thesis about psychoanalytic theory

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• v.15(9); 2023 Sep
• PMC10575551

An Introduction and Brief Overview of Psychoanalysis

Martin tarzian.

1 Psychiatry, University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Basseterre, KNA

Mariana Ndrio

2 Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Basseterre, KNA

Adegbenro O Fakoya

3 Cellular Biology and Anatomy, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, USA

The field of psychology has been shaped by the views and perspectives of Sigmund Freud and his former students: Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. These psychologists and their respective schools of thought provide distinct views on psychology and influences on personality and psychosocial development. The foundation for psychoanalysis was laid by Freud, his work on the unconscious mind, and his emphasis on early childhood experiences. His students also made substantial contributions that expanded, sharpened, and challenged his theories. This review will begin by highlighting the work of Sigmund Freud; it will then compare his theories with the theories of his students. This review will introduce and bring attention to the most important figures of psychoanalysis and give a brief overview of their theories.

Introduction and background

Sigmund Freud (Born May 6th, 1856) was an Austrian neurologist widely known as the father of psychoanalysis. His revolutionary theories, thoughts, and challenges to the field of psychology have changed how theorists understand the mind and how psychologists treat their patients [ 1 ]. Throughout his life, he worked fervently and tirelessly to advance his theories, beginning in the late 19th century and continuing until he died in 1939. Today, most clinical psychologists and psychiatrists roll their eyes when Freud’s ideas are brought up. However, his impact on shaping the theoretical and practical approaches to the human mind and reasoning for behavior cannot be understated or forgotten [ 2 ].

Freud attended medical school at the University of Vienna and graduated as a neurologist [ 1 , 2 ]. He was interested in the brain’s anatomy and how the nervous system works in relation to the human body. Time and time again, his research led him to query and ponder the relationship between the human mind and the physical ailments his patients would experience [ 3 ]. He began to question whether the symptomology he witnessed in his patients came from the illness within the brain or the mind. As time passed, Freud developed a passion for understanding the complexities of the mind and psyche, eventually leading him to pursue his pioneering work of psychoanalysis [ 3 ].

As his passion and interest in the human mind increased, Sigmund Freud shifted from treating neurological diseases to treating individuals suffering from psychological issues such as depression and anxiety [ 3 ]. This switch gradually occurred in the late 1800s. By the 1900s, Freud was solely focused on using psychoanalysis to explain anomalies of human nature [ 3 , 4 ]. While working at the University of Vienna, his professor, Dr. Josef Breuer, introduced Sigmund Freud to a fascinating case. The patient, referred to as “Anna O,” experienced a range of physical symptoms such as visual disturbances, hallucinations, partial paralysis, and speech problems with no apparent physical cause [ 4 ]. Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms improved when he helped her recover memories of traumatic experiences that she had repressed from conscious awareness, which he called the “Cathartic Method” [ 4 ]. Unsurprisingly, Sigmund Freud, who was already fascinated with anomalies of the human mind, feverishly began exploring the possible psychological phenomena that could explain Anna Os’s symptomology. Later, in 1895, Freud and Breuer published a book discussing Anna’s case and other similar clinical cases called “Studies in Hysteria.” This case is significant because it laid the foundation for developing Freud’s influential ideas about psychoanalysis [ 5 , 6 ].

Continuing his work with Breuer, Freud finally derived his groundbreaking theory about “The Unconscious,” proposing that repressed memories and desires influence behavioral and emotional states. A revolutionary concept at the time, this theory would permanently leave its imprint on psychological thinking for centuries to come [ 6 , 7 ]. This time can also be considered the period when Freud abandoned neurology as a field and focused solely on practicing psychoanalysis. While initially he used the method of hypnosis taught to him by Charcot, Freud recognized that he needed a better way of addressing his patients’ unconscious desires and memories. Thus, he developed the “Free Association,” in which patients were encouraged to speak freely about their thoughts and feelings without censorship or self-editing [ 7 , 8 ]. Through this technique, Freud believed that he uncovered the unconscious thoughts and memories that were the root cause of many psychological phenomena and anomalies [ 7 , 8 ].

In 1899, Sigmund Freud released his groundbreaking book “The Interpretation of Dreams.” He proposed a new theory on the meaning behind dreams and how they relate to the unconscious [ 9 - 11 ]. In his book, he argued that dreams portal into humankind’s hidden desires and emotions and provide insight into any underlying conflicts within the unconscious mind. At the start of the 1900s, Freud had established himself as the master of addressing the unconscious [ 1 - 3 ]. As time passed, his theories continued to grow more rambunctious and ambitious in their claims of explaining human behavior. His work revolutionized how we view the human psyche and opened many avenues for further exploration [ 9 ].

In the early 1900s, Sigmund Freud had established himself at the frontier of psychological thinking and began writing about the Oedipus complex [ 1 - 3 ]. This theory claims that young children have an unconscious sexual desire toward the parent of the opposite sex. The Oedipal complex has come to be known as Sigmund Freud’s most controversial theory and is often joked about when referenced in popular media [ 12 ]. He also formulated the tripartite theory involving the id, ego, and superego - a theory still taught today to explain different facets of the human psyche. Over the next decade, Freud dedicated himself to improving these theories [ 12 ]. In 1902, Sigmund Freud formed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, and it quickly became a popular hub for the exploration and development of his theories. He also began instructing other mental health professionals in psychoanalysis, leading to its increased spread across Europe and the United States in the following years [ 1 , 2 ]. His work at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, along with his time spent teaching, are regarded as the reasons that psychoanalysis quickly globalized at the turn of the 20th century.

Despite the initial success of psychoanalysis, Freud’s theories were controversial and faced criticism from many quarters. Some critics accused Freud of being overly focused on sex and of exaggerating the influence of the unconscious mind. Others argued that psychoanalysis lacked scientific validity and was based on anecdotal evidence rather than empirical data [ 13 ]. Ultimately, even his students challenged him and began their own schools of thought, which we will discuss later [ 13 ]. Nevertheless, Freud’s influence on psychology and culture cannot be overstated. His theories continue to be the subject of debate and research, and psychoanalysis remains a popular and influential field of study. Freud’s discovery of psychoanalysis paved the way for a new understanding of the human mind and continues to shape our understanding of psychology and society [ 1 - 3 ].

Freud’s legacy extends beyond his contributions. His circle of inspired and loyal pupils continued to push and advance the field. Together, they have expanded the principles of psychoanalysis. These students, united in their respect and admiration for Freud, carry his ideas forward, establishing psychoanalysis as a legitimate and influential approach to understanding the human mind. By continuing to explore and apply psychoanalytic principles, we can gain a deeper understanding of ourselves, our actions, and the intricate workings of the human mind. This review aims to emphasize the contributions of psychoanalysis, from Sigmund Freud to his students Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney.

Freud’s Free Association Technique

Free association is the fundamental technique of addressing the unconscious in psychoanalysis. The method allows patients to freely express their thoughts, feelings, and emotions without censoring themselves. Commonly, the patient lies on a couch in the physician’s office and is made to feel very comfortable. This lowers the patient’s guard and thus the ego’s guard, allowing the mind to truly express its reservations [ 14 ]. The goal is to elicit the unconscious thoughts and memories contributing to psychological distress [ 14 ]. The theory behind free association is that unconscious thoughts and emotions may be painful, embarrassing, or socially unacceptable and thus remain submerged in the unconscious [ 14 ]. The patient is lulled into a state of comfort through free association, allowing these subconscious notions to come to light [ 14 ].

By bringing these unconscious thoughts and feelings into conscious awareness, the patient is allowed to address them and understand why they may be experiencing distress from them. The therapist can encourage the patient to talk about dreams, childhood memories, or anything that may bring the patient’s underlying issues to conscious awareness [ 15 ]. The therapist must listen without interrupting or imposing their own ideas, thus creating a safe space to express themselves openly and speak honestly [ 15 ].

Free association is not without its limitations and criticism. One of the criticisms of free association is that it relies too much on the therapist’s ability to interpret the patient’s unconscious thoughts and feelings. This is subjective, and different therapists may interpret the exact words or phrases differently [ 16 ]. Take, for instance, a dream depicting a tiger pursuing a gazelle in the depths of the jungle. One therapist might interpret the tiger as a symbol of the patient’s personal strength and confidence, while another therapist could perceive the gazelle as a representation of the patient’s apprehension regarding vulnerability to external forces. Determining which interpretation is objectively accurate is inherently elusive if not impossible. Another challenge with free association is that it is time-consuming and arduous. Patients may struggle to access their unconscious thoughts, feelings, and/or emotions, and it may take several months or even years to express themselves honestly and freely [ 16 ]. Despite these limitations, free association remains a fascinating approach to both therapy and addressing the unconscious. While it has limitations, free association remains an interesting tool in treating psychological disorders. It is a pivotal technique used by Sigmund Freud and other followers of psychoanalysis [ 15 ].

The Oedipal complex

First proposed by Sigmund Freud, the Oedipal complex is an essential concept within psychoanalysis. According to Freud, the Oedipal complex is a psychological phenomenon occurring between three and six in otherwise healthy children [ 17 ]. This desire is theorized to originate from the child’s need to satisfy sexual instincts, which are repressed by social norms and familial expectations [ 18 - 20 ]. It represents a child’s unconscious desire to own the same-sex parent and eliminate the other, whom they view as competition. The child develops hostility, jealousy, and anger toward the same-sex parent while experiencing love and sexual attraction toward the parent of the opposite sex [ 18 - 20 ].

The Oedipal complex has been criticized and debated outside and within the psychoanalytic community. Some argue that the Oedipal complex is a culturally specific concept that does not apply to all societies, and it reinforces gender stereotypes and heteronormativity [ 21 ]. Despite the ongoing debate, the Oedipal complex remains a central concept in psychoanalytic theory and continues to shift and influence the understanding of human psychology, desire, and development [ 21 ].

The tripartite theory of the psyche

The id represents our primitive impulses and desires, including sexual and aggressive urges. According to Freud, the id is the source of our unconscious thoughts and wishes and operates on the principle of immediate gratification [ 22 ]. For instance, consider a situation where one child observes another child enjoying their favorite snack. In response, the first child impulsively snatches the snack and swiftly consumes it. This impulsive act reflects the id’s instincts and desires. On the other hand, the ego serves as the rational and conscious aspect of the psyche, acting as a mediator between the id’s demands and the realities of the external world [ 22 ]. Its role is to satisfy the id’s needs in a socially acceptable manner, avoiding negative consequences. In our previous example, the child witnessing another child devouring their favorite snack would refrain from forcibly taking it, as doing so would result in punishment from an authority figure. Instead, the child might negotiate, offering a piece of their own snack in exchange for a portion of the other child’s snack, thus achieving their goal in a socially acceptable manner. Lastly, the superego symbolizes the internalization of societal norms and values [ 23 ]. It functions as a moral compass, determining right from wrong based on cultural and ethical standards. The superego enforces moral principles and may elicit feelings of guilt or shame when one’s actions violate those standards [ 22 , 23 ]. In the hypothetical scenario, the child may be tempted to steal the snack but recalls the moral teachings of their favorite cartoon character, which emphasizes that stealing is morally wrong. As a result, the child refrains from stealing the snack, influenced by the cultural impact of their beloved cartoon character [ 23 ].

Some argue that Freud’s tripartite theory oversimplifies human thought and behavior [ 24 ]. According to his theory, only three components underlie all the behavior a person will ever exhibit in their lifetime. His theory does not allow change or growth as an individual would continuously operate on at least one of these three principles [ 24 ]. According to Freud’s theory, humans are inherently selfish creatures who are always trying to manipulate a situation to attain their desires that will not bring punishment or pain [ 23 - 25 ]. Despite these criticisms, the id, ego, and superego concept contributes significantly to psychoanalysis [ 24 ]. It emphasizes the dynamic relationship between our primitive desires, rational consciousness, and societal norms. While it has been criticized for its narrow focus and deterministic view of the human psyche, it remains a significant contribution to psychoanalysis.

The secret world of dreams: Sigmund Freud’s interpretation and analysis

“The Interpretation of Dreams” (published in 1899) is considered one of the most influential books. In “The Interpretation of Dreams,” Freud provides insights into his theories about the mechanisms that underlie the unconscious mind [ 25 ]. He argued that the content of dreams is symbolic and that it is necessary to decode the symbolism to understand what the dream truly represents [ 25 ].

For Freud, dreams are a way for people to address their unconscious wishes. These wishes are unacceptable to our conscious mind and thus remain trapped in the recesses of the subconscious [ 26 ]. During sleep, the boundary between consciousness and unconsciousness becomes blurred, and therefore, we are allowed to address our repressed emotions within our dreams [ 26 , 27 ]. Freud believed that the manifest content of the dream (what we remember upon waking) was a disguise for the latent content (the true meaning of the dream) [ 26 ]. For example, in a dream where a person is flying, flight represents the desire to escape from a difficult situation or a yearning to experience freedom. A dream about a mouse might represent repressed feelings of inadequacy or weakness compared to others. Freud argued that dreams are a means of processing unresolved psychological conflicts. Thus, for Freud, dreams are a form of therapy that allows people to work through their difficult emotions and subconscious issues in the comfort of their own beds [ 26 , 27 ].

