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Sampling Methods – Types, Techniques and Examples

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Sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of data from a larger population or dataset in order to analyze or make inferences about the whole population.

In other words, sampling involves taking a representative sample of data from a larger group or dataset in order to gain insights or draw conclusions about the entire group.

Sampling Methods

Sampling methods refer to the techniques used to select a subset of individuals or units from a larger population for the purpose of conducting statistical analysis or research.

Sampling is an essential part of the Research because it allows researchers to draw conclusions about a population without having to collect data from every member of that population, which can be time-consuming, expensive, or even impossible.

Types of Sampling Methods

Sampling can be broadly categorized into two main categories:

Probability Sampling

This type of sampling is based on the principles of random selection, and it involves selecting samples in a way that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.. Probability sampling is commonly used in scientific research and statistical analysis, as it provides a representative sample that can be generalized to the larger population.

Type of Probability Sampling :

• Simple Random Sampling: In this method, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. This can be done using a random number generator or by drawing names out of a hat, for example.
• Systematic Sampling: In this method, the population is first divided into a list or sequence, and then every nth member is selected for the sample. For example, if every 10th person is selected from a list of 100 people, the sample would include 10 people.
• Stratified Sampling: In this method, the population is divided into subgroups or strata based on certain characteristics, and then a random sample is taken from each stratum. This is often used to ensure that the sample is representative of the population as a whole.
• Cluster Sampling: In this method, the population is divided into clusters or groups, and then a random sample of clusters is selected. Then, all members of the selected clusters are included in the sample.
• Multi-Stage Sampling : This method combines two or more sampling techniques. For example, a researcher may use stratified sampling to select clusters, and then use simple random sampling to select members within each cluster.

Non-probability Sampling

This type of sampling does not rely on random selection, and it involves selecting samples in a way that does not give every member of the population an equal chance of being included in the sample. Non-probability sampling is often used in qualitative research, where the aim is not to generalize findings to a larger population, but to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular phenomenon or group. Non-probability sampling methods can be quicker and more cost-effective than probability sampling methods, but they may also be subject to bias and may not be representative of the larger population.

Types of Non-probability Sampling :

• Convenience Sampling: In this method, participants are chosen based on their availability or willingness to participate. This method is easy and convenient but may not be representative of the population.
• Purposive Sampling: In this method, participants are selected based on specific criteria, such as their expertise or knowledge on a particular topic. This method is often used in qualitative research, but may not be representative of the population.
• Snowball Sampling: In this method, participants are recruited through referrals from other participants. This method is often used when the population is hard to reach, but may not be representative of the population.
• Quota Sampling: In this method, a predetermined number of participants are selected based on specific criteria, such as age or gender. This method is often used in market research, but may not be representative of the population.
• Volunteer Sampling: In this method, participants volunteer to participate in the study. This method is often used in research where participants are motivated by personal interest or altruism, but may not be representative of the population.

Applications of Sampling Methods

Applications of Sampling Methods from different fields:

• Psychology : Sampling methods are used in psychology research to study various aspects of human behavior and mental processes. For example, researchers may use stratified sampling to select a sample of participants that is representative of the population based on factors such as age, gender, and ethnicity. Random sampling may also be used to select participants for experimental studies.
• Sociology : Sampling methods are commonly used in sociological research to study social phenomena and relationships between individuals and groups. For example, researchers may use cluster sampling to select a sample of neighborhoods to study the effects of economic inequality on health outcomes. Stratified sampling may also be used to select a sample of participants that is representative of the population based on factors such as income, education, and occupation.
• Social sciences: Sampling methods are commonly used in social sciences to study human behavior and attitudes. For example, researchers may use stratified sampling to select a sample of participants that is representative of the population based on factors such as age, gender, and income.
• Marketing : Sampling methods are used in marketing research to collect data on consumer preferences, behavior, and attitudes. For example, researchers may use random sampling to select a sample of consumers to participate in a survey about a new product.
• Healthcare : Sampling methods are used in healthcare research to study the prevalence of diseases and risk factors, and to evaluate interventions. For example, researchers may use cluster sampling to select a sample of health clinics to participate in a study of the effectiveness of a new treatment.
• Environmental science: Sampling methods are used in environmental science to collect data on environmental variables such as water quality, air pollution, and soil composition. For example, researchers may use systematic sampling to collect soil samples at regular intervals across a field.
• Education : Sampling methods are used in education research to study student learning and achievement. For example, researchers may use stratified sampling to select a sample of schools that is representative of the population based on factors such as demographics and academic performance.

Examples of Sampling Methods

Probability Sampling Methods Examples:

• Simple random sampling Example : A researcher randomly selects participants from the population using a random number generator or drawing names from a hat.
• Stratified random sampling Example : A researcher divides the population into subgroups (strata) based on a characteristic of interest (e.g. age or income) and then randomly selects participants from each subgroup.
• Systematic sampling Example : A researcher selects participants at regular intervals from a list of the population.

Non-probability Sampling Methods Examples:

• Convenience sampling Example: A researcher selects participants who are conveniently available, such as students in a particular class or visitors to a shopping mall.
• Purposive sampling Example : A researcher selects participants who meet specific criteria, such as individuals who have been diagnosed with a particular medical condition.
• Snowball sampling Example : A researcher selects participants who are referred to them by other participants, such as friends or acquaintances.

How to Conduct Sampling Methods

some general steps to conduct sampling methods:

• Define the population: Identify the population of interest and clearly define its boundaries.
• Choose the sampling method: Select an appropriate sampling method based on the research question, characteristics of the population, and available resources.
• Determine the sample size: Determine the desired sample size based on statistical considerations such as margin of error, confidence level, or power analysis.
• Create a sampling frame: Develop a list of all individuals or elements in the population from which the sample will be drawn. The sampling frame should be comprehensive, accurate, and up-to-date.
• Select the sample: Use the chosen sampling method to select the sample from the sampling frame. The sample should be selected randomly, or if using a non-random method, every effort should be made to minimize bias and ensure that the sample is representative of the population.
• Collect data: Once the sample has been selected, collect data from each member of the sample using appropriate research methods (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations).
• Analyze the data: Analyze the data collected from the sample to draw conclusions about the population of interest.

When to use Sampling Methods

Sampling methods are used in research when it is not feasible or practical to study the entire population of interest. Sampling allows researchers to study a smaller group of individuals, known as a sample, and use the findings from the sample to make inferences about the larger population.

Sampling methods are particularly useful when:

• The population of interest is too large to study in its entirety.
• The cost and time required to study the entire population are prohibitive.
• The population is geographically dispersed or difficult to access.
• The research question requires specialized or hard-to-find individuals.
• The data collected is quantitative and statistical analyses are used to draw conclusions.

Purpose of Sampling Methods

The main purpose of sampling methods in research is to obtain a representative sample of individuals or elements from a larger population of interest, in order to make inferences about the population as a whole. By studying a smaller group of individuals, known as a sample, researchers can gather information about the population that would be difficult or impossible to obtain from studying the entire population.

