia Aceh llevó a cabo este jueves un simulacro de evacuación por tsunami. La simulación del manejo y la evacuación de víctimas de catástrofes es uno de los esfuerzos de las autoridades indonesias por aumentar la capacidad de su tripulación para prestar asistencia en situaciones de catástrofe, concretamente en la zona de la provincia de Aceh, situada en el Anillo de Fuego del Pacífico, que es la más propensa a sufrir catástrofes sísmicas y tsunamis en Indonesia. IMÁGENES: HOTLI SIMANJUNTAK. IMÁGENES DEL SIMULACRO EN BANDA ACEH, INDONESIA.

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