Unlike his other theories, Freud’s dream interpretation theory was the center of controversy. Some argued that his ideas were too focused on sexual desires and his approach was too subjective to the interpreter [ 27 ]. How can one tell if a dream has some deep underlying meaning or is just a dream? Others questioned the validity of interpreting dreams as a means of uncovering unconscious thoughts and emotions [ 27 ]. Like the tiger stalking the gazelle example discussed earlier, two therapists may interpret the same dream differently. There is no objective way to determine whose interpretation is correct. Despite these criticisms, Freud’s theory of dream interpretation remains a significant contribution to psychoanalysis. It has been used to gain insights into the workings of the unconscious mind and to treat various psychological disorders, including anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder [ 27 ].

Going rogue with the mind: the psychoanalytical mavericks who challenged Freud

In the 1950s, psychoanalysis was not only established as its own discipline but was now being taken to new frontiers. Freud’s original ideas were challenged and built upon by a new generation of psychoanalytical theorists, including Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, and Karen Horney. These theorists emphasized different aspects of the human unconscious. The unconscious was used to address the mental health concerns of patients worldwide. In addition, therapy and healing became a central aspect of psychoanalysis.

Jung vs. Freud: even the deepest relationships cannot escape the idiosyncrasies of the ego

Carl Jung (1875-1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and former student of Freud who developed his own Analytical Psychology theory. While he was initially a follower of Sigmund Freud, his ideas eventually diverged from Freud’s, and the two men had a falling out [ 28 ]. Jung viewed classical psychoanalysis as a perspective that does not foster individual growth, nor did it provide the framework for the commonality of all people. Analytical Psychology is a psychological theory and framework that explores the collective unconscious, archetypes, and the process of Individuation [ 28 , 29 ]. Carl Jung recognized the existence of a shared reservoir of universal human experiences and symbols, known as the collective unconscious, which influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors through archetypes [ 30 , 31 ]. Individuation, a central concept in Jungian psychology, involves integrating both conscious and unconscious aspects of one’s personality to achieve wholeness and self-realization [ 31 ]. Like Freud, Jung saw dreams as a gateway to the unconscious mind [ 28 ]. Overall, Jungian psychology offers a holistic approach to understanding the human mind. Jung’s approach fosters personal growth and embraces a journey toward self-discovery. The following section will highlight the similarities and differences between Analytical Psychology and Freud’s Classical Psychoanalysis.

Similarities Between Jung’s Analytical Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The importance of the unconscious: Both Jung and Freud agreed that the unconscious mind plays a vital role in shaping our behaviors and experiences. They also believed that unconscious conflicts lead to psychological distress. Finally, they agreed that exploring the unconscious through free association could lead to spiritual and psychological healing [ 28 ]. While sharing these foundational beliefs with Sigmund Freud, Jung expanded upon them and introduced his own distinctive concepts. Jung argued that the unconscious had various aspects and was not solely driven by sexual motivations, as proposed by Freud. Rather the existence of a collective unconscious, a reservoir of shared human experiences, emotions, and symbols that shape our thoughts and behaviors through archetypes (we will discuss archetypes shortly), explained much of our behavior, if not all [ 29 ]. He saw the unconscious as a rich source of wisdom, creativity, and spiritual insight. Freud’s focus on repressed memories and painful truths about ourselves vastly differed from Jung’s, who explored the deepest layers of the psyche to integrate and harmonize conscious and unconscious aspects of one’s self to achieve personal growth and wholeness [ 29 ]. Jung’s views on the unconscious were not limited to pathology. Still, they encompassed a broader approach to understanding the human mind and its relation to universal themes, the cosmos, and archetypal patterns [ 29 ].

The use of dream analysis: Both Jung and Freud agreed that dreams are a window into the unconscious mind. They also decided that analyzing the symbols and themes within someone’s dreams could uncover repressed thoughts and feelings causing pain and strife in that person’s life [ 28 ]. Carl Jung was profoundly interested in dream analysis. His exploration of the unconscious through dream analysis was driven by his desire to bridge a gap between religion and science [ 29 ]. In his book “Memories, Dreams, Reflections,” Jung discusses how religion, science, and the unconscious are intertwined. He compares the term “the unconscious” with Gods, religions, and numinosity that have been present throughout human history [ 29 ]. Jung acknowledges that certain experiences, such as dreams and inspirations, arise spontaneously and cannot be attributed solely to conscious effort. He suggested that these experiences emanate from the human psyche, a demon, a god, or the unconscious [ 29 ]. Jung believed that the unconscious contains an unknown realm, parallel to reality as we know it, a vast expanse beneath the surface of consciousness. He acknowledged the limitations of scientific knowledge about the unconscious and the futility of objectively studying the workings of the unconscious. Like Freud, Jung’s approach to dream analysis sought to uncover the deeper meanings and symbolic messages embedded in dreams, considering them valuable sources of insight into the unconscious aspects of the individual’s psyche [ 29 ]. He embraced the subjective nature of dream analysis and accepted that although not perfect, it offers much to the therapist in addressing the psychological issues of their patients [ 29 ].

The emphasis on the therapist-patient relationship: Both Jung and Freud believed that the relationship between therapist and patient was key to the success of psychotherapy. They agreed that the therapist is a guide to help navigate unconscious conflicts and promote healing [ 28 ]. Carl Jung heavily emphasized the therapeutic alliance. He saw the relationship between the therapist and the patient as a crucial determinant for facilitating healing and growth. According to Jung, the therapist’s ability to establish a strong connection and rapport with the patient is paramount for a successful therapeutic process. He believed that a trusting and collaborative alliance allows the patient to feel safe, understood, and supported, creating a conducive environment for exploration and self-discovery [ 29 ]. His stress on creating a safe haven for patients to express themselves freely goes hand in hand with Freud’s free association.

Emphasis on the therapeutic alliance as a partnership is central to analytical therapy. The therapist must provide guidance, support, and overall compassion. Encouraging active engagement is crucial to success, according to Jung [ 28 , 29 ]. He underscored the value of empathy, listening actively, and caring. By demonstrating respect, acceptance, and a non-judgmental attitude, the therapist creates an environment that allows the patient to freely express their thoughts, real feelings, and true emotions [ 29 ]. The similarities between Freud’s emphasis on creating a safe environment and Jung’s emphasis on empathy highlight that Jung’s theories, although unique from Freud’s, remain rooted in classical psychoanalysis. Jung also believed that the therapeutic alliance provides the foundation for exploring the unconscious aspects of the patient’s psyche. He recognized that the unconscious holds valuable insights and symbols that can shed light on the patient’s inner world. Through collaboration and trust, the therapist can guide the patient into navigating and understanding the facets of their psyche. Ultimately uncovering hidden patterns, unresolved conflicts, and potentiating self-growth were the goals of Carl Jung [ 29 ].

Differences Between Jung’s Analytical Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The structure of the psyche: While both Jung and Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, they disagreed about its structure. Freud saw the psyche as consisting of the id, ego, and superego (as discussed earlier). Jung, in contrast, saw the psyche as consisting of three different layers: the conscious, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. According to Jung, the conscious mind is just the tip of the iceberg and is limited in its ability to understand our true nature [ 29 ]. The conscious is what we are actively aware of and thinking about at the moment. The personal unconscious is the second layer of consciousness, which consists of all the experiences, memories, and feelings that are not within our immediate awareness. For example, a person may have an upsetting and recurring dream which initially appears to have no meaning. However, upon exploration in analytical therapy, the meaning behind this recurring dream may be discovered and addressed. This idea is very similar to Freud’s latent and manifest dreams. The personal unconscious also includes forgotten memories, repressed thoughts, and feelings we have not fully processed or are ready to acknowledge. Jung believed that the personal unconscious is a fundamental part of our psyche that could house the positive and negative components of the self [ 29 ]. The third and deepest layer of consciousness is the collective unconscious. Here we find the archetypes, symbols, and universal experiences that all humans share, regardless of dominion. Here, according to Jung, is the foundation of human thinking. It is the source of our deepest spiritual and creative impulses and what defines us as humans [ 29 ]. Jung believed that the collective unconscious was responsible for producing myths, fairy tales, and other universal symbols found in cultures and civilizations worldwide. Even day-to-day interactions can be explained with Jung’s theory. For example, a traffic light that uses green to symbolize go and red to symbolize stop may be defined by some deeply shared human positive emotion toward the color green and reservation to the color red. He believed that by tapping into this deeper layer of consciousness, individuals could better understand their psyche and the world around them [ 29 ].

What motivates people: Freud believed that repressed sexual desires universally lead to psychological distress and are the primary motivation source for human behavior [ 12 , 13 ]. Analytical psychologists argue that sexual desire is just one aspect of a broader human desire termed “Life Energy.” While acknowledging that sexual conflicts may be a source of distress, Jungian psychologists do not see sexual desire as the essential source of conflict for most people [ 28 , 29 ]. Instead, Life Energy is the primary psychic need that motivates us all to grow and pursue fulfilling lives [ 30 ]. Jung saw Life Energy as the fundamental aspect that drives individuals toward self-realization and wholeness [ 29 ]. Life Energy encompasses all forms of psychic energy, including creative needs, spiritual pursuits, and intelligence desires [ 28 , 29 ]. Jung saw the expression of life energy as being closely tied to a process he termed “Individuation,” which involves the integration of all aspects of self to reach a state of peace and tranquility [ 29 ]. He believed that Life Energy drives all humans toward pursuing Individuation. Life Energy manifests itself in various ways, such as creative pursuits, meaningful relationships, and spiritual practice. Jung saw the suppression of Life Energy as harmful to our well-being. People who suppress their Life Energy may experience physical or psychological symptoms [ 28 , 29 ]. Thus, unlike Freud, who viewed the unconscious as a place of shame and distress for his patients, Jung saw the unconscious as a gateway to reaching a state of Individuation or idealistic self.

Archetypes: According to Carl Jung, archetypes are recurring universal human experience themes rooted within the collective unconscious [ 29 ]. Archetypes represent fundamental aspects of human existence, such as characters, symbols, or situations, and they are shared across different cultures and periods [ 30 , 31 ]. For example, weddings have occurred in cultures worldwide despite no prior interaction between most cultures. It would seem then that getting married is a normal aspect of being human, which is shared among the collective unconscious of all people. Archetypes, therefore, arise from the innate psychological predispositions of humankind. They can manifest in arts, religion, literature, mythology, and poetry [ 32 ]. For example, the “Hero Archetype” has existed in numerous cultures throughout history. This is the story of a protagonist who must accomplish a quest to attain a goal, from Babylon’s Gilgamesh to today’s Hollywood movies. No culture has ever existed without a story that involves the “Hero Archetype.” Archetypes provide organizing patterns of thinking that shape our thoughts. Archetypes reflect shared human nature, providing a framework for interpreting the world [ 32 ]. By recognizing and working with archetypes, psychologists can gain insight into integrating shared unconscious elements into conscious awareness to provide effective therapy [ 30 - 32 ].

Individuation: Individuation is a central theme in analytical psychology. It refers to the psychological process of integrating all the aspects of oneself and thus realizing one’s true potential [ 31 ]. It requires putting together the conscious and unconscious elements of the mind. For Individuation to occur, one must strive to develop a unique identity and establish a harmony between conscious thoughts and unconscious desires and instincts [ 31 , 32 ]. It is a lifelong process that involves self-reflection, self-discovery, and self-acceptance, in that order [ 31 ]. Individuation goes beyond conforming to societal expectations. Jung highlights the need to explore inner depths and integrate the repressed aspects of the self no matter how shameful [ 31 ]. Through Individuation, individuals become more self-aware and authentic. The ultimate goal is to become in tune with oneself and one’s purpose. It is a journey of transformation that leads to personal fulfillment and a more meaningful life [ 30 - 33 ]. Although Sigmund Freud did acknowledge the importance of personal growth, he differed from Jung’s concept of Individuation. Freud’s goal was to alleviate psychological distress through the process of psychoanalysis. He never emphasized achieving a sense of wholeness or integration of the self [ 29 , 29 , 33 ].

While Carl Jung was initially a follower of Sigmund Freud, he eventually developed his theory of analytical psychology and quickly diverged from Freud’s classical psychoanalysis. While there are a few similarities between the two, such as the emphasis on the unconscious and the use of dream analysis, there were also poignant differences, such as their views on what drives humans, the structure of the psyche, the concept of self, and the ultimate goal of humans. Freud emphasized the significance of sexual desire for driving human nature, but Carl Jung disagreed. He believed sexual needs were a small part of a vast human desire called Life Energy. Life Energy is the desire to attain Individuation, a state of self-realization. Individuation occurs when the collective unconscious, personal unconscious, and conscious work harmoniously to acknowledge all aspects of oneself.