Sampling methods allow researchers to:

• Study a smaller, more manageable group of individuals, which is typically less time-consuming and less expensive than studying the entire population.
• Reduce the potential for data collection errors and improve the accuracy of the results by minimizing sampling bias.
• Make inferences about the larger population with a certain degree of confidence, using statistical analyses of the data collected from the sample.
• Improve the generalizability and external validity of the findings by ensuring that the sample is representative of the population of interest.

Characteristics of Sampling Methods

Here are some characteristics of sampling methods:

• Randomness : Probability sampling methods are based on random selection, meaning that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. This helps to minimize bias and ensure that the sample is representative of the population.
• Representativeness : The goal of sampling is to obtain a sample that is representative of the larger population of interest. This means that the sample should reflect the characteristics of the population in terms of key demographic, behavioral, or other relevant variables.
• Size : The size of the sample should be large enough to provide sufficient statistical power for the research question at hand. The sample size should also be appropriate for the chosen sampling method and the level of precision desired.
• Efficiency : Sampling methods should be efficient in terms of time, cost, and resources required. The method chosen should be feasible given the available resources and time constraints.
• Bias : Sampling methods should aim to minimize bias and ensure that the sample is representative of the population of interest. Bias can be introduced through non-random selection or non-response, and can affect the validity and generalizability of the findings.
• Precision : Sampling methods should be precise in terms of providing estimates of the population parameters of interest. Precision is influenced by sample size, sampling method, and level of variability in the population.
• Validity : The validity of the sampling method is important for ensuring that the results obtained from the sample are accurate and can be generalized to the population of interest. Validity can be affected by sampling method, sample size, and the representativeness of the sample.

Advantages of Sampling Methods

Sampling methods have several advantages, including:

• Cost-Effective : Sampling methods are often much cheaper and less time-consuming than studying an entire population. By studying only a small subset of the population, researchers can gather valuable data without incurring the costs associated with studying the entire population.
• Convenience : Sampling methods are often more convenient than studying an entire population. For example, if a researcher wants to study the eating habits of people in a city, it would be very difficult and time-consuming to study every single person in the city. By using sampling methods, the researcher can obtain data from a smaller subset of people, making the study more feasible.
• Accuracy: When done correctly, sampling methods can be very accurate. By using appropriate sampling techniques, researchers can obtain a sample that is representative of the entire population. This allows them to make accurate generalizations about the population as a whole based on the data collected from the sample.
• Time-Saving: Sampling methods can save a lot of time compared to studying the entire population. By studying a smaller sample, researchers can collect data much more quickly than they could if they studied every single person in the population.
• Less Bias : Sampling methods can reduce bias in a study. If a researcher were to study the entire population, it would be very difficult to eliminate all sources of bias. However, by using appropriate sampling techniques, researchers can reduce bias and obtain a sample that is more representative of the entire population.

Limitations of Sampling Methods

• Sampling Error : Sampling error is the difference between the sample statistic and the population parameter. It is the result of selecting a sample rather than the entire population. The larger the sample, the lower the sampling error. However, no matter how large the sample size, there will always be some degree of sampling error.
• Selection Bias: Selection bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the population. This can happen if the sample is not selected randomly or if some groups are underrepresented in the sample. Selection bias can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the population.
• Non-response Bias : Non-response bias occurs when some members of the sample do not respond to the survey or study. This can result in a biased sample if the non-respondents differ from the respondents in important ways.
• Time and Cost : While sampling can be cost-effective, it can still be expensive and time-consuming to select a sample that is representative of the population. Depending on the sampling method used, it may take a long time to obtain a sample that is large enough and representative enough to be useful.
• Limited Information : Sampling can only provide information about the variables that are measured. It may not provide information about other variables that are relevant to the research question but were not measured.
• Generalization : The extent to which the findings from a sample can be generalized to the population depends on the representativeness of the sample. If the sample is not representative of the population, it may not be possible to generalize the findings to the population as a whole.

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What are Sampling Methods? Techniques, Types, and Examples

Every type of research includes samples from which inferences are drawn. The sample could be biological specimens or a subset of a specific group or population selected for analysis. The goal is often to conclude the entire population based on the characteristics observed in the sample. Now, the question comes to mind: how does one collect the samples? Answer: Using sampling methods. Various sampling strategies are available to researchers to define and collect samples that will form the basis of their research study.

In a study focusing on individuals experiencing anxiety, gathering data from the entire population is practically impossible due to the widespread prevalence of anxiety. Consequently, a sample is carefully selected—a subset of individuals meant to represent (or not in some cases accurately) the demographics of those experiencing anxiety. The study’s outcomes hinge significantly on the chosen sample, emphasizing the critical importance of a thoughtful and precise selection process. The conclusions drawn about the broader population rely heavily on the selected sample’s characteristics and diversity.

Table of Contents

What is sampling?

Sampling involves the strategic selection of individuals or a subset from a population, aiming to derive statistical inferences and predict the characteristics of the entire population. It offers a pragmatic and practical approach to examining the features of the whole population, which would otherwise be difficult to achieve because studying the total population is expensive, time-consuming, and often impossible. Market researchers use various sampling methods to collect samples from a large population to acquire relevant insights. The best sampling strategy for research is determined by criteria such as the purpose of the study, available resources (time and money), and research hypothesis.

For example, if a pet food manufacturer wants to investigate the positive impact of a new cat food on feline growth, studying all the cats in the country is impractical. In such cases, employing an appropriate sampling technique from the extensive dataset allows the researcher to focus on a manageable subset. This enables the researcher to study the growth-promoting effects of the new pet food. This article will delve into the standard sampling methods and explore the situations in which each is most appropriately applied.

What are sampling methods or sampling techniques?

Sampling methods or sampling techniques in research are statistical methods for selecting a sample representative of the whole population to study the population’s characteristics. Sampling methods serve as invaluable tools for researchers, enabling the collection of meaningful data and facilitating analysis to identify distinctive features of the people. Different sampling strategies can be used based on the characteristics of the population, the study purpose, and the available resources. Now that we understand why sampling methods are essential in research, we review the various sample methods in the following sections.

Types of sampling methods  

Before we go into the specifics of each sampling method, it’s vital to understand terms like sample, sample frame, and sample space. In probability theory, the sample space comprises all possible outcomes of a random experiment, while the sample frame is the list or source guiding sample selection in statistical research. The  sample  represents the group of individuals participating in the study, forming the basis for the research findings. Selecting the correct sample is critical to ensuring the validity and reliability of any research; the sample should be representative of the population. 

There are two most common sampling methods: 

• Probability sampling: A sampling method in which each unit or element in the population has an equal chance of being selected in the final sample. This is called random sampling, emphasizing the random and non-zero probability nature of selecting samples. Such a sampling technique ensures a more representative and unbiased sample, enabling robust inferences about the entire population. 
• Non-probability sampling:  Another sampling method is non-probability sampling, which involves collecting data conveniently through a non-random selection based on predefined criteria. This offers a straightforward way to gather data, although the resulting sample may or may not accurately represent the entire population. 

  Irrespective of the research method you opt for, it is essential to explicitly state the chosen sampling technique in the methodology section of your research article. Now, we will explore the different characteristics of both sampling methods, along with various subtypes falling under these categories. 

What is probability sampling?  