The battle of Vienna: Adler vs. Freud - feelings of inferiority

Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was an Austrian psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and former student of Sigmund Freud. Like Jung, he developed his theory rooted in psychoanalysis, known as Individual Psychology. Adler began as a follower of Sigmund Freud. Similarly to Jung, he eventually developed his approach to psychoanalysis. Individual Psychology emphasizes the holistic nature of people and considers the interplay between the psychological, biological, and cultural factors for shaping feelings, thoughts, and cognition. Adler emphasizes the importance of understanding an individual’s perspective to explain why they are the way they are [ 34 , 35 ]. The Adlerian theory emphasizes personal growth and self-improvement, similar to Jungian psychology. Individual psychology, however, highlights the concept of inferiority and superiority in an individual’s development [ 34 ]. Adler heavily emphasized negative feelings from childhood stemming into the strife individuals experience in adulthood. Individual psychology offers a unique framework for understanding individuals as striving beings influenced by their social environments [ 34 , 35 ]. In this response, we will summarize Adler’s research concerning psychoanalysis, highlighting both the similarities and differences between the two approaches.

Similarities Between Adler’s Individual Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The importance of childhood experiences: Both Adler and Freud agreed that early childhood experiences shape personality, self-image, and behavior in adulthood. They agreed that the therapist should help the patient explore and understand early life experiences to gain insight into their current strife [ 34 ]. Adler, just like Freud, saw childhood as pivotal. He recognized that early interactions with caregivers and the social environment impact a person’s sense of self-worth and ability to navigate life’s obstacles [ 34 ]. Adler, unlike Freud, highlighted the importance of empowering children to develop a sense of competence, confidence, and mastery of tasks. He encouraged children to overcome feelings of inferiority and contribute positively to society. Adler’s holistic approach to childhood and development emphasized the interplay between social dynamics, individual aspirations, and the cultivation of social interest as crucial factors in promoting healthy psychological growth [ 34 ].

The use of free association: Both Adler and Freud used free association to access the unconscious thoughts of their patients. They both agreed that exploring the unconscious aspects of the mind could lead to greater self-awareness and, ultimately, healing [ 34 ]. Through Adler’s observations of children affected by “organic deficiencies” (physical handicaps), he established his theories on Superiority and Inferiority. He found that children who experienced physical limitations needed to compensate and achieve a feeling of superiority over other children [ 35 ]. This striving for superiority propelled them to take on more significant challenges in life and perceive the world as enemy territory [ 35 ]. For example, someone with no arms walking behind you may be offended that you opened the door for them despite being willing to open it for anyone. Perceiving that you opened that door for them because of their organic deficiency, they would be more inclined to take on the challenge of opening the door themselves than someone with arms to prove they can. Many of the actions these children performed became part of their adaptive response to their deficiency [ 35 ]. According to Adler, these children quickly and firmly established defensive and offensive attitudes, developing antagonistic behaviors such as fighting, hesitating, stopping, and pushing [ 35 ]. Adler argued that through intense focus on themselves and their flaws, they tend to be egocentric, lacking social empathy, courage, and self-confidence, as they fear defeat more than they desire success [ 35 ]. These children actively sought out favorable situations while creating barriers to avoid confronting challenges that they may not be able to surpass [ 35 ]. These children, burdened by the inferiority of their organs, became strongly influenced by the darker aspects of life [ 35 ]. In his therapeutic work, Adler utilized free association to explore and unravel these unconscious dynamics, helping these children gain insight into their thought patterns and strategies for compensating for their deficiencies, ultimately supporting them in developing a healthier and more socially connected life [ 34 - 36 ].

The therapeutic relationship: Adler, Jung, and Freud agreed that therapeutic alliance is critical to success and change in at-risk children. They also all agreed that the therapist must establish trust and nurture a relationship based on openness and willingness to communicate. He underscored facilitating a safe space for exploration and growth [ 34 , 35 ]. According to Adler, the importance of a therapeutic alliance extends beyond the boundaries of the therapist and patient. Adler believed that therapists, social workers, and teachers all play roles in addressing the psychological issues of children and thus must work together as a team [ 35 ]. Therapists can guide children toward a more hopeful future by establishing a strong partnership with parents and collaborating with teachers. This future fosters the growth of individuals who have become accountable, aware, and willing to give back to society [ 35 ]. Adler’s emphasis on the therapeutic alliance highlights the need for a community effort to shape the development of children [ 35 ].

Differences Between Adler’s Individual Psychology and Psychoanalysis

The drive of human nature: Freud saw sexual desire as the primary motivation of human behavior. Jung saw Life Energy as the ultimate drive, but Adler believed that striving for superiority was humankind’s primary motivation. Individual psychology sees people as inherently needing to overcome feelings of inferiority. Just like Jung, Adler acknowledged that sexual problems could be a source of psychological distress at times. He did not emphasize them [ 35 , 36 ]. He believed that people are motivated by a need to overcome their feelings of inferiority and thus strive for superiority. He termed this ambition the “will to power.” According to Adler, everyone experiences a sense of inferiority stemming from childhood experiences of inadequacy compared to others [ 36 ]. For example, a child who failed a math test would experience feelings of inferiority and would work extra hard to do well on the next math test to achieve a feeling of superiority. If the child continues to do poorly in math, they will carry on through life, avoiding math problems, thus preventing that feeling of being inferior. Therefore, feeling of inferiority provides all people with two choices, strive to become superior or avoid that obstacle that once made them feel inferior [ 36 ].

The concept of the unconscious: While both Adler and Freud believed in the importance of the unconscious mind, they disagreed about its structure. Freud saw the unconscious as a repository for repressed thoughts and feelings that were too painful to be brought into consciousness. Adler believed the unconscious is a source of creativity and problem-solving, unlike Jung [ 37 ]. Adler did not see the need to distinguish between the conscious and unconscious realms clearly [ 37 ]. He recognized the fluidity between levels of awareness, whereby what may initially seem unconscious can be raised to consciousness through effective therapy or when it becomes relevant and necessary. Many things remain unconscious because they are not immediately appropriate or needed in conscious awareness. However, these unconscious elements can be brought into consciousness when required. Adler understood that individuals tend to focus on and consider only those aspects supporting their self-enhancement goals. Elements disturbing or challenging their viewpoint are often left aside in the unconscious [ 37 ]. For Adler, the conscious mind becomes a source of encouragement, while the unconscious holds what might disrupt or hinder the individual’s perspective. The individual’s lifestyle, to some extent, reflects the degree of narrow or broad focus in their awareness. A narrow focus may disregard or suppress aspects not aligning with their goals.

In contrast, a more general perspective allows for a more comprehensive understanding and integration of conscious and unconscious elements [ 35 ]. Adler’s views on the unconscious align with his holistic assessment of the individual. He believed the mind could not be divided into separate and antagonistic halves of the conscious and unconscious. Instead, consciousness and unconsciousness are directed by the individual’s fictional final goal, representing their ultimate purpose and self-enhancement [ 38 ]. Self-enhancement in this accord is not unlike his contemporary Carl Jung’s “Individuation,” both goals being continued self-improvement [ 31 , 32 ].

While there are similarities between self-enhancement and Individuation regarding personal growth, there are also nuances. Self-enhancement focuses on overcoming feelings of inferiority [ 37 ], emphasizing building a sense of superiority [ 37 ]. In contrast, Individuation is all about self-discovery and the journey to self-realization. Wholeness is established through incorporating all aspects of oneself [ 31 , 32 ]. Adler and Jung recognized the importance of self-actualization and fulfilling one’s potential. Ultimately, self-enhancement and Individuation represent two different approaches to growth. Self-enhancement focused on personal achievement and superiority, and Individuation focused on self-discovery, integration, and wholeness.

The concept of the self: Adler did not use the term “self” as Jung did. However, he agreed that people have a fundamental sense of self shaped by interactions with others and experiences. Thus, Adler saw the goal of therapy as helping others develop a more positive sense of self and enabling them to overcome feelings of inferiority [ 34 - 36 ]. Adler’s concept of self emphasizes the indivisibility of the mind rejecting a notion of a boundary between the conscious and unconscious. Instead, both are guided by the individual’s final goal, which drives their decision-making [ 37 ]. According to Adler, the opposition between conscious and unconscious impulses is merely a difference in means, with both aspects ultimately working toward enhancing the self. He argued that there is fluidity between levels of awareness. Thus, at one time, the unconscious may be raised to consciousness when necessary [ 37 ]. Adler recognizes that not everything must be consciously attended to at all times. Certain thoughts and feelings may remain unconscious until they become relevant or required to undergo a course of action [ 37 ]. The conscious mind focuses on thoughts, feelings, and experiences that support and reinforce the patient. The unconscious mind possesses ideas and feelings that disrupt or challenge their perspective of themselves [ 37 ]. Overall, Adler’s self-concept highlights the interconnectedness of conscious and unconscious processes. The fluidity between these levels of awareness suggests that unconscious elements can be made conscious, and a comprehensive understanding of the self can be achieved through effective therapy and self-reflection.

Alfred Adler and Sigmund Freud were two of the most influential figures in the development of modern psychology, yet their theories differed significantly. While Freud focused on the unconscious mind and the role of instinctual drives, Adler saw the importance of needing to feel superior. While working with children with organic deficiency, Adler noticed that these children strived to put themselves in situations where they could feel superior and avoid problems that made them feel inferior [ 35 ]. His observations led Adler to believe that all people have feelings of inferiority that stem from childhood. Adler also emphasized the self more than Freud did. Adler believed that by combining the positive ideas of one’s self from the conscious mind and negative aspects from the unconscious mind, one could reach enlightenment and self-awareness.

Emphasizing stages: Erikson and Freud’s views on personality development

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was a psychologist who built on Freud’s theories and developed his approach to psychosocial development. Erikson states that we all must overcome eight stages of development. These stages encompass a range of challenges, such as establishing trust with caregivers, overwhelming feelings of guilt, forming an identity, and accomplishing autonomy. The Eriksonian theory emphasizes achieving a healthy balance between societal demands and our own needs. Thus, he focuses on the societal and cultural factors that influence us at every point of our lives [ 38 ]. Each stage is characterized by a specific crisis that individuals must resolve to mature and become successful and content with life [ 39 , 40 ]. By addressing the psychosocial challenges of each stage, individuals have an opportunity to establish a fulfilling life. We will summarize Erikson’s theory, highlighting the similarities and differences between him and Freud [ 38 ].

Similarities Between Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and Psychoanalysis

The importance of early childhood experiences: Like Freud, Erikson agreed that early childhood experiences have a lasting impact on personality development. Like Freud, he emphasized the importance of the first few years of life in shaping a person’s sense of self [ 38 - 40 ]. Classical psychoanalytic theory heavily emphasizes childhood experience, particularly the psychosexual stages [ 14 ]. Freud argued that the experiences of the first few years of life, especially interactions with parents or caregivers, ultimately shape an individual’s personality [ 14 ]. Erikson expanded on Freud’s emphasis on psychosexual development to encompass a lifelong journey with stages marked by developmental tasks. Erikson did agree with Freud in regards to childhood experiences being pivotal. However, he extended the focus to include the entire lifespan [ 38 ]. They both agreed and recognized that early childhood experiences impact an individual’s psychological development and personality. They believed unresolved conflicts or challenges during these formative years could lead to long-term consequences [ 38 , 39 ]. Freud focused on the sexual drives that occurred during infancy and early childhood, but Erikson believed every stage of life has its own drive, and these drives extend passed just early childhood [ 14 ].

The influence of the unconscious mind: While Erikson acknowledged the existence of the unconscious and believed it does play some role in processing information, he did not focus on it or speak about it much [ 40 ]. Unlike Freud, Jung, and Adler, Erikson was indifferent to the unconscious processes. He did not acknowledge them much in his developmental theory. For Erikson, the conscious mind plays a prominent role, and unconscious processes are irrelevant at best [ 40 ]. Erikson believed that individuals actively engage in self-discovery and identity formation, which involves conscious reflection [ 40 ]. While Erikson did not dismiss the existence of unconscious influence, he placed heavier emphasis on conscious awareness and how this conscious awareness allowed for integrating social and cultural factors [ 40 ].

Differences Between Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and Psychoanalysis

The drive of human nature: According to Freud, humans are driven by sexual urges, particularly in childhood. Erikson disagreed. For Erikson, every part of life presents its own unique challenge that causes people to purpose [ 40 ]. Erikson’s theory focused more on social and emotional development than the sexual aspects emphasized by Freud [ 41 ]. However, a stage in Erikson’s view is often associated with Freud’s emphasis on sexuality, and that is Erikson’s “Identity vs. Role Confusion” stage, which occurs during adolescence (12 to 18 years old). During Erikson’s Identity vs. Role Confusion stage, adolescents explore their identities, trying to establish a sense of self and figure out their place in society [ 42 ]. This stage is characterized by the search for a cohesive identity, including exploring one’s sexual and gender identity. Thus, while Erikson did not emphasize sexual development as Freud did, this stage does involve exploring sexual and romantic relationships, which, in a way, can be seen as parallel to Freud’s focus on sexual development [ 42 ].