The probability sampling method is based on the probability theory, which means that the sample selection criteria involve some random selection. The probability sampling method provides an equal opportunity for all elements or units within the entire sample space to be chosen. While it can be labor-intensive and expensive, the advantage lies in its ability to offer a more accurate representation of the population, thereby enhancing confidence in the inferences drawn in the research.   

Types of probability sampling  

Various probability sampling methods exist, such as simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and clustered sampling. Here, we provide detailed discussions and illustrative examples for each of these sampling methods: 

• Simple random sampling:  In simple random sampling, each individual has an equal probability of being chosen, and each selection is independent of the others. Because the choice is entirely based on chance, this is also known as the method of chance selection. In the simple random sampling method, the sample frame comprises the entire population. 

For example,  A fitness sports brand is launching a new protein drink and aims to select 20 individuals from a 200-person fitness center to try it. Employing a simple random sampling approach, each of the 200 people is assigned a unique identifier. Of these, 20 individuals are then chosen by generating random numbers between 1 and 200, either manually or through a computer program. Matching these numbers with the individuals creates a randomly selected group of 20 people. This method minimizes sampling bias and ensures a representative subset of the entire population under study. 

• Systematic sampling:  The systematic sampling approach involves selecting units or elements at regular intervals from an ordered list of the population. Because the starting point of this sampling method is chosen at random, it is more convenient than essential random sampling. For a better understanding, consider the following example.  

For example, considering the previous model, individuals at the fitness facility are arranged alphabetically. The manufacturer then initiates the process by randomly selecting a starting point from the first ten positions, let’s say 8. Starting from the 8th position, every tenth person on the list is then chosen (e.g., 8, 18, 28, 38, and so forth) until a sample of 20 individuals is obtained.  

• Stratified sampling: Stratified sampling divides the population into subgroups (strata), and random samples are drawn from each stratum in proportion to its size in the population. Stratified sampling provides improved representation because each subgroup that differs in significant ways is included in the final sample. 

For example, Expanding on the previous simple random sampling example, suppose the manufacturer aims for a more comprehensive representation of genders in a sample of 200 people, consisting of 90 males, 80 females, and 30 others. The manufacturer categorizes the population into three gender strata (Male, Female, and Others). Within each group, random sampling is employed to select nine males, eight females, and three individuals from the others category, resulting in a well-rounded and representative sample of 200 individuals. 

• Clustered sampling: In this sampling method, the population is divided into clusters, and then a random sample of clusters is included in the final sample. Clustered sampling, distinct from stratified sampling, involves subgroups (clusters) that exhibit characteristics similar to the whole sample. In the case of small clusters, all members can be included in the final sample, whereas for larger clusters, individuals within each cluster may be sampled using the sampling above methods. This approach is referred to as multistage sampling. This sampling method is well-suited for large and widely distributed populations; however, there is a potential risk of sample error because ensuring that the sampled clusters truly represent the entire population can be challenging. 

For example, Researchers conducting a nationwide health study can select specific geographic clusters, like cities or regions, instead of trying to survey the entire population individually. Within each chosen cluster, they sample individuals, providing a representative subset without the logistical challenges of attempting a nationwide survey. 

Use s of probability sampling  

Probability sampling methods find widespread use across diverse research disciplines because of their ability to yield representative and unbiased samples. The advantages of employing probability sampling include the following: 

• Representativeness  

Probability sampling assures that every element in the population has a non-zero chance of being included in the sample, ensuring representativeness of the entire population and decreasing research bias to minimal to non-existent levels. The researcher can acquire higher-quality data via probability sampling, increasing confidence in the conclusions. 

• Statistical inference  

Statistical methods, like confidence intervals and hypothesis testing, depend on probability sampling to generalize findings from a sample to the broader population. Probability sampling methods ensure unbiased representation, allowing inferences about the population based on the characteristics of the sample. 

• Precision and reliability  

The use of probability sampling improves the precision and reliability of study results. Because the probability of selecting any single element/individual is known, the chance variations that may occur in non-probability sampling methods are reduced, resulting in more dependable and precise estimations. 

• Generalizability  

Probability sampling enables the researcher to generalize study findings to the entire population from which they were derived. The results produced through probability sampling methods are more likely to be applicable to the larger population, laying the foundation for making broad predictions or recommendations. 

• Minimization of Selection Bias  

By ensuring that each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected in the sample, probability sampling lowers the possibility of selection bias. This reduces the impact of systematic errors that may occur in non-probability sampling methods, where data may be skewed toward a specific demographic due to inadequate representation of each segment of the population. 

What is non-probability sampling?  

Non-probability sampling methods involve selecting individuals based on non-random criteria, often relying on the researcher’s judgment or predefined criteria. While it is easier and more economical, it tends to introduce sampling bias, resulting in weaker inferences compared to probability sampling techniques in research. 

Types of Non-probability Sampling   

Non-probability sampling methods are further classified as convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling, purposive or judgmental sampling, and snowball sampling. Let’s explore these types of sampling methods in detail. 

• Convenience sampling:  In convenience sampling, individuals are recruited directly from the population based on the accessibility and proximity to the researcher. It is a simple, inexpensive, and practical method of sample selection, yet convenience sampling suffers from both sampling and selection bias due to a lack of appropriate population representation. 

For example, imagine you’re a researcher investigating smartphone usage patterns in your city. The most convenient way to select participants is by approaching people in a shopping mall on a weekday afternoon. However, this convenience sampling method may not be an accurate representation of the city’s overall smartphone usage patterns as the sample is limited to individuals present at the mall during weekdays, excluding those who visit on other days or never visit the mall.

• Consecutive sampling: Participants in consecutive sampling (or sequential sampling) are chosen based on their availability and desire to participate in the study as they become available. This strategy entails sequentially recruiting individuals who fulfill the researcher’s requirements. 

For example, In researching the prevalence of stroke in a hospital, instead of randomly selecting patients from the entire population, the researcher can opt to include all eligible patients admitted over three months. Participants are then consecutively recruited upon admission during that timeframe, forming the study sample. 

• Quota sampling:  The selection of individuals in quota sampling is based on non-random selection criteria in which only participants with certain traits or proportions that are representative of the population are included. Quota sampling involves setting predetermined quotas for specific subgroups based on key demographics or other relevant characteristics. This sampling method employs dividing the population into mutually exclusive subgroups and then selecting sample units until the set quota is reached.  

For example, In a survey on a college campus to assess student interest in a new policy, the researcher should establish quotas aligned with the distribution of student majors, ensuring representation from various academic disciplines. If the campus has 20% biology majors, 30% engineering majors, 20% business majors, and 30% liberal arts majors, participants should be recruited to mirror these proportions. 

• Purposive or judgmental sampling: In purposive sampling, the researcher leverages expertise to select a sample relevant to the study’s specific questions. This sampling method is commonly applied in qualitative research, mainly when aiming to understand a particular phenomenon, and is suitable for smaller population sizes. 

For example, imagine a researcher who wants to study public policy issues for a focus group. The researcher might purposely select participants with expertise in economics, law, and public administration to take advantage of their knowledge and ensure a depth of understanding.  