The focus on social and cultural influences: Erikson emphasized the role of social and cultural factors in shaping personality development. Freud rarely acknowledged or spoke about the role of society or culture in his theoretical approach. Erikson believed that a person’s social context played a significant role in shaping identity [ 40 ]. The fourth stage, “Industry vs. Inferiority,” exemplifies the cultural focus in development. This stage occurs between the ages of six and 12 [ 42 ]. In the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, children develop a sense of competence in various social and academic settings. The child must strive to acquire new skills, accomplish tasks, and receive recognition and praise from others. A parallel between Adler’s Will to Power can be seen in this stage, as the child must strive to feel superior at this point in their life.

Interestingly, many of the children that Adler worked with were between the ages of six and 12 when he initially formulated his theory [ 35 ]. According to Erkison [ 42 ], this stage is crucial for developing self-esteem. Culture significantly influences the activities and expectations during this stage. Educational systems, societal norms, and cultural practices shape the tasks and activities children are encouraged to pursue. Cultural factors also influence the standards against which children measure their competence. Cultural values, beliefs, and social comparisons shape children’s perceptions of success or failure. By acknowledging the role of culture in the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, Erikson’s theory recognizes that cultural contexts influence children’s socialization and self-evaluation [ 42 ].

The emphasis on stages of development: Erikson’s theory proposes eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a particular crisis or challenge that must be resolved for them to progress to the next stage [ 42 ]. These stages are influenced by social factors such as family, peers, cultural norms, and the individual’s personality and temperament. For example, in the first stage of psychosocial development, trust vs. mistrust, infants must learn to trust their caregivers to develop a sense of security and basic trust in the world around them [ 42 ]. If caregivers are consistently responsive and meet the infant’s needs, the child will develop a sense of trust, influencing their future relationships and sense of self. However, if caregivers are unresponsive or inconsistent, the child may develop a sense of mistrust, which could lead to future difficulties in forming trusting relationships.

Similarly, in the fifth stage of psychosocial development, identity vs. role confusion, adolescents must navigate the challenges of identity formation and establish a sense of self-consistent with their cultural and social context [ 42 ]. If adolescents can successfully integrate their personal values and goals with the expectations of their social environment, they will develop a sense of identity and purpose. However, they may experience confusion and a lack of direction if they cannot do so. According to Erikson, each of the eight stages of development has its own unique set of challenges [ 42 ].

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development proposed eight stages of development, each characterized by a particular crisis or challenge that must be resolved to progress to the next stage. Unlike Freud, Erikson believed that development continues throughout the lifespan and that successful resolution of these stages leads to a more integrated sense of self. Additionally, Erikson’s theory emphasized the potential for personal growth and change throughout the lifespan rather than the fixed nature of personality proposed by Freud. While Freud stresses the role of the unconscious mind and the importance of sexual and aggressive drives in shaping personality, Erikson believed that social and cultural factors played a more significant role.

Beyond the Oedipus complex: Horney’s feminist challenge to Freudian psychoanalysis

Karen Horney (1885-1952) was a psychoanalyst who developed her own theories about the unconscious influences and mechanisms that shape and ultimately determine behavior [ 43 ]. Horneyian psychology offers an alternative perspective from traditional psychoanalysis. Like Erikson and Jung, she emphasized the influence of cultural elements that lead to internal conflict [ 43 ]. Horney introduced the “interpersonal theory.” She highlights the importance of early relationships in shaping someone's personality [ 44 ]. In this regard, social and cultural context is crucial in understanding human behavior and the emergence of what she termed “neurotic patterns.” At the core of Horney’s theory is “basic anxiety.” Individuals develop a fundamental sense of insecurity and anxiety during their early years due to feelings of helplessness and vulnerability, similar to Adler’s inferiority complex [ 44 , 45 ]. According to Horney, we are all imprinted with certain gender roles, which leads to feelings of internal strife. This anxiety influences the individual’s subsequent psychological development and contributes to the formation of neurotic behaviors to cope with the stressors of day-to-day living.

Similarities Between Karen Horney’s Theory and Psychoanalysis

The importance of early childhood experiences: Like all the other psychoanalysts we discussed, Horney agreed that early childhood experiences play a significant role in shaping a person [ 43 ]. Unlike Freud, who emphasized the influence of unconscious drives, conflicts, and sexual development [ 1 - 3 ], Horney focused on the impact of gender roles and sexuality in forming an individual’s sense of self and their relationship to society [ 43 , 44 ].

Karen Horney and Sigmund Freud share similarities in their views on the unconscious [ 1 - 3 , 43 , 44 ]. Both psychologists acknowledged the existence of the unconscious mind, recognizing that individuals are not always aware of the motivations, desires, and conflicts that drive their thoughts and behaviors. They agreed that the unconscious significantly influences human behavior, shaping aspects of personality, emotional experiences, and the formation of psychological symptoms [ 43 , 44 ]. While their theories diverged in specific mechanisms and influences on the unconscious, such as cultural and social factors in Horney’s approach versus innate drives in Freud’s theory, they recognized the importance of exploring and understanding the unconscious to gain insight into human psychology [ 43 , 44 ].

Differences Between Karen Horney’s Theory and Psychoanalysis

The role of culture and society: Horney believed that cultural and societal factors played a significant role in shaping personality, whereas Freud’s psychoanalytic theory focused primarily on the individual psyche. She emphasized the importance of social influences such as gender roles, cultural norms, and societal expectations in shaping a person's sense of self [ 43 , 44 ]. Horney believed that women, in particular, are socialized to adopt submissive and nurturing roles, which can lead to feelings of inferiority and helplessness down the line [ 43 ]. Women are often taught to prioritize the needs of others over their own, which can lead to a lack of self-esteem and a sense of being powerless or dependent on others. Horney believed that this cultural conditioning could lead to the development of what she called “feminine psychology,” which is characterized by a preoccupation with love, relationships, and the desire for approval from others [ 44 ]. Women who internalize these cultural messages may struggle with insecurity and self-doubt, affecting their sense of self and ability to achieve their goals [ 43 , 44 ]. Horney also believed that men are subject to cultural expectations and that traditional male gender roles can lead to emotional detachment and a need to prove oneself through competition and achievement. Men may struggle with feelings of isolation and a sense of disconnection from their emotions, which can affect their ability to form intimate relationships and achieve a sense of fulfillment in their lives [ 43 , 44 ]. Karen Horney and Alfred Adler had contrasting views on the concept of inferiority while sharing some similarities. Horney believed that feelings of inferiority stem from societal pressures and parental attitudes, leading to inadequacy and insecurity [ 44 , 45 ]. She emphasized the role of external validation and success as compensatory strategies to overcome these feelings.

In contrast, Adler viewed inferiority as an inherent part of the human condition, driving individuals to strive for superiority and personal growth. He emphasized the importance of overcoming inferiority through developing a sense of community and contributing to society [ 35 , 36 ]. Both theorists recognized the impact of childhood experiences on the development of inferiority. Still, Horney focused more on cultural and social influences, while Adler emphasized individual psychology and the pursuit of social interest.

The role of anxiety: Horney placed a greater emphasis on the role of anxiety in shaping behavior and personality than Freud did. She believed anxiety was a normal and necessary part of life and could be harnessed to promote growth and change [ 45 ]. Horney developed the concept of “basic anxiety,” which refers to a deep-seated feeling of insecurity and helplessness that arises from early childhood experiences. Basic anxiety can lead to neurosis and other psychological problems if not addressed. Horney believed that basic anxiety was a pervasive sense of vulnerability and insecurity from early childhood experiences, such as neglect, rejection, or criticism from caregivers [ 45 ]. This basic anxiety can become a central aspect of an individual’s personality and affect their relationships, sense of self, and ability to cope with stress. According to Horney, there are several ways in which individuals may respond to basic anxiety. One response is to seek security and protection from others, which can lead to a preoccupation with relationships and a fear of rejection or abandonment. Another response is to develop a strong sense of independence and self-sufficiency, which can lead to a fear of being controlled or dominated by others. A third response is to become aggressive or domineering, which can be a defense against feelings of helplessness and vulnerability [ 45 ].

The concept of neurotic needs: Horney identified the “neurotic needs” common to everyone and could lead to neurosis if not addressed. These included the need for affection and approval, the need for power and control, and the need for perfection as well as others [ 45 ]. According to Horney, neurotic needs are compulsive desires or behaviors that individuals adopt to feel more secure and alleviate anxiety. These needs are not based on genuine personal interests or values but rather on a perceived need to conform to the expectations of others or to achieve a sense of control over their environment [ 45 ]. These needs can become so ingrained in an individual’s personality that they interfere with their ability to form healthy relationships, pursue personal interests, and achieve a sense of fulfillment in life. Horney believed that the development of neurotic needs was influenced by early childhood experiences, particularly those that involved feelings of neglect, rejection, or criticism from caregivers. These experiences can make individuals feel insecure and vulnerable and adopt behaviors or attitudes that they believe will protect them from further harm [ 45 ].

The role of psychotherapy: Horney’s approach to psychotherapy differed significantly from traditional psychoanalysis. She believed the therapist’s role was to create a supportive and empathic environment where the client could explore and understand their emotions and experiences rather than interpret and analyze the client’s unconscious motivations and conflicts [ 43 , 44 ].

Karen Horney and Sigmund Freud had significant differences in their personality and psychological development theories. Freud emphasized the importance of innate drives and instincts in shaping an individual’s psychological development. At the same time, Horney believed that an individual’s personality was largely shaped by their social and cultural experiences, particularly their early relationships with caregivers. Horney also differed from Freud’s views on gender and sexuality, emphasizing that gender roles were socially constructed and influenced by cultural norms and expectations. Overall, while Freud’s theories continue to be influential in modern psychology, Horney’s emphasis on the role of social and cultural experiences in shaping an individual’s personality has had a lasting impact on psychology.

Strengths, limitations, and contributions of this study

One of the major strengths of this review paper is the comprehensive coverage of the major contributors to the field of psychoanalysis and how their views contrast with the founder, Sigmund Freud. By exploring the findings of these contributors, the reader is offered many unique perspectives and, thus, a broader understanding of the field. However, a limitation of this review is its lack of detailed exploration of the theories and concepts put forth by these major contributors. Due to the nature of the paper, which aims to provide an overview of the history of psychoanalysis, it does not have the space to delve deeply into each theorist’s work. Consequently, readers seeking an in-depth analysis of specific theories may use this review as a starting place for their research and learning. We hope that this paper could put forth a framework for what psychoanalysis is and where it came from. In addition, we hope to have sparked the reader’s interest to further read and learn more about this fascinating psychology paradigm.

Conclusions

The theories of Sigmund Freud have laid a foundation for psychoanalytical psychology. Although the thoughts and attitudes of his students differed from him, they remained grounded in psychoanalysis. All four psychoanalysts we have discussed agree that childhood plays a significant role in development. Freud, as we discussed earlier, emphasized the sexual nature of people and believed this was the most significant factor in determining a person’s behavior and personality. Jung spoke about the collective unconscious and the need for self-realization, a drive he termed “individuation.” In his theory, we all share a collective unconscious and must use the archetypes of this collective unconscious with our consciousness to attain self-realization. Adler had his version of self-realization, called “Will to Power.” Adler saw all people needing to overcome feelings of inferiority from childhood to attain feelings of superiority in adulthood. Erikson believed every life stage has unique challenges and drives to overcome negative feelings. Horney emphasized the feelings of anxiety influencing our behavior and drives.

While Freud spoke of the id, ego, and superego in his theory of the unconscious, this was not a central theme for his students. Jung highlighted the collective unconscious, a universal shared architecture of understanding the world around us. Adler saw the unconscious and consciousness as more fluid than Freud did. He believed people could more easily access the unconscious than Freud had originally postulated. Erikson acknowledged the unconscious but was indifferent about it in his theoretical framework. Horney’s view of the unconscious was very similar to Freud’s; however, she heavily emphasized how gender roles influence our unconsciousness. In conclusion, the diverse perspectives of Freud and his students, such as Jung, Adler, Erikson, and Horney, have contributed to the rich tapestry of psychoanalytical psychology, each offering unique insights into the role of childhood, the unconscious mind, and the factors shaping human behavior and personality.

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

• DOI: 10.4135/9781483398266.n3
• Corpus ID: 53619216

Psychoanalytic Theory

• Fredric T. Perlman
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Sigmund Freud and the Psychoanalytical Concept of Fear and Anxiety

• First Online: 18 April 2018

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• Sergio Starkstein 2  

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A major shift in the concept of fear occurred in 1895 when Sigmund Freud separated out from the syndrome of ‘neurasthenia’ a specific entity he termed ‘Neurosis Anxiety.’ This conceptual demarcation had major consequences for the nosology of fear and anxiety. Most importantly, Freud’s delineation of pathological anxiety resulted in the description of a specific pathogenesis based on psychodynamic theories and the creation of a therapy, both instrumental in the medicalization of fear. This chapter provides a critical analysis of Freud’s construction of normal, and pathological fear and anxiety as well as the conceptual problems arising from his psychophysical reduction, which consisted in a pneumatic system of deflected sexual energy, and later, in memory images of early traumas.