• Snowball sampling:  This sampling method is used when accessing the population is challenging. It involves collecting the sample through a chain-referral process, where each recruited candidate aids in finding others. These candidates share common traits, representing the targeted population. This method is often used in qualitative research, particularly when studying phenomena related to stigmatized or hidden populations. 

For example, In a study focusing on understanding the experiences and challenges of individuals in hidden or stigmatized communities (e.g., LGBTQ+ individuals in specific cultural contexts), the snowball sampling technique can be employed. The researcher initiates contact with one community member, who then assists in identifying additional candidates until the desired sample size is achieved.

Uses of non-probability sampling  

Non-probability sampling approaches are employed in qualitative or exploratory research where the goal is to investigate underlying population traits rather than generalizability. Non-probability sampling methods are also helpful for the following purposes: 

• Generating a hypothesis  

In the initial stages of exploratory research, non-probability methods such as purposive or convenience allow researchers to quickly gather information and generate hypothesis that helps build a future research plan.  

• Qualitative research  

Qualitative research is usually focused on understanding the depth and complexity of human experiences, behaviors, and perspectives. Non-probability methods like purposive or snowball sampling are commonly used to select participants with specific traits that are relevant to the research question.  

• Convenience and pragmatism  

Non-probability sampling methods are valuable when resource and time are limited or when preliminary data is required to test the pilot study. For example, conducting a survey at a local shopping mall to gather opinions on a consumer product due to the ease of access to potential participants.  

Probability vs Non-probability Sampling Methods  

Frequently asked questions  

• What is multistage sampling ? Multistage sampling is a form of probability sampling approach that involves the progressive selection of samples in stages, going from larger clusters to a small number of participants, making it suited for large-scale research with enormous population lists.  
• What are the methods of probability sampling? Probability sampling methods are simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, systematic sampling, cluster sampling, and multistage sampling.
• How to decide which type of sampling method to use? Choose a sampling method based on the goals, population, and resources. Probability for statistics and non-probability for efficiency or qualitative insights can be considered . Also, consider the population characteristics, size, and alignment with study objectives.
• What are the methods of non-probability sampling? Non-probability sampling methods are convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling, and quota sampling.
• Why are sampling methods used in research? Sampling methods in research are employed to efficiently gather representative data from a subset of a larger population, enabling valid conclusions and generalizations while minimizing costs and time.  

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• Sampling Methods | Types, Techniques, & Examples

Sampling Methods | Types, Techniques, & Examples

Published on 3 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.

When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample is the group of individuals who will actually participate in the research.

To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how you will select a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. There are two types of sampling methods:

• Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make strong statistical inferences about the whole group. It minimises the risk of selection bias .
• Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.

You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in the methodology section of your paper or thesis.

Table of contents

Population vs sample, probability sampling methods, non-probability sampling methods, frequently asked questions about sampling.

First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a sample , and identify the target population of your research.

• The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
• The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.

The population can be defined in terms of geographical location, age, income, and many other characteristics.

It is important to carefully define your target population according to the purpose and practicalities of your project.

If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically dispersed, it might be difficult to gain access to a representative sample.

Sampling frame

The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from. Ideally, it should include the entire target population (and nobody who is not part of that population).

You are doing research on working conditions at Company X. Your population is all 1,000 employees of the company. Your sampling frame is the company’s HR database, which lists the names and contact details of every employee.

Sample size

The number of individuals you should include in your sample depends on various factors, including the size and variability of the population and your research design. There are different sample size calculators and formulas depending on what you want to achieve with statistical analysis .

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Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a chance of being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative research . If you want to produce results that are representative of the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most valid choice.

There are four main types of probability sample.

1. Simple random sampling

In a simple random sample , every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should include the whole population.

To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.

You want to select a simple random sample of 100 employees of Company X. You assign a number to every employee in the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random number generator to select 100 numbers.

2. Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100 people.

If you use this technique, it is important to make sure that there is no hidden pattern in the list that might skew the sample. For example, if the HR database groups employees by team, and team members are listed in order of seniority, there is a risk that your interval might skip over people in junior roles, resulting in a sample that is skewed towards senior employees.

3. Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.

To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender, age range, income bracket, job role).

Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.

The company has 800 female employees and 200 male employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects the gender balance of the company, so you sort the population into two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster sampling

Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.

If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This is called multistage sampling .

This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole population.

The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your clusters.

In a non-probability sample , individuals are selected based on non-random criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher risk of sampling bias . That means the inferences you can make about the population are weaker than with probability samples, and your conclusions may be more limited. If you use a non-probability sample, you should still aim to make it as representative of the population as possible.

Non-probability sampling techniques are often used in exploratory and qualitative research . In these types of research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad population, but to develop an initial understanding of a small or under-researched population.

1. Convenience sampling

A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.

This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t produce generalisable results.

You are researching opinions about student support services in your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your university.

2. Voluntary response sampling

Similar to a convenience sample, a voluntary response sample is mainly based on ease of access. Instead of the researcher choosing participants and directly contacting them, people volunteer themselves (e.g., by responding to a public online survey).

Voluntary response samples are always at least somewhat biased, as some people will inherently be more likely to volunteer than others.

You send out the survey to all students at your university and many students decide to complete it. This can certainly give you some insight into the topic, but the people who responded are more likely to be those who have strong opinions about the student support services, so you can’t be sure that their opinions are representative of all students.

3. Purposive sampling

Purposive sampling , also known as judgement sampling, involves the researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the research.

It is often used in qualitative research , where the researcher wants to gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make statistical inferences, or where the population is very small and specific. An effective purposive sample must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion.

You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of students with a disability at your university, so you purposely select a number of students with different support needs in order to gather a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.

4. Snowball sampling

If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit participants via other participants. The number of people you have access to ‘snowballs’ as you get in contact with more people.

You are researching experiences of homelessness in your city. Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city, probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact with other homeless people she knows in the area.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

Samples are used to make inferences about populations . Samples are easier to collect data from because they are practical, cost-effective, convenient, and manageable.

Probability sampling means that every member of the target population has a known chance of being included in the sample.

Probability sampling methods include simple random sampling , systematic sampling , stratified sampling , and cluster sampling .

In non-probability sampling , the sample is selected based on non-random criteria, and not every member of the population has a chance of being included.

Common non-probability sampling methods include convenience sampling , voluntary response sampling, purposive sampling , snowball sampling , and quota sampling .

Sampling bias occurs when some members of a population are systematically more likely to be selected in a sample than others.

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Sampling Methods & Strategies 101

Everything you need to know (including examples)

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewed By: Kerryn Warren (PhD) | January 2023

If you’re new to research, sooner or later you’re bound to wander into the intimidating world of sampling methods and strategies. If you find yourself on this page, chances are you’re feeling a little overwhelmed or confused. Fear not – in this post we’ll unpack sampling in straightforward language , along with loads of examples .

Overview: Sampling Methods & Strategies

• What is sampling in a research context?
• The two overarching approaches

Simple random sampling

Stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, systematic sampling, purposive sampling, convenience sampling, snowball sampling.

• How to choose the right sampling method

What (exactly) is sampling?