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Rollo May refers to Freud as “a giant who, like Marx and Einstein…set the tone for vast changes on our culture” (May 1996 , p. 132). He further considered Freud as “the preeminent explorer of the psychology of anxiety…and provided understanding to both the mechanism and therapy” (p. 134).

Freud, like Kierkegaard and Heidegger, defined anxiety ( Angst in the original German) as objectless fear, but he used the terms fear ( Furcht in the original German) and anxiety interchangeably in his discussion of clinical examples and in his theoretical discussions. For instance, he used the term “anxiety neurosis” in his early writings, switching to “neurotic fear” to denote similar concepts in later texts. In the Appendix to On the Grounds (Freud 1953 – 1975c , p. 116), James Strachey, the book’s translator, noted the overlapping connotations of the German words Angst , Furcht and Schreck , and considered that Freud was unable to provide a convincing technical connotation for Angst as distinguished with related terms (Freud 1953 – 1975c , p. 116). Furthermore, Strachey considered that Angst could be translated into English as ‘fear’, ‘fright’, ‘alarm’ and other related terms, and regards as “unfortunate” the translation of Angst as anxiety, a noun he considered to have only a “remote connection” with the German Angst . Angst is usually translated as anguish in both Spanish ( angustia ) and French ( angoisse ), and this significant problem in translation has been addressed by German Berrios ( 1996 , p. 265). In Freud’s work, fear and anxiety are conceptually distinguished when, for instance, for some people being in a train produces fear, whereas thinking about travelling by train produces anxiety. However, as one commentator on Freud’s work on anxiety states “at present, it can be said there is no consensus on the difference between fear and anxiety” (Nersessian 2013 , p. 180).

Interestingly, Freudian writings on anxiety have, to my knowledge, never been the subject of philosophical scrutiny from a conceptual point of view.

Freud describes “normal anxiety” as having the connotation of “anxiousness” or the “tendency to take a pessimistic view of things” (Freud 1953 – 1975c , p. 93).

Freud was following a consolidated tradition in psychiatry of linking anxiety to somatic disorders (Berrios 1999 ). Freud’s listing of anxiety attacks includes the forms of (1) disturbances of the heart, (2) disturbances of respiration, (3) attacks of sweating, (4) attacks of tremor and shivering, (5) attacks of ravenous hunger, (6) attacks of diarrhoea, (7) attacks of vertigo, (8) attacks of congestion (vasomotor neurasthenia), and (9) attacks of paraesthesias.

“Normal” anxiety is summarily explained in Addendum B of Inhibition, Symptoms and Anxiety (Freud 1953 – 1975a , pp. 164–168). In this important section, Freud begins by defining anxiety as “indefiniteness and lack of object,” whereas fear ( Furcht ) always has an object. He remarks that “the problem” of conceptually separating “realistic” from “neurotic” anxiety “awaits a thorough examination” (p. 165). Freud defines realistic anxiety as produced by a known danger, whereas in neurotic anxiety the danger is unknown but probably instinctual. Once neurotic anxiety becomes conscious through psychoanalysis, it is not different from realistic anxiety. Nevertheless, a paragraph later Freud remarks that “in some cases the characteristics of realistic anxiety and neurotic anxiety are mingled” (p. 165). More specifically, Freud states that realistic anxiety converts into neurotic anxiety whenever the reaction to the danger is exaggerated.

Lowenfeld (Freud 1953 – 1975c , p. 125), suggests against Freud’s sexual aetiology of anxiety disorder, that a severe fright may be sufficient to cause anxiety. Freud denied what he considered a “post hoc ergo propter hoc”, an astonishing remark given his later acknowledgment that his work lacked empirical confirmation (p. 128).

“There are cases where even the physician must admit that the resolution of the conflict into neurosis is the most harmless outcome and one most easily tolerated by society” (Freud 1953 – 1975b , p. 332).

Fear may be actually counterproductive, since “if fear is too strong, it proves absolutely useless and paralyses every action, even flight” (Freud 1953 – 1975b , p. 341).

Freud adds that “a striking amount of expectant fear” is characteristic of anxiety neurosis, which he now subsumes under the generic category of neuroses (Freud 1953 – 1975b , p. 344).

As already discussed, we should not expect a consistent use of the terms ‘anxiety’ and ‘fear,’ since Freud prefers avoiding “entering upon a discussion as to whether our language means the same or distinct things by the words anxiety, fear or fright” (Freud 1953 – 1975b , p. 342).

The rationale provided by Freud to substantiate his hypothesis is rather shocking. He writes: “Many years ago we were sitting around the dinner table—a number of young physicians—when an assistant in the obstetrical clinic told a jolly story of what had happened in the last examination for midwives. A candidate was asked what it implied if during delivery the faeces of the newborn was present in the discharge of waters, and she answered promptly ‘the child is afraid.’ She was laughed at and flunked. But I silently took her part and began to suspect that the poor woman of the people had, with sound perception, revealed an important connection” (Freud 1953 – 1975b , p. 344).

Rollo May in his otherwise excellent rendition of Freud’s theories of anxiety tends to ‘straighten’ Freud’s account, in order, perhaps, to make it more accessible to the general public (May 1996 ). For instance, May states that the ego ‘perceives’ the danger which produces anxiety. Therefore, to avoid greater anxiety, the ego represses the impulses that would lead the person into danger. The ego is “inoculated” with a small quantum of anxiety in order “to escape its full strength” (Freud 1953 – 1975a , p. 162). But May’s explanation is still muddled. May refers to an ‘ego’ preventing the person (to whom this ego belongs) from suffering anxiety, and the “homunculus fallacy” described in the previous chapter is unavoidable. May’s proposal raises additional questions such as: how does the ego perceive danger? Does the ego, therefore, have a full repertoire of mental functions and organs of perception? What is the mechanism by which the ego manages to repress impulses? What inoculates the ego with a little anxiety?

I am unable to do justice to Freud’s complex metapsychology in a chapter focusing on his concept of fear and anxiety. It is necessary, here, to set aside judgement of Freud on the validity of his theory of Oedipal complex and concepts such as the “degradation of libido,” “the super-ego [becoming] exceptionally severe and unkind,” and an obedient ego providing behaviours of “conscientiousness, piety, and cleanliness” (Freud 1953 – 1975a , p. 115).

With this insight Freud claims that “we have the key to an understanding of anxiety” (Freud 1953 – 1975a , p. 137).

Freud includes the fear of castration (a result of the Oedipal complex) as another important cause of anxiety, but discussion of this factor is not relevant to the conceptual discussion of the mechanism of anxiety.

Given the complexity of Freud’s metaphysical system, a critical analysis of this therapeutic technique is beyond the scope of this work. I may point, as an example, to the controversial aspects of Freud’s concept of the “unconscious,” which is critically discussed by Bouveresse ( 1995 , p. 75).

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Starkstein, S. (2018). Sigmund Freud and the Psychoanalytical Concept of Fear and Anxiety. In: A Conceptual and Therapeutic Analysis of Fear. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78349-9_8

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(1997) PhD thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science. This thesis tries to demonstrate that psychoanalytic principles, primarily those developed by Sigmund Freud, can be extrapolated from the individual to the collective level-of-analysis in order to formulate a paradigm of international relations. The first part illustrates that structural concepts of Freudian psychoanalysis provide a model of human psychology by which traditions of international political thinking, both Western and non-Western, can be compared and analysed; it is argued that the 'id-ego-superego' model provides a trans-cultural and trans-historical representation of political philosophy. Similarly, although Freud's writing on political and social themes did not examine the political philosophies of either Western or non-Western traditions in any depth, nor elaborate a theory of international relations, his analyses of political and social affairs, while limited, would seem to have applied his individual models of human psychology to analyse relations between group actors such as states, even though he did not make this explicit. Nonetheless, this thesis extrapolates psychoanalytic principles to the level of state and non-state groupings in order to develop a psychoanalytic theory of international relations based on four main themes: first, that the 'id-ego-superego' model of human socialisation can be used to construct an 'order out of chaos theory' of international society; secondly, that ego psychology can be used to analyse the foreign policy interactions of state apparats; thirdly, that psychoanalytic precepts can be used to construct a 'fourth image' of war, and finally, that the psychoanalytic model developed in this thesis intersects with the three main paradigms of modern international relations theory, namely structuralism, pluralism, and realism/idealism, which suggests that they need not be considered as mutually exclusive bodies of theory. It is concluded that the concepts elaborated in this thesis, which are illustrated by means of historical observations and case studies, constitute a theoretical model that offers a distinct view of world politics. Item Type: Thesis (PhD) Additional Information: © 1997 Douglas William Bettcher Library of Congress subject classification: Sets: URI: Actions (login required) Record administration - authorised staff only Downloads per month over past year View more statistics Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Essay To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block As a source of information (ensure proper referencing) As a template for you assignment Psychoanalytic theory The name personality has several meanings that suit various situations. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is one of the theories describing the personality in human beings. According to Freud, the theory seeks to explain why people behave the way they do, studies human’s brain, and explains more about their personality. This paper discusses the various elements of the theory, its history, development and research. In addition, it takes a detailed look at Sigmund Freud who came up the theory and seeks to explain the various elements of the theory, and reliability of the research. Psychoanalytic theory was developed at the end of the 19th century in 1880’s. It was based on the discovery made by Breuer, who studied a person who had a trauma in childhood, consequently affecting him during his adult life. According to this research, it was discovered that someone’s personality is related to his/her childhood experiences. Freud states that it is through mechanical terms that people’s mental energy is released. Through various stages of child’s development, a person changes his/her character and releases his/her mental energy. Psychoanalytic theory developed by Sigmund Freud is arguably the most famous amongst the personality theories. According to Freud, family life has a subconscious influence on a human’s sexual drive. Family also affects the individual’s nonsexual development. According to the psychoanalysis carried out by Freud, there are other effects that affect our thoughts (Carver and Scheier, 2011). The thoughts and the motivation we have around us are such factors that affect the way we act, as well as the way we do things. According to Freud, the main drives or motivators of an individual’s personality are related to the sexual and aggressiveness. The theory further explains that the problems experienced during a person’s adult life are as a direct result of the conflicts during their childhood experiences. As a result, the theory breaks down the process of childhood growth according to the psychosexual motivators as a child develops. These stages of growth seek to show that at various stages during growth, a person (child) has various motivators that shape their behavior, and keep changing as they move to the next stage of psychosexual growth. Any faulty growth or unsuccessful/unhealthy passage of any of the stages is said to result in the adult life conflicts, which eventually determines a person’s personality. Just like any other theory, Psychoanalytic theory has its assumptions. One such assumption is the fact that humans have unconscious urges in their brain. The unconscious mind contains desires which the mind wish for, but the desires are usually limited by the world as they may not always be fulfilled. The Psychic determination is the other assumption. It is assumed that everything that goes through people’s mind is as a resultant of an identifiable element. Through this assumption, things like accidents and miracles are eliminated. There is also the assumption that though the brain is an internal structure, it has several separate parts that are always competing amongst each other. To learn about Freud’s theory, it is important to understand the basics the developer of the theory lays down first. One of the things he puts across is existence of a conscious and a non-conscious mind. The conscious portion of the mind is all about anything that we are knowledgeable about. Since this portion includes things we know of, it is usually easy to retrieve them whenever they are needed. Therefore, retrieving information from this part of the memory is usually very easy. The section of the body that contains this information is referred to in Freud’s theory as the preconscious portion of the brain. The unconscious mind is like a reserve that contains thoughts, the feelings a person has as well as the memories that the human mind is not aware of. The main content of information of this portion is feelings of pain and anxiety. However, though we may be unaware of these feelings, it is evident that they are also involved in controlling our behavior (Beystehner, 2001). Freud highlights three elements that are contained in a person’s personality; the super ego, the Ego, and the Id are the three elements that affect an individual’s personality. When a person is born, the id element of personality is in him/her. The id element is unconscious and contains primitive and instinct behavior of the person. It is simply what would be considered as the primary component of a person’s personality. Notable about this element is the fact that it uses the pleasure principle (Carver and Scheier, 2011). The pleasure principle focuses on how the needs of a person are met. If for instance the needs are not met within the required time, anxiety and tension results. Id is important especially when it comes to children in their young age as it allows them to express their feelings through crying so that their demands are met. However, satisfying the demands that we may have is not always possible. The pleasure principle is therefore not always applicable. However, according to Freud, a primary process results in a bid to ensure that the tension created by the pleasure principle is resolved. The second principle in this theory is the Ego. The ego component is all about the reality of life and it tends to express the Id element in the real world. Ego encompasses all the parts of the mind previously discussed. The principle incorporated in this element is the reality principle, which aims at fulfilling the Id element in an appropriate way. Through using the reality principle, the Ego basically tries to fulfill the images created by the Id element. Fulfilling the Id element is done by finding the solution in the real world by looking for an object to fit the image at the primary process level. Super Ego is the other element that forms part of the personality (Pervin, 1996). It comprises of all the aspects that a person gained from the society or the parents and people around them. It is through this that a person learns what is deemed right and what is wrong. Judgment is developed from guidelines. Super ego may further be broken down into two main parts; the ideal ego and the conscience. The ideal ego is inclusive of what is considered good behavior by people in the society or the parents. When a person gets to follow the rules laid down in the society or by the authority, a feeling of accomplishment and pride is the resultant. On the other hand, conscience is inclusive of engaging in actions that are considered not right by the society or the parents. When a person does these wrong acts, the resultant is a feeling of guilt. Interaction between these elements is different amongst different individuals. For a person to live what would be considered healthy living there is need to ensure that a balance of the three elements is reached. One must have what Freud referred to as Ego strength so that he can fight the competition brought about by these three elements. Individuals who have good ego strength are able to strike a balance between these forces, while those people with low ego strength may succumb to this pleasure. Research shows that there exists a balance between explorations of the child with their safety for the exploration to be there. According to International Journal of Psychoanalysis, psychoanalysis therapy may be in single consultation therapy and may as well take about one year or more to achieve success on a person. Psychoanalytic theory uses free association as a way of measuring the personality in humans. Free association entails the patient speaking out on a certain subject and then an analysis carried out from what the he says. It is from this analysis that a conclusion is later derived. However, there have been issues of reliability of this tool of measuring someone’s personality. For one, it is hard for the analyst to be sure that the memories that he accesses are representing the actual memories or what the patient is imagining. Sharp criticism was bestowed upon this method of inferring conclusions. Those opposing the theory argued that by having patients talk out their issues to a professional and having them draw conclusion based on the information, there were no precise guidelines and predetermined checklist or comparing and measuring the information given so as to make reliable conclusions. Another criticism based its argument in the fact that different patients of mental illnesses talked to different professionals, and there being no guidelines to gauge the information, interpretations were likely to vary between different professionals. Though there have been issues of validity of measurement of people personality, success may only be achieved through having the analyst inspect the transcript closely (Beystehner, 2001). Research onto this theory has brought out the fact that there certainly is a relationship between an individual’s behavior and the subconscious portion of the mind. The theory forms a base of the modern day psychopathology. Research has also shown that, as a method of treatment for mental illnesses, psychoanalytic theory attempts to change and work on the unconscious part of the brain. Ultimately, the theory proposes that a person’s personality is dependant on the three main components of personality. The Id component is all about the person getting gratification for the needs that he requires. On the other hand, Ego tends to fulfill the desire of Id but in a realistic way, since at times Id may not always be realistic. Finally, super ego aims at adding morality in ensuring that the ego is fulfilled. One of the great cornerstones of Freud’s work was interpretation of dreams. Through interpretation of dreams, the subconscious mind is brought out. It also made it easier for analysts to learn and understand people’s personality well. The way a person behaves is entirely dependant on their experiences as they grew up as well as the environment one is brought up in. Freud clearly outlined in the psychoanalytic theory that the particular way in which humans behave is determined by psychic energies and their experiences during psychosexual development. A healthy adult life can thus be achieved by successfully going through the early childhood experiences or psychosexual stages. Such are some of the things the theory talks about. The theory emphasizes on how learning of the subconscious bit of a person can lead to the analyst unraveling important information about the patient (Pervin, 1996). By way of analyzing and understanding both the conscious and the non-conscious mind of a person, it is possible to infer the individual’s behavior as well as why they result in that particular behavior. Though there are various elements of criticism of psychoanalytic theory, its contribution to modern day therapy is undeniable. Progress has been achieved in treatment of mentally ill patients through the bases of Freud’s work outlined in his theory. It would therefore be unfair to discard it since it offers much contribution to modern day science. Though some people dismissed psychoanalytic theory as not belonging to the science field based on its lacking methodology, the theory brought about a new branch in the science field called experimental psychology. Beystehner, K. M., (2001). Psychoanalysis: Freud’s Revolutionary Approach to Human Personality. Retrieved from http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/beystehner.html Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F., (2011). Perspectives on Personality (7th Edition). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Pervin, L. A., (1996). The Science of Personality . New York: John Wiley & Sons. Colonel in the U.S. Army Forgiveness and Reconciliation Critique Psychoanalytic Therapy Approach in Group Counseling Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality The Psychoanalytic Approach to Personality The Relationship Between Psychology and the Preservation of the Environment Personality Traits Essay Personal Responsibility as a Students Success Strategy Social Psychology: Individual and Environment Behavior The Implications of Technology on Human Behavior Chicago (A-D) Chicago (N-B) IvyPanda. (2019, March 27). Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Essay. https://ivypanda.com/essays/psychoanalytic-theory/ "Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Essay." IvyPanda , 27 Mar. 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/psychoanalytic-theory/. IvyPanda . (2019) 'Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Essay'. 27 March. IvyPanda . 2019. "Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Essay." March 27, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/psychoanalytic-theory/. 1. IvyPanda . "Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Essay." March 27, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/psychoanalytic-theory/. Bibliography IvyPanda . "Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Essay." March 27, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/psychoanalytic-theory/. IvyPanda uses cookies and similar technologies to enhance your experience, enabling functionalities such as: Basic site functions Ensuring secure, safe transactions Secure account login Remembering account, browser, and regional preferences Remembering privacy and security settings Analyzing site traffic and usage Personalized search, content, and recommendations Displaying relevant, targeted ads on and off IvyPanda Please refer to IvyPanda's Cookies Policy and Privacy Policy for detailed information. Certain technologies we use are essential for critical functions such as security and site integrity, account authentication, security and privacy preferences, internal site usage and maintenance data, and ensuring the site operates correctly for browsing and transactions. 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Turning off personalized advertising allows you to exercise your right to opt out. Learn more in IvyPanda's Cookies Policy and Privacy Policy . Psychoanalytic Theories: Examples and Explanations Chris Drew (PhD) Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris] Learn about our Editorial Process Psychoanalysis is the branch of psychology that investigates the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind. Founded by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century, this theoretical framework aims to bring repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind, allowing an individual to confront and better understand their feelings and behaviors. The process usually involves dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst, often focusing on the patient’s dreams and childhood memories. Psychoanalysis posits that human behavior is a product of internal conflicts, unconscious desires, and past experiences. In this framework, resolving these conflicts and bringing them to consciousness can lead to improved mental health and a clearer understanding of oneself. While Freud’s ideas are largely debunked, subsequent researchers have build-on his foundations to develop their own useful ideas about the subconscious psyche. Psychoanalytic Theory Examples 1. ego psychology (freud). Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, developed a theory of how the subconscious mind operates. He held that the mind contained three components: the id, ego, and superego . Each influence one another and are in struggle. The id represents impulse, the ego represents pragmatism, and the superego represents morals: The Id is primitive and instinctive. It governs all of the innate drives we have, present at birth, including Eros (sex instinct) and Thanatos (death instinct). (Freud & Strachey, 1955). : The Id drives us to seek immediate gratification, i.e. pleasure. If our desires are not satisfied immediately, we may fall into a state anxiety or tension (Renkins, 2017). The Ego is responsible for dealing with reality as it is, not what we want it to be. It emerges through experiences of interaction with the world, where we learn that we all experience frustration, delay, and occasional dissatisfaction (Crews, 2017). : The reality principle controls the Ego. It seeks to mediate the Id’s drive in realistic ways. (Sayers, 2020). The Superego is responsible for our morals, ethics, and ideals. It strives for perfection at all times (Samuels, 2019).  The Superego seeks to live up to moral standards, which are internalized through our upbringing. It is in direct conflict with the Id. (Johnson, 2020). See Also: Freudian Slip Examples 2. Psychosexual Development Theory (Freud) Freud’s second important contribution to psychoanalysis was his theory of development. In this theory, he believed people developed through distinct stages, driven by sexual desires. Each of Freud’s stages is characterized by a different sexually-related challenge that must be overcome, or else we will develop a complex for the rest of our lives. The stages are outlined below: Birth – 1 year Dependency and the satisfaction gained from oral activities like sucking and eating. 