At the simplest level, sampling (within a research context) is the process of selecting a subset of participants from a larger group . For example, if your research involved assessing US consumers’ perceptions about a particular brand of laundry detergent, you wouldn’t be able to collect data from every single person that uses laundry detergent (good luck with that!) – but you could potentially collect data from a smaller subset of this group.

In technical terms, the larger group is referred to as the population , and the subset (the group you’ll actually engage with in your research) is called the sample . Put another way, you can look at the population as a full cake and the sample as a single slice of that cake. In an ideal world, you’d want your sample to be perfectly representative of the population, as that would allow you to generalise your findings to the entire population. In other words, you’d want to cut a perfect cross-sectional slice of cake, such that the slice reflects every layer of the cake in perfect proportion.

Achieving a truly representative sample is, unfortunately, a little trickier than slicing a cake, as there are many practical challenges and obstacles to achieving this in a real-world setting. Thankfully though, you don’t always need to have a perfectly representative sample – it all depends on the specific research aims of each study – so don’t stress yourself out about that just yet!

With the concept of sampling broadly defined, let’s look at the different approaches to sampling to get a better understanding of what it all looks like in practice.

The two overarching sampling approaches

At the highest level, there are two approaches to sampling: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . Within each of these, there are a variety of sampling methods , which we’ll explore a little later.

Probability sampling involves selecting participants (or any unit of interest) on a statistically random basis , which is why it’s also called “random sampling”. In other words, the selection of each individual participant is based on a pre-determined process (not the discretion of the researcher). As a result, this approach achieves a random sample.

Probability-based sampling methods are most commonly used in quantitative research , especially when it’s important to achieve a representative sample that allows the researcher to generalise their findings.

Non-probability sampling , on the other hand, refers to sampling methods in which the selection of participants is not statistically random . In other words, the selection of individual participants is based on the discretion and judgment of the researcher, rather than on a pre-determined process.

Non-probability sampling methods are commonly used in qualitative research , where the richness and depth of the data are more important than the generalisability of the findings.

If that all sounds a little too conceptual and fluffy, don’t worry. Let’s take a look at some actual sampling methods to make it more tangible.

Need a helping hand?

Probability-based sampling methods

First, we’ll look at four common probability-based (random) sampling methods:

Importantly, this is not a comprehensive list of all the probability sampling methods – these are just four of the most common ones. So, if you’re interested in adopting a probability-based sampling approach, be sure to explore all the options.

Simple random sampling involves selecting participants in a completely random fashion , where each participant has an equal chance of being selected. Basically, this sampling method is the equivalent of pulling names out of a hat , except that you can do it digitally. For example, if you had a list of 500 people, you could use a random number generator to draw a list of 50 numbers (each number, reflecting a participant) and then use that dataset as your sample.

Thanks to its simplicity, simple random sampling is easy to implement , and as a consequence, is typically quite cheap and efficient . Given that the selection process is completely random, the results can be generalised fairly reliably. However, this also means it can hide the impact of large subgroups within the data, which can result in minority subgroups having little representation in the results – if any at all. To address this, one needs to take a slightly different approach, which we’ll look at next.

Stratified random sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it kicks things up a notch. As the name suggests, stratified sampling involves selecting participants randomly , but from within certain pre-defined subgroups (i.e., strata) that share a common trait . For example, you might divide the population into strata based on gender, ethnicity, age range or level of education, and then select randomly from each group.

The benefit of this sampling method is that it gives you more control over the impact of large subgroups (strata) within the population. For example, if a population comprises 80% males and 20% females, you may want to “balance” this skew out by selecting a random sample from an equal number of males and females. This would, of course, reduce the representativeness of the sample, but it would allow you to identify differences between subgroups. So, depending on your research aims, the stratified approach could work well.

Next on the list is cluster sampling. As the name suggests, this sampling method involves sampling from naturally occurring, mutually exclusive clusters within a population – for example, area codes within a city or cities within a country. Once the clusters are defined, a set of clusters are randomly selected and then a set of participants are randomly selected from each cluster.

Now, you’re probably wondering, “how is cluster sampling different from stratified random sampling?”. Well, let’s look at the previous example where each cluster reflects an area code in a given city.

With cluster sampling, you would collect data from clusters of participants in a handful of area codes (let’s say 5 neighbourhoods). Conversely, with stratified random sampling, you would need to collect data from all over the city (i.e., many more neighbourhoods). You’d still achieve the same sample size either way (let’s say 200 people, for example), but with stratified sampling, you’d need to do a lot more running around, as participants would be scattered across a vast geographic area. As a result, cluster sampling is often the more practical and economical option.

If that all sounds a little mind-bending, you can use the following general rule of thumb. If a population is relatively homogeneous , cluster sampling will often be adequate. Conversely, if a population is quite heterogeneous (i.e., diverse), stratified sampling will generally be more appropriate.

The last probability sampling method we’ll look at is systematic sampling. This method simply involves selecting participants at a set interval , starting from a random point .

For example, if you have a list of students that reflects the population of a university, you could systematically sample that population by selecting participants at an interval of 8 . In other words, you would randomly select a starting point – let’s say student number 40 – followed by student 48, 56, 64, etc.

What’s important with systematic sampling is that the population list you select from needs to be randomly ordered . If there are underlying patterns in the list (for example, if the list is ordered by gender, IQ, age, etc.), this will result in a non-random sample, which would defeat the purpose of adopting this sampling method. Of course, you could safeguard against this by “shuffling” your population list using a random number generator or similar tool.

Non-probability-based sampling methods

Right, now that we’ve looked at a few probability-based sampling methods, let’s look at three non-probability methods :

Again, this is not an exhaustive list of all possible sampling methods, so be sure to explore further if you’re interested in adopting a non-probability sampling approach.

First up, we’ve got purposive sampling – also known as judgment , selective or subjective sampling. Again, the name provides some clues, as this method involves the researcher selecting participants using his or her own judgement , based on the purpose of the study (i.e., the research aims).

For example, suppose your research aims were to understand the perceptions of hyper-loyal customers of a particular retail store. In that case, you could use your judgement to engage with frequent shoppers, as well as rare or occasional shoppers, to understand what judgements drive the two behavioural extremes .

Purposive sampling is often used in studies where the aim is to gather information from a small population (especially rare or hard-to-find populations), as it allows the researcher to target specific individuals who have unique knowledge or experience . Naturally, this sampling method is quite prone to researcher bias and judgement error, and it’s unlikely to produce generalisable results, so it’s best suited to studies where the aim is to go deep rather than broad .

Next up, we have convenience sampling. As the name suggests, with this method, participants are selected based on their availability or accessibility . In other words, the sample is selected based on how convenient it is for the researcher to access it, as opposed to using a defined and objective process.

Naturally, convenience sampling provides a quick and easy way to gather data, as the sample is selected based on the individuals who are readily available or willing to participate. This makes it an attractive option if you’re particularly tight on resources and/or time. However, as you’d expect, this sampling method is unlikely to produce a representative sample and will of course be vulnerable to researcher bias , so it’s important to approach it with caution.

Last but not least, we have the snowball sampling method. This method relies on referrals from initial participants to recruit additional participants. In other words, the initial subjects form the first (small) snowball and each additional subject recruited through referral is added to the snowball, making it larger as it rolls along .

Snowball sampling is often used in research contexts where it’s difficult to identify and access a particular population. For example, people with a rare medical condition or members of an exclusive group. It can also be useful in cases where the research topic is sensitive or taboo and people are unlikely to open up unless they’re referred by someone they trust.

Simply put, snowball sampling is ideal for research that involves reaching hard-to-access populations . But, keep in mind that, once again, it’s a sampling method that’s highly prone to researcher bias and is unlikely to produce a representative sample. So, make sure that it aligns with your research aims and questions before adopting this method.

How to choose a sampling method

Now that we’ve looked at a few popular sampling methods (both probability and non-probability based), the obvious question is, “ how do I choose the right sampling method for my study?”. When selecting a sampling method for your research project, you’ll need to consider two important factors: your research aims and your resources .

As with all research design and methodology choices, your sampling approach needs to be guided by and aligned with your research aims, objectives and research questions – in other words, your golden thread. Specifically, you need to consider whether your research aims are primarily concerned with producing generalisable findings (in which case, you’ll likely opt for a probability-based sampling method) or with achieving rich , deep insights (in which case, a non-probability-based approach could be more practical). Typically, quantitative studies lean toward the former, while qualitative studies aim for the latter, so be sure to consider your broader methodology as well.

The second factor you need to consider is your resources and, more generally, the practical constraints at play. If, for example, you have easy, free access to a large sample at your workplace or university and a healthy budget to help you attract participants, that will open up multiple options in terms of sampling methods. Conversely, if you’re cash-strapped, short on time and don’t have unfettered access to your population of interest, you may be restricted to convenience or referral-based methods.

In short, be ready for trade-offs – you won’t always be able to utilise the “perfect” sampling method for your study, and that’s okay. Much like all the other methodological choices you’ll make as part of your study, you’ll often need to compromise and accept practical trade-offs when it comes to sampling. Don’t let this get you down though – as long as your sampling choice is well explained and justified, and the limitations of your approach are clearly articulated, you’ll be on the right track.

Let’s recap…

In this post, we’ve covered the basics of sampling within the context of a typical research project.

• Sampling refers to the process of defining a subgroup (sample) from the larger group of interest (population).
• The two overarching approaches to sampling are probability sampling (random) and non-probability sampling .
• Common probability-based sampling methods include simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling and systematic sampling.
• Common non-probability-based sampling methods include purposive sampling, convenience sampling and snowball sampling.
• When choosing a sampling method, you need to consider your research aims , objectives and questions, as well as your resources and other practical constraints .

If you’d like to see an example of a sampling strategy in action, be sure to check out our research methodology chapter sample .

Last but not least, if you need hands-on help with your sampling (or any other aspect of your research), take a look at our 1-on-1 coaching service , where we guide you through each step of the research process, at your own pace.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

Excellent and helpful. Best site to get a full understanding of Research methodology. I’m nolonger as “clueless “..😉

Excellent and helpful for junior researcher!

Grad Coach tutorials are excellent – I recommend them to everyone doing research. I will be working with a sample of imprisoned women and now have a much clearer idea concerning sampling. Thank you to all at Grad Coach for generously sharing your expertise with students.

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Instant insights, infinite possibilities

An overview of sampling methods

Last updated

27 February 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

When researching perceptions or attributes of a product, service, or people, you have two options:

Survey every person in your chosen group (the target market, or population), collate your responses, and reach your conclusions.

Select a smaller group from within your target market and use their answers to represent everyone. This option is sampling .

Sampling saves you time and money. When you use the sampling method, the whole population being studied is called the sampling frame .

The sample you choose should represent your target market, or the sampling frame, well enough to do one of the following:

Generalize your findings across the sampling frame and use them as though you had surveyed everyone

Use the findings to decide on your next step, which might involve more in-depth sampling

Make research less tedious

Dovetail streamlines research to help you uncover and share actionable insights

How was sampling developed?

Valery Glivenko and Francesco Cantelli, two mathematicians studying probability theory in the early 1900s, devised the sampling method. Their research showed that a properly chosen sample of people would reflect the larger group’s status, opinions, decisions, and decision-making steps.

They proved you don't need to survey the entire target market, thereby saving the rest of us a lot of time and money.

• Why is sampling important?

We’ve already touched on the fact that sampling saves you time and money. When you get reliable results quickly, you can act on them sooner. And the money you save can pay for something else.

It’s often easier to survey a sample than a whole population. Sample inferences can be more reliable than those you get from a very large group because you can choose your samples carefully and scientifically.

Sampling is also useful because it is often impossible to survey the entire population. You probably have no choice but to collect only a sample in the first place.

Because you’re working with fewer people, you can collect richer data, which makes your research more accurate. You can:

Ask more questions

Go into more detail

Seek opinions instead of just collecting facts

Observe user behaviors

Double-check your findings if you need to

In short, sampling works! Let's take a look at the most common sampling methods.

• Types of sampling methods

There are two main sampling methods: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. These can be further refined, which we'll cover shortly. You can then decide which approach best suits your research project.

Probability sampling method

Probability sampling is used in quantitative research , so it provides data on the survey topic in terms of numbers. Probability relates to mathematics, hence the name ‘quantitative research’. Subjects are asked questions like:

How many boxes of candy do you buy at one time?

How often do you shop for candy?

How much would you pay for a box of candy?

This method is also called random sampling because everyone in the target market has an equal chance of being chosen for the survey. It is designed to reduce sampling error for the most important variables. You should, therefore, get results that fairly reflect the larger population.

Non-probability sampling method

In this method, not everyone has an equal chance of being part of the sample. It's usually easier (and cheaper) to select people for the sample group. You choose people who are more likely to be involved in or know more about the topic you’re researching.

Non-probability sampling is used for qualitative research. Qualitative data is generated by questions like:

Where do you usually shop for candy (supermarket, gas station, etc.?)

Which candy brand do you usually buy?

Why do you like that brand?

• Probability sampling methods

Here are five ways of doing probability sampling:

Simple random sampling (basic probability sampling)

Systematic sampling

Stratified sampling.

Cluster sampling

Multi-stage sampling

Simple random sampling.

There are three basic steps to simple random sampling:

Choose your sampling frame.

Decide on your sample size. Make sure it is large enough to give you reliable data.

Randomly choose your sample participants.

You could put all their names in a hat, shake the hat to mix the names, and pull out however many names you want in your sample (without looking!)

You could be more scientific by giving each participant a number and then using a random number generator program to choose the numbers.

Instead of choosing names or numbers, you decide beforehand on a selection method. For example, collect all the names in your sampling frame and start at, for example, the fifth person on the list, then choose every fourth name or every tenth name. Alternatively, you could choose everyone whose last name begins with randomly-selected initials, such as A, G, or W.

Choose your system of selecting names, and away you go.

This is a more sophisticated way to choose your sample. You break the sampling frame down into important subgroups or strata . Then, decide how many you want in your sample, and choose an equal number (or a proportionate number) from each subgroup.

For example, you want to survey how many people in a geographic area buy candy, so you compile a list of everyone in that area. You then break that list down into, for example, males and females, then into pre-teens, teenagers, young adults, senior citizens, etc. who are male or female.