1 – 3 years Managing and controlling bladder and bowel movements; balancing demands and autonomy. 3 – 6 years Resolving the Oedipus/Electra complex; identifying with same-sex parent. 6 years – puberty Channeling sexual energy into socially acceptable activities; dormant sexual feelings. Puberty – adulthood Establishing intimate relationships and balancing love and work. Go Deeper: Freud’s Theory of Personality – An Overview 3. the Collective Unconscious (Jung) Carl Jung, a prominent Swiss psychiatrist, introduced the concept of the collective unconscious to psychology. The collective unconscious is proposed to be a part of the unconscious mind, manifested by universal archetypes or symbols that are shared among all humans due to ancestral experience. In essence, Jung’s idea posits that our behaviors and thoughts are not merely personal but influenced by ancestral knowledge contained within the collective unconscious. This concept distinguishes itself from the personal unconscious, which refers to information that has been acquired during one’s life but has been forgotten or repressed. According to Jung, exploring your collective unconscious (through dreams or various forms of therapy) allows you to tap into universal experiences (known as Jungian archetypes) and ideas that shape your thoughts, feelings, and actions. Go Deeper: Jung’s Collective Unconscious – An Overview 4. Psychological Archetypes (Jung) The second key contribution of Carl Jung to psychoanalysis is the concept of archetypes. Jung defined these as universal and innate symbols present in the collective unconscious of all human beings. Psychological archetypes, according to Jung, play a vital role in influencing human thoughts, actions, and feelings. They are generally formed through historical experiences shared by our ancestors and can be recognized through patterns that emerge in dreams, literature, art, or religion. Some of the main Jungian archetypes include the Self, the Persona, the Shadow, the Anima/Animus, the Great Mother, the Wise Old Man, the Hero, and the Trickster. Each archetype represents a different aspect of the human psyche. For instance, the Persona represents the image we present to the world while the Shadow houses our darkest desires and impulses. Understanding these archetypes, Jung argued, could help individuals to gain insights into their behaviors and deeper selves. Go Deeper: Jungian Archetypes – An Overview 5. Adler’s Individual Psychology Alfred Adler, an Austrian psychotherapist, established a unique perspective called Individual Psychology. It emphasizes the person as a whole unit and highlights the importance of societal factors, notably family and community, on individual development. Adler argued that human character traits are shaped by an individual’s drive to overcome feelings of inferiority, which he called Inferiority Complex. The feelings arise in childhood from our realization of being lesser and weaker than adults. Correctly overcoming these feelings guides us toward mastery and personal growth, known as striving for superiority. According to Adler, this pursuit of superiority is influenced by one’s lifestyle, an overall strategy we construct to navigate society and face challenges. The relational approach encouraged by Adler manifests in our goal-setting and problem-solving behavior, underscoring how our interactions with society profoundly shape our individuality. 6. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson made Freudian psychology far more palatable with his psycho social rather than psycho sexual model of development. Whereas Freud argued that psychosexual energy (called the libido) was the driving force behind development, Erikson argued that it was social desires that are core to psychological development. Erikson went on to formulate a set of lifelong stages, where the core challenge or crisis in each stage was not sexual in nature, but social: Birth – 1 year Developing trust in caregivers and environment Hope 1 – 3 years Learning to control one’s body and make choices Will 3 – 6 years Starting to make decisions and carry out plans Purpose 6 years – puberty Developing skills and abilities to cope with the world Competence Adolescence Forming a coherent sense of self and life direction Fidelity Young adulthood Establishing deep and meaningful relationships Love Middle adulthood Contributing to society and the next generation Care Late adulthood Reflecting on one’s life and either feeling satisfaction or regret Wisdom Each stage presents a central conflict or crisis that individuals must navigate. Successfully resolving each crisis leads to the development of a basic virtue that contributes to a healthy personality and interactions with others. Go Deeper: Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development 7. Klein’s Object Relations Theory Melanie Klein, a prominent child psychoanalyst, offered a novel perspective through her Object Relations Theory. This theory focuses on our interpersonal relations, asserting that our experiences with others (objects) significantly impact our personal growth and perception of the world. According to Klein, early childhood experiences, particularly those involving primary caregivers, play an instrumental role in shaping our psyche, our expectations of others, and our relationships. These “objects” or people can either be part-objects, such as a mother’s breast to a hungry baby, or whole objects like the mother herself. Klein proposed that we develop both positive and negative feelings towards these objects, resulting in what she termed the “paranoid-schizoid” and “depressive” positions: Paranoid-Schizoid: This refers to a child’s early perception of good and bad objects. Depressive: This introduces the awareness that objects can possess both good and bad qualities. By understanding these interactions, Klein believed, we could grapple with our difficulties and derive insights into our relationships. Before you Go I’ve provided links throughout this piece to help you go deeper into your exploration of the various psychoanalytic theories. But it’s also worth zooming out to see the range of other theories in psychology , including: Cognitive Psychology : This branch studies mental processes such as thinking, memory, perception, and problem-solving. Behavioral Psychology: This focuses on observable behaviors and the effects of the environment on them. Humanist Psychology: This emphasizes individual potential, self-actualization, and the intrinsic nature of human beings. Developmental Psychology: This examines the psychological changes and growth that occur throughout the human lifespan. Personality Theories in Psychology: These seek to explain the enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion that characterize individual humans. Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 20 Montessori Toddler Bedrooms (Design Inspiration) Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 21 Montessori Homeschool Setups Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 101 Hidden Talents Examples Leave a Comment Cancel Reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked * Psychoanalysis: A History of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory However, psychoanalysis is much more than a quirky approach to understanding the human mind. It’s a specific form of talking therapy, grounded in a complex theory of human development and psychological functioning. In this article, we’ll introduce the history of psychoanalytic theory, the basic tenets of the psychoanalytic model of the mind, and the clinical approach called psychoanalysis. We’ll explain the differences between psychoanalysis and psychotherapy and consider some criticisms of psychoanalysis. Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive CBT Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will provide you with detailed insight into positive Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and the tools to apply it in your therapy or coaching. This Article Contains What is psychoanalysis a definition and history of psychoanalytic theory, the approach: psychoanalytic perspective, techniques of psychoanalytic therapy, psychodynamic vs. psychoanalytic theory, psychoanalysis vs. psychotherapy, psychoanalysis test: the freudian personality test, criticisms of psychoanalytic theory, a take-home message. Psychoanalysis is a talking therapy that aims to treat a range of mental health issues by investigating the relationship between the unconscious and conscious elements of psychological experience using clinical techniques like free association and dream interpretation (Pick, 2015). Contemporary psychoanalysis has evolved a great deal from its roots in the classical Freudian approach, which developed in Vienna during the late 19th century. Today, there are several psychoanalytic schools that adhere to different models of the mind and clinical approaches. These include the object relations school associated with Klein and Winnicott, Jung’s analytic psychology, and Lacanian psychoanalysis (Gaztambide, 2021). Many controversies abound between these different approaches today, although all can be classified as an approach to psychoanalysis. A common thread between them is their focus on the transference and countertransference dynamics between the analyst and analysand as the vehicle of psychological transformation and healing (Pick, 2015). This is explained further below. Freudian theory: Sigmund Freud & psychoanalysis The founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud, was born in Austria and spent most of his childhood and adult life in Vienna (Gay, 2006). He entered medical school and trained as a neurologist, earning a medical degree in 1881. Soon after his graduation, he set up in private practice and began treating patients with psychological disorders. His colleague Dr. Josef Breuer’s intriguing experience with a patient, “Anna O.,” who experienced a range of physical symptoms with no apparent physical cause (Breuer & Freud, 1895/2001) drew his attention. Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms abated when he helped her recover memories of traumatic experiences that she had repressed from conscious awareness. This case sparked Freud’s interest in the unconscious mind and spurred the development of some of his most influential ideas. You can read more about the clinical origins of psychoanalysis in the original text Studies on Hysteria (Breuer & Freud, 1895/2001). Models of the mind: Ego, id, & superego Perhaps Freud’s greatest impact on the world was his model of the human mind, which divides the mind into three layers, or regions. Conscious Housing our current thoughts, feelings, and perceptual focus Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious) The home of everything we can recall or retrieve from our memory Unconscious At the deepest level of our minds resides a repository of the processes that drive our behavior, including biologically determined instinctual desires (Pick, 2015). Later, Freud proposed a more structured model of the mind that better depicted his original ideas about conscious and unconscious processes (Gaztambide, 2021). In this model, there are three components to the mind: Id The id operates at an unconscious level as the motor of our two main instinctual drives: Eros, or the survival instinct that drives us to engage in life-sustaining activities, and Thanatos, or the death instinct that drives destructive, aggressive, and violent behavior. Ego The ego acts as a filter for the id that works as both a conduit for and check on our unconscious drives. The ego ensures our needs are met in a socially appropriate way. It is oriented to navigating reality and begins to develop in infancy. Superego The superego is the term Freud gives to “conscience” where morality and higher principles reside, encouraging us to act in socially and morally acceptable ways (Pick, 2015). The image offers a context of this “iceberg” model of the mind, which depicts the greatest psychological influence as the realm of the unconscious. Defense mechanisms Freud believed these three components of the mind are in constant conflict because each has a different goal. Sometimes, when psychological conflict threatens psychological functioning, the ego mobilizes an array of defense mechanisms to prevent psychological disintegration (Burgo, 2012). These defense mechanisms include: Repression The ego prevents disturbing memories or threatening thoughts from entering consciousness altogether, pushing them into our unconscious. Denial The ego blocks upsetting or overwhelming experiences from awareness, leading us to refuse to acknowledge or believe what is happening. Projection The ego attempts to resolve discomfort by attributing our unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and motives to another person. Displacement The ego satisfies an unconscious impulse by acting on a substitute object or person in a socially unacceptable way (e.g., expressing the anger you feel toward your boss at work with your spouse at home instead). Regression Ego functioning returns to a former stage of psychological development to cope with stress (e.g., an angry adult having a tantrum like a young child). Sublimation Similar to displacement, the ego overcomes conflict by channeling surplus energy into a socially acceptable activity (e.g., channeling anxiety into exercise, work, or other creative pursuits). It is built on the foundational idea that biologically determined unconscious forces drive human behavior, often rooted in early experiences of attempting to get our basic needs met. However, these remain out of conscious awareness (Pick, 2015). Psychoanalysis engages in a process of inquiry into adult defenses against unacceptable unconscious desires rooted in these early experiences and emphasizes their importance as the bedrock of adult psychological functioning (Frosh, 2016). Download 3 Free Positive CBT Exercises (PDF) These detailed, science-based exercises will equip you or your clients with tools to find new pathways to reduce suffering and more effectively cope with life stressors. Download 3 Free Positive CBT Tools Pack (PDF) By filling out your name and email address below. A modern psychoanalyst may use a range of different interventions, depending on their school of psychoanalytic thought (e.g., object-relational, Lacanian, Jungian, etc.; Gaztambide, 2021). However, there are four component techniques specific to psychoanalysis that we explain below. What are the four ideas of psychoanalysis? Interpretation Interpretation refers to the analyst’s hypothesizing of their client’s unconscious conflicts. These hypotheses are communicated verbally to the client. Generally, the analyst will attempt to make their client more aware of their defense mechanisms and their relational context, including their unconscious conflicts and the client’s motivation for mobilizing a particular defense mechanism (Kernberg, 2016). There are three stages of interpretation (Kernberg, 2016): Clarification Where the analyst tries to clarify what is going on in the patient’s conscious mind Confrontation Gently aims to bring nonverbal aspects of the client’s behavior into their awareness Interpretation When the analyst proposes their hypothesis of the unconscious meaning that relates each aspect of the client’s communication with the other Transference analysis Transference refers to the repetition of unconscious conflicts rooted in the client’s relational past in the relationship with the analyst. Transference analysis involves tracking elements of the client’s verbal and nonverbal communications that aim to influence the analyst’s behavior toward the client (Racker, 1982). For example, a client with a history of childhood trauma may begin to relate to the analyst as a threatening or predatory authority figure by expressing suspicion of the analyst’s motives, missing sessions, or becoming angry with the analyst. The analysis of a client’s transference is an essential component of psychoanalysis and is the main driver of change during treatment. It provides the raw material that informs an analyst’s interpretations (Racker, 1982). Technical neutrality Technical neutrality refers to the analyst’s commitment to remain neutral and avoid taking sides in the client’s internal conflicts. The analyst strives to remain neutral and nonjudgmental by maintaining a clinical distance from the client’s external reality . Additionally, technical neutrality demands that analysts refrain from imposing their value systems on the client (Kernberg, 2016). Technical neutrality can sometimes seem like indifference or disinterest in the client, but that is not the goal; rather, analysts aim to serve as a mirror for their clients, reflecting clients’ own characteristics, assumptions, and behaviors back at them to develop a client’s self-awareness . Countertransference analysis Countertransference refers to the analyst’s responses and reactions to the client and the material they present during sessions, most especially the client’s transference. Countertransference analysis involves tracking elements of the analyst’s own dispositional transference to the client that is co-determined by the client (Racker, 1982). Countertransference analysis enables the analyst to maintain clinical boundaries and avoid acting out in the relationship with the client. Following on from the example given above, an analyst working with a client with a history of childhood trauma may respond to the client’s transference by feeling dismissive or contemptuous of a client that misses sessions or expresses suspicion. However, countertransference analysis enables the analyst to understand that such feelings are a response to the client’s transference rooted in their past relational conflicts. The analyst’s feelings are then observed as material for interpretation rather than expressed (Racker, 1982). Psychodynamic theory agrees that clinical problems in adult life often originate in a client’s early relationships. It also considers a client’s current social context and their interactions with the immediate environment. Both theoretical approaches agree on the following: The existence of unconscious drives/instincts and defense mechanisms The impact of the unconscious on human personality and behavior The importance of our earliest experiences in shaping later relational patterns The impact of internal factors on behavior, meaning behavior is never under a client’s complete control (Berzoff et al., 2008) It may be helpful to further distinguish between the two by providing some examples of the differences and similarities in clinical approach. First, both the psychoanalyst and the psychodynamic therapist work with transference and countertransference. In fact, any therapeutic approach that acknowledges and works with transference and/or countertransference may be termed psychodynamic, in part (Shedler, 2010). Therefore, a psychodynamic therapist attends to their client’s communications to detect how deep-rooted unconscious conflicts may contribute to problematic behaviors, thoughts, and feelings in the present. However, they also attend to the here-and-now social context of a client’s life to understand how real-world situations such as poverty, grief, abuse, violence, racism, sexism, and so on contribute to a client’s suffering (Berzoff et al., 2008). A psychoanalyst will see their client (termed a patient, usually) every weekday over an indeterminate period of years. Meanwhile, a psychodynamic therapist will see a client less frequently, perhaps once or twice a week for several months or a few years, depending on the client’s needs. Psychodynamic therapy is more client centered in this respect (Berzoff et al., 2008). A psychodynamic therapist may include techniques that are not psychoanalytic to work with transference and countertransference. These may include communication skills, such as active listening , empathy , and expressive arts interventions. Psychodynamic therapists are not limited in their approach by the traditional pillars of psychoanalytic technique mentioned above (Shedler, 2010). A psychoanalyst works with their client on a couch to encourage regression and access unconscious material (Pick, 2015), while a psychodynamic therapist works face to face with a client sitting upright. Now that we’ve clarified the differences between psychodynamic and psychoanalytic therapy, let’s look at the difference between psychoanalysis and psychotherapy overall. World’s Largest Positive Psychology Resource The Positive Psychology Toolkit© is a groundbreaking practitioner resource containing over 500 science-based exercises , activities, interventions, questionnaires, and assessments created by experts using the latest positive psychology research. Updated monthly. 