So, if there are 1,000 young male adults and 2,000 young female adults in the whole sampling frame, you may want to choose 100 males and 200 females to keep the proportions balanced. You then choose the individual survey participants through the systematic sampling method.

Clustered sampling

This method is used when you want to subdivide a sample into smaller groups or clusters that are geographically or organizationally related.

Let’s say you’re doing quantitative research into candy sales. You could choose your sample participants from urban, suburban, or rural populations. This would give you three geographic clusters from which to select your participants.

This is a more refined way of doing cluster sampling. Let’s say you have your urban cluster, which is your primary sampling unit. You can subdivide this into a secondary sampling unit, say, participants who typically buy their candy in supermarkets. You could then further subdivide this group into your ultimate sampling unit. Finally, you select the actual survey participants from this unit.

• Uses of probability sampling

Probability sampling has three main advantages:

It helps minimizes the likelihood of sampling bias. How you choose your sample determines the quality of your results. Probability sampling gives you an unbiased, randomly selected sample of your target market.

It allows you to create representative samples and subgroups within a sample out of a large or diverse target market.

It lets you use sophisticated statistical methods to select as close to perfect samples as possible.

• Non-probability sampling methods

To recap, with non-probability sampling, you choose people for your sample in a non-random way, so not everyone in your sampling frame has an equal chance of being chosen. Your research findings, therefore, may not be as representative overall as probability sampling, but you may not want them to be.

Sampling bias is not a concern if all potential survey participants share similar traits. For example, you may want to specifically focus on young male adults who spend more than others on candy. In addition, it is usually a cheaper and quicker method because you don't have to work out a complex selection system that represents the entire population in that community.

Researchers do need to be mindful of carefully considering the strengths and limitations of each method before selecting a sampling technique.

Non-probability sampling is best for exploratory research , such as at the beginning of a research project.

There are five main types of non-probability sampling methods:

Convenience sampling

Purposive sampling, voluntary response sampling, snowball sampling, quota sampling.

The strategy of convenience sampling is to choose your sample quickly and efficiently, using the least effort, usually to save money.

Let's say you want to survey the opinions of 100 millennials about a particular topic. You could send out a questionnaire over the social media platforms millennials use. Ask respondents to confirm their birth year at the top of their response sheet and, when you have your 100 responses, begin your analysis. Or you could visit restaurants and bars where millennials spend their evenings and sign people up.

A drawback of convenience sampling is that it may not yield results that apply to a broader population.

This method relies on your judgment to choose the most likely sample to deliver the most useful results. You must know enough about the survey goals and the sampling frame to choose the most appropriate sample respondents.

Your knowledge and experience save you time because you know your ideal sample candidates, so you should get high-quality results.

This method is similar to convenience sampling, but it is based on potential sample members volunteering rather than you looking for people.

You make it known you want to do a survey on a particular topic for a particular reason and wait until enough people volunteer. Then you give them the questionnaire or arrange interviews to ask your questions directly.

Snowball sampling involves asking selected participants to refer others who may qualify for the survey. This method is best used when there is no sampling frame available. It is also useful when the researcher doesn’t know much about the target population.

Let's say you want to research a niche topic that involves people who may be difficult to locate. For our candy example, this could be young males who buy a lot of candy, go rock climbing during the day, and watch adventure movies at night. You ask each participant to name others they know who do the same things, so you can contact them. As you make contact with more people, your sample 'snowballs' until you have all the names you need.

This sampling method involves collecting the specific number of units (quotas) from your predetermined subpopulations. Quota sampling is a way of ensuring that your sample accurately represents the sampling frame.

• Uses of non-probability sampling

You can use non-probability sampling when you:

Want to do a quick test to see if a more detailed and sophisticated survey may be worthwhile

Want to explore an idea to see if it 'has legs'

Launch a pilot study

Do some initial qualitative research

Have little time or money available (half a loaf is better than no bread at all)

Want to see if the initial results will help you justify a longer, more detailed, and more expensive research project

• The main types of sampling bias, and how to avoid them

Sampling bias can fog or limit your research results. This will have an impact when you generalize your results across the whole target market. The two main causes of sampling bias are faulty research design and poor data collection or recording. They can affect probability and non-probability sampling.

Faulty research

If a surveyor chooses participants inappropriately, the results will not reflect the population as a whole.

A famous example is the 1948 presidential race. A telephone survey was conducted to see which candidate had more support. The problem with the research design was that, in 1948, most people with telephones were wealthy, and their opinions were very different from voters as a whole. The research implied Dewey would win, but it was Truman who became president.

Poor data collection or recording

This problem speaks for itself. The survey may be well structured, the sample groups appropriate, the questions clear and easy to understand, and the cluster sizes appropriate. But if surveyors check the wrong boxes when they get an answer or if the entire subgroup results are lost, the survey results will be biased.

How do you minimize bias in sampling?

 To get results you can rely on, you must:

Know enough about your target market

Choose one or more sample surveys to cover the whole target market properly

Choose enough people in each sample so your results mirror your target market

Have content validity . This means the content of your questions must be direct and efficiently worded. If it isn’t, the viability of your survey could be questioned. That would also be a waste of time and money, so make the wording of your questions your top focus.

If using probability sampling, make sure your sampling frame includes everyone it should and that your random sampling selection process includes the right proportion of the subgroups

If using non-probability sampling, focus on fairness, equality, and completeness in identifying your samples and subgroups. Then balance those criteria against simple convenience or other relevant factors.

What are the five types of sampling bias?

Self-selection bias. If you mass-mail questionnaires to everyone in the sample, you’re more likely to get results from people with extrovert or activist personalities and not from introverts or pragmatists. So if your convenience sampling focuses on getting your quota responses quickly, it may be skewed.

Non-response bias. Unhappy customers, stressed-out employees, or other sub-groups may not want to cooperate or they may pull out early.

Undercoverage bias. If your survey is done, say, via email or social media platforms, it will miss people without internet access, such as those living in rural areas, the elderly, or lower-income groups.

Survivorship bias. Unsuccessful people are less likely to take part. Another example may be a researcher excluding results that don’t support the overall goal. If the CEO wants to tell the shareholders about a successful product or project at the AGM, some less positive survey results may go “missing” (to take an extreme example.) The result is that your data will reflect an overly optimistic representation of the truth.

Pre-screening bias. If the researcher, whose experience and knowledge are being used to pre-select respondents in a judgmental sampling, focuses more on convenience than judgment, the results may be compromised.

How do you minimize sampling bias?

Focus on the bullet points in the next section and:

Make survey questionnaires as direct, easy, short, and available as possible, so participants are more likely to complete them accurately and send them back

Follow up with the people who have been selected but have not returned their responses

Ignore any pressure that may produce bias

• How do you decide on the type of sampling to use?

Use the ideas you've gleaned from this article to give yourself a platform, then choose the best method to meet your goals while staying within your time and cost limits.

If it isn't obvious which method you should choose, use this strategy:

Clarify your research goals

Clarify how accurate your research results must be to reach your goals

Evaluate your goals against time and budget

List the two or three most obvious sampling methods that will work for you

Confirm the availability of your resources (researchers, computer time, etc.)

Compare each of the possible methods with your goals, accuracy, precision, resource, time, and cost constraints

Make your decision

• The takeaway

Effective market research is the basis of successful marketing, advertising, and future productivity. By selecting the most appropriate sampling methods, you will collect the most useful market data and make the most effective decisions.

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Sampling methods, types & techniques.

15 min read Your comprehensive guide to the different sampling methods available to researchers – and how to know which is right for your research.

Author: Will Webster

What is sampling?

In survey research, sampling is the process of using a subset of a population to represent the whole population. To help illustrate this further, let’s look at data sampling methods with examples below.

Let’s say you wanted to do some research on everyone in North America. To ask every person would be almost impossible. Even if everyone said “yes”, carrying out a survey across different states, in different languages and timezones, and then collecting and processing all the results , would take a long time and be very costly.

Sampling allows large-scale research to be carried out with a more realistic cost and time-frame because it uses a smaller number of individuals in the population with representative characteristics to stand in for the whole.

However, when you decide to sample, you take on a new task. You have to decide who is part of your sample list and how to choose the people who will best represent the whole population. How you go about that is what the practice of sampling is all about.

Sampling definitions

• Population: The total number of people or things you are interested in
• Sample: A smaller number within your population that will represent the whole
• Sampling: The process and method of selecting your sample

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Why is sampling important?

Although the idea of sampling is easiest to understand when you think about a very large population, it makes sense to use sampling methods in research studies of all types and sizes. After all, if you can reduce the effort and cost of doing a study, why wouldn’t you? And because sampling allows you to research larger target populations using the same resources as you would smaller ones, it dramatically opens up the possibilities for research.

Sampling is a little like having gears on a car or bicycle. Instead of always turning a set of wheels of a specific size and being constrained by their physical properties, it allows you to translate your effort to the wheels via the different gears, so you’re effectively choosing bigger or smaller wheels depending on the terrain you’re on and how much work you’re able to do.

Sampling allows you to “gear” your research so you’re less limited by the constraints of cost, time, and complexity that come with different population sizes.

It allows us to do things like carrying out exit polls during elections, map the spread and effects rates of epidemics across geographical areas, and carry out nationwide census research that provides a snapshot of society and culture.

Types of sampling

Sampling strategies in research vary widely across different disciplines and research areas, and from study to study.

There are two major types of sampling methods: probability and non-probability sampling.

• Probability sampling , also known as random sampling , is a kind of sample selection where randomization is used instead of deliberate choice. Each member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected.
• Non-probability sampling techniques are where the researcher deliberately picks items or individuals for the sample based on non-random factors such as convenience, geographic availability, or costs.

As we delve into these categories, it’s essential to understand the nuances and applications of each method to ensure that the chosen sampling strategy aligns with the research goals.

Probability sampling methods

There’s a wide range of probability sampling methods to explore and consider. Here are some of the best-known options.

1. Simple random sampling

With simple random sampling , every element in the population has an equal chance of being selected as part of the sample. It’s something like picking a name out of a hat. Simple random sampling can be done by anonymizing the population – e.g. by assigning each item or person in the population a number and then picking numbers at random.

Pros: Simple random sampling is easy to do and cheap. Designed to ensure that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, it reduces the risk of bias compared to non-random sampling.

Cons: It offers no control for the researcher and may lead to unrepresentative groupings being picked by chance.

2. Systematic sampling

With systematic sampling the random selection only applies to the first item chosen. A rule then applies so that every nth item or person after that is picked.

Best practice is to sort your list in a random way to ensure that selections won’t be accidentally clustered together. This is commonly achieved using a random number generator. If that’s not available you might order your list alphabetically by first name and then pick every fifth name to eliminate bias, for example.

Next, you need to decide your sampling interval – for example, if your sample will be 10% of your full list, your sampling interval is one in 10 – and pick a random start between one and 10 – for example three. This means you would start with person number three on your list and pick every tenth person.

Pros: Systematic sampling is efficient and straightforward, especially when dealing with populations that have a clear order. It ensures a uniform selection across the population.

Cons: There’s a potential risk of introducing bias if there’s an unrecognized pattern in the population that aligns with the sampling interval.

3. Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling involves random selection within predefined groups. It’s a useful method for researchers wanting to determine what aspects of a sample are highly correlated with what’s being measured. They can then decide how to subdivide (stratify) it in a way that makes sense for the research.

For example, you want to measure the height of students at a college where 80% of students are female and 20% are male. We know that gender is highly correlated with height, and if we took a simple random sample of 200 students (out of the 2,000 who attend the college), we could by chance get 200 females and not one male. This would bias our results and we would underestimate the height of students overall. Instead, we could stratify by gender and make sure that 20% of our sample (40 students) are male and 80% (160 students) are female.

Pros: Stratified sampling enhances the representation of all identified subgroups within a population, leading to more accurate results in heterogeneous populations.

Cons: This method requires accurate knowledge about the population’s stratification, and its design and execution can be more intricate than other methods.

4. Cluster sampling

With cluster sampling, groups rather than individual units of the target population are selected at random for the sample. These might be pre-existing groups, such as people in certain zip codes or students belonging to an academic year.

Cluster sampling can be done by selecting the entire cluster, or in the case of two-stage cluster sampling, by randomly selecting the cluster itself, then selecting at random again within the cluster.

Pros: Cluster sampling is economically beneficial and logistically easier when dealing with vast and geographically dispersed populations.

Cons: Due to potential similarities within clusters, this method can introduce a greater sampling error compared to other methods.

Non-probability sampling methods

The non-probability sampling methodology doesn’t offer the same bias-removal benefits as probability sampling, but there are times when these types of sampling are chosen for expediency or simplicity. Here are some forms of non-probability sampling and how they work.

1. Convenience sampling

People or elements in a sample are selected on the basis of their accessibility and availability. If you are doing a research survey and you work at a university, for example, a convenience sample might consist of students or co-workers who happen to be on campus with open schedules who are willing to take your questionnaire .

This kind of sample can have value, especially if it’s done as an early or preliminary step, but significant bias will be introduced.

Pros: Convenience sampling is the most straightforward method, requiring minimal planning, making it quick to implement.

Cons: Due to its non-random nature, the method is highly susceptible to biases, and the results are often lacking in their application to the real world.

2. Quota sampling

Like the probability-based stratified sampling method, this approach aims to achieve a spread across the target population by specifying who should be recruited for a survey according to certain groups or criteria.

For example, your quota might include a certain number of males and a certain number of females. Alternatively, you might want your samples to be at a specific income level or in certain age brackets or ethnic groups.

Pros: Quota sampling ensures certain subgroups are adequately represented, making it great for when random sampling isn’t feasible but representation is necessary.

Cons: The selection within each quota is non-random and researchers’ discretion can influence the representation, which both strongly increase the risk of bias.

3. Purposive sampling

Participants for the sample are chosen consciously by researchers based on their knowledge and understanding of the research question at hand or their goals.

Also known as judgment sampling, this technique is unlikely to result in a representative sample , but it is a quick and fairly easy way to get a range of results or responses.

Pros: Purposive sampling targets specific criteria or characteristics, making it ideal for studies that require specialized participants or specific conditions.

Cons: It’s highly subjective and based on researchers’