100% Science-based. “The best positive psychology resource out there!” — Emiliya Zhivotovskaya , Flourishing Center CEO A psychoanalyst has a particular set of skills gained from their specific psychoanalytic training. Meanwhile, psychotherapists can train in a range of therapeutic modalities, including psychodynamic , cognitive-behavioral , humanistic , or integrative approaches (Wampold, 2018). However, both professions focus on helping people via talk therapy. Both use their skills to help their clients gain insight into their inner worlds, address their psychological problems, and heal. In fact, a psychoanalyst is a type of psychotherapist who specializes in psychoanalysis. Therefore, every psychoanalyst is also a psychotherapist, but not every psychotherapist is a psychoanalyst (Wampold, 2018). Although you’ll need to consult a psychoanalyst for a more valid and reliable classification, this test can give you an idea of how psychoanalysts conceptualize personality. The test is composed of 48 items rated on a five-point scale from Disagree to Agree. The results are in the form of scores ranging from 0% to 100% across eight personality types: Oral-receptive Oral-aggressive Anal-expulsive Anal-retentive Phallic-aggressive Phallic-compensative Classic hysteric Retentive hysteric To understand more about Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and how it relates to personality, check out the video below. Although psychoanalytic theory laid the foundations for much of modern psychology, it is not without flaws. Psychoanalysis is still practiced today, and psychoanalytic theory has since been updated because of our improved understanding of human behavior , neuroscience, and the brain (Frosh, 2016). However, serious criticisms of the theory and its applications remain (Eagle, 2007). The major criticisms include the following: Many of the hypotheses and assumptions of psychoanalytic theory cannot be tested empirically, making it almost impossible to falsify or validate. It emphasizes the deterministic roles of biology and the unconscious and neglects environmental influences on the conscious mind. Psychoanalytic theory was deeply rooted in Freud’s sexist ideas, and traces of this sexism still remain in the theory and practice today. It is deeply Eurocentric and unsupported cross-culturally and may only apply to clients from Western Judeo–Christian and secular cultures. Freud emphasized pathology and neglected to study optimal psychological functioning. The theory was not developed through the application of the scientific method, but from Freud’s subjective interpretations of a small group of patients from a specific cultural background and historical period (Eagle, 2007). Given these valid criticisms of psychoanalytic theory, it is wise to approach Freud and his theories with skepticism. Although his work formed the foundations of modern psychology, it did not develop from a scientifically validated evidence base and is not falsifiable. Therefore, Freud’s students and followers have borne the burden of attempting to provide evidence to support the scientific and clinical validity of psychoanalysis. 17 Science-Based Ways To Apply Positive CBT These 17 Positive CBT & Cognitive Therapy Exercises [PDF] include our top-rated, ready-made templates for helping others develop more helpful thoughts and behaviors in response to challenges, while broadening the scope of traditional CBT. Created by Experts. 100% Science-based. While Freud’s classical psychoanalytic theory and traditional clinical technique have earned widespread criticism for their lack of a scientific evidence base or testability, the explanatory power of psychoanalytic theory has become part of popular culture in the West. For example, we all know about the Freudian slip and generally accept that people often remain “unconscious” of certain aspects of themselves, their motives, behavior, and the impact they have on others. Various defense mechanisms have become part of the everyday language of popular psychology, such as denial, repression, and projection. There is also no denying that Freud’s interpretation of dreams has led to the widespread belief that our dreams actually mean something, rather than just being a series of random events that occur when we’re sleeping. Meanwhile, the central therapeutic concepts of transference and countertransference have informed a widely accepted psychodynamic understanding of relationships, especially in health and social care settings. These ideas have also informed the development of safeguarding practices that uphold professional boundaries. Some of Freud’s ideas may seem eccentric and of their time, but his legacy is far reaching and has influenced areas of thought far beyond the clinical practice of psychoanalysis. We hope you enjoyed reading this article. For more information, don’t forget to download our three Positive CBT Exercises for free . Ed: Updated April 2023 Berzoff, J., Flanagan, L. M., & Hertz, P. (2008). Inside out and outside in: Psychodynamic clinical theory and psychopathology in contemporary multicultural contexts . Jason Aronson. https://www.amazon.com/dp/1442208511/ Breuer, J., & Freud, S. (2001). Studies on hysteria. In J. Strachey (Trans., Ed.), Complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud, Vol. II (1893–95) . Vintage. (Original work published 1895) Burgo, J. (2012). Why do I do that? Psychological defense mechanisms and the hidden ways they shape our lives . New Rise Press. https://www.amazon.com/dp/0988443120/ Eagle, M. N. (2007). Psychoanalysis and its critics. Psychoanalytic Psycholog y, 24 (1), 10–24. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0736-9735.24.1.10 Frosh, S. (2016). For and against psychoanalysis . Routledge. https://www.amazon.com/dp/1583917799/ Gay, P. (2006). Freud: A life for our time . W. W. Norton. https://www.amazon.com/dp/0393025179/ Gaztambide, D. J. (2021). A people’s history of psychoanalysis: From Freud to liberation psychology . Lexington Books. https://www.amazon.com/dp/149856576X/ Kernberg, O. (2016). The four basic components of psychoanalytic technique and derived psychoanalytic psychotherapies. World Psychiatry , 15 (3), 287–288. https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fwps.20368 Racker, H. (1982). Transference and countertransference . Routledge. https://www.amazon.com/dp/0950714690/ Pick, D. (2015). Psychoanalysis: A very short introduction . Oxford University Press. https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199226814/ Shedler, J. (2010). The efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy. American Psychologis t, 65 (2), 98–109. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0018378 Wampold, B. E. (2018). The basics of psychotherapy: An introduction to theory and practice . American Psychological Association. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-55366-000 Share this article: Article feedback What our readers think. Wasn’t there an earlier version of this article written by Courtney E Ackerman, and with more content? I’m confused. I would like to find that version, as I remember it being more complete. Good day Jose, You are correct, there was an earlier version written by Courtney. From time to time we update some of the articles. Is there something specific you were looking for that I might be able to assist you with? Annelé Venter | Publisher I am a third-year university student, hoping to obtain my honors in Clinical Psychology. I must say that I am quite impressed with your writings and have now obtained a much clearer understanding of both the Freudian theory of Psychoanalysis and the process by which a relationship between the therapist and the client is conceptualized in Psychoanalytic theory. Thank you for this simplified version. From Namibia I am currently working on my research project with this perspective and this actually sounds like a true research paper I have come across during the last few years, credit goes to the hard work of the author! This is Prabhu Harle from Bangalore, India. I am overwhelmed by the simplicity of the language used in explaining the Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory. The write-up contains several very useful information. Thank you very much, Ms. Jo Nash. Hii, this is vikash from India, I’m very thankful for this article, it’s very beautifully written in a simplest languages😍, thanks a lot from *University of Allhabad* ,Prayagraj India🇮🇳.. The simplicity of the write up made it easy to read and understand. it is quite impressive. It was so easy to read…… thank you so much for such a nice work alot of appreciation from psychology department islamia college university Peshawar. This is genuine, thanks for the write up Let us know your thoughts Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. 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Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up 464 IMAGES ⛔ Psychoanalytic theory essay. Psychoanalytic Theory Essays. 2022-10-15 (PDF) Psychoanalitic Theory Essay Summary of Psychoanalytic Theory Psychoanalytic Theory Psychoanalytic Theory Psychoanalysis: A Brief History of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory VIDEO Psychoanalytic literary Theory || Psychoanalytic theory Psychoanalytic theory #Literary theories @Brightnotes psychoanalytic theory of personality@Nursingsupport #nursingstudent WHAT IS PSYCHOANALYTIC FILM THEORY? Literary Theory: Psychoanalytic Criticism Psychoanalytic Criticism Definition and Examples, Sigmund Freud Types of Criticism, Id Ego, Superego COMMENTS PDF PhD IN PSYCHOANALYSIS PRESENTED AT GOLDSMITHS, UNIVERSITY OF LONDON BY Thesis The heritage of Freudian theoretical and clinical constructs in contemporary psychoanalytical practice: Epistemological conjectures and Clinical refutations Subtitle The significance of the Menninger Clinic in the validation of psychoanalysis in international mental health practice inherent to the contributions of Lacan, Fairbairn, Matte- An Introduction and Brief Overview of Psychoanalysis Introduction and background. Sigmund Freud (Born May 6th, 1856) was an Austrian neurologist widely known as the father of psychoanalysis. His revolutionary theories, thoughts, and challenges to the field of psychology have changed how theorists understand the mind and how psychologists treat their patients [].Throughout his life, he worked fervently and tirelessly to advance his theories ... Psychoanalysis: The Influence of Freud's Theory in ... Psychoanalysis theory is Sigmund Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to. unconscious motives and con flicts.The purpose of this paper is to examine the influence ... PDF A Theoretical Investigation of the Psychoanalytic Process Working This thesis theoretically investigated the psychoanalytic process working through with the purpose of clarifying and refining the concept. The literature on working through and its elements, ... Current psychoanalytic theory and practice has its origins in the writings of Freud (Etchegoyen, 2005). The aim of therapy is to SIGMUND FREUD AND PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY Sigmund Freud is the father of modern psychology, which analyzes the human mind and claims that the unconscious mind, controls the conscious mind. The human mind has different layers like a ... PDF Psychoanalysis as Research, Therapy, and Theory Psychoanalytic theory views man, realistically, as a chooser; and the goal of psychological technology is to increase the capabilities of the person undergoing analysis to make his choices in a more conscious, more deliberate manner than before the analysis. ... The thesis that psychoanalysis is one of the human­ ... PDF Psychodynamic Doctoral Dissertations Completed in 2018 and 2019 Temporality and Translation in Psychoanalysis A Dyad Study of the Physician-Patient Working Alliance and its Relation to Satisfaction, Adherence,€and Outcome Childhood and Adolescent Bullying Experiences and Dependency Strivings A Mixed Methods Study of Minority Stress and Social Support Among Transgender and Genderqueer Adults Derner School of [PDF] Psychoanalytic Theory T he historical relationship between clinical social work and psychoanalysis is both fascinating and extremely complex. Classical psychoanalytic theory and, later, ego psychology stand in relation to social work theory and practice in much the same way as the theory of relativity stands in relation to modern theoretical physics. In each case, the introduction of a new and radical theory has ... The Knocking in Macbeth's Head: A Psychoanalytic ... Masters Thesis The Knocking in Macbeth's Head: A Psychoanalytic Approach to William Shakespeare's Macbeth. This study employs a Lacanian psychoanalytic approach to Shakespeare's rendering of Macbeth's transformation from a loyal subject to a malicious tyrant. Drawing on Lacan's theories of language and desire, I argue that the witches ... Full article: The relationship between literature and psychoanalysis An example of how this development in psychoanalytic theory has affected PLC can be found in the understanding of Hamlet's conflict. It can, as Freud (Citation 1897) ... She is the author of several essays on trauma and object relations theory and how they relate to clinical practice within public mental health care. Her most recent ... PDF PSYCHOANALYSIS AND ITS CRITICS PSYCHOANALYSIS AND ITS CRITICS. Morris N. Eagle, PhD. Adelphi University. This article discusses the question of the basis of changes in psychoanalytic concepts, theory, and treatment. Illustrative examples discussed include the "widening scope" of the use of "parameters" in psychoanalytic treatment; the rejection of the ... (PDF) Psychoanalysis Psychoanalysis is a generic term for both a set of psychological theories and a group of. techniques, each of which emphasizes the unconscious as an essential factor in human. adaptation and ... Psychoanalysis in modern mental health practice Like any discipline, psychoanalysis has evolved considerably since its inception by Freud over a century ago, and a multitude of different psychoanalytic traditions and schools of theory and practice now exist. However, some of Freud's original ideas, such as the dynamic unconscious, a developmental approach, defence mechanisms, and transference and countertransference remain essential tenets ... Sigmund Freud and the Psychoanalytical Concept of Fear and Anxiety 8.4.1 Lectures 24 and 25. Ten years after On the Grounds and before publishing Inhibition, Symptom and Anxiety, Freud delivered a series of lectures (1915-1917) (Freud 1953-1975b) to clarify conceptual issues about psychoanalysis, and several of these lectures were devoted to anxiety.The relevance of this material is that Freud clarified and modified some of his previous concepts of fear ... A psychoanalytic approach to the study of international relations This thesis tries to demonstrate that psychoanalytic principles, primarily those developed by Sigmund Freud, can be extrapolated from the individual to the collective level-of-analysis in order to formulate a paradigm of international relations. The first part illustrates that structural concepts of Freudian psychoanalysis provide a model of human psychology by which traditions of ... Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Essay Freud's psychoanalytic theory is one of the theories describing the personality in human beings. According to Freud, the theory seeks to explain why people behave the way they do, studies human's brain, and explains more about their personality. Get a custom essay on Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory Essay. 187 writers online. Psychoanalytic Theories: Examples and Explanations Psychoanalytic Theory Examples. 1. Ego Psychology (Freud) Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, developed a theory of how the subconscious mind operates. He held that the mind contained three components: the id, ego, and superego. Each influence one another and are in struggle. The id represents impulse, the ego represents pragmatism, and the ... Psychoanalysis: A History of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory What Is Psychoanalysis? A Definition and History of Psychoanalytic Theory. Psychoanalysis is a talking therapy that aims to treat a range of mental health issues by investigating the relationship between the unconscious and conscious elements of psychological experience using clinical techniques like free association and dream interpretation (Pick, 2015). PDF A Psychoanalytic Study of Form in The Great Gatsby PAGES I v, 102. ii. ABSTRACT. This thesis proposes that a dichotomy exists in the form of The Great Gatsby and engages in a psychoanalytic ap proach to the novel as a parody of interwoven fairy tale and detective story forms to sUbstantiate this proposal. Freud's psychoanalytic theories Psychoanalytic theory. Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud. ... desired to understand religion and spirituality and deals with the nature of religious beliefs in many of his books and essays. He regarded God as an illusion, based on the infantile need for a powerful father figure. Freud believed that religion was an expression of ... PDF A Psychoanalysis Study of The Reason Behind Main Character'S Changing Thesis 19 May 2013 A Psychoanalysis Study of The Reason Behind Main Character's Changing Attitude in Ahmad Tohari's 'Bekisar Merah' ... a relatively minor role in psychoanalytic theory because it is the only level of mental life directly available to us (Feist and Feist 25). In addition, Freud believes that everything we are aware of is Psychoanalytic Theory Used in English Literature: A Descriptive Study Thesis. Jul 2023; Muntadher AbdulKadhim Hasan ... Drawing on Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory, this paper investigates how touch serves as a catalyst for emotional and psychological ... 3.7: Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism: A Process Approach You must clearly define your psychoanalytic approach to the work—Freudian, Lacanian, Jungian, or some combination. You could explore ideas in a journal entry to help you focus on your critical approach. You should then construct a working thesis that will be your guide. Ask yourself the following: How does my psychoanalytic approach help my ... essay homework paper phd project resume review study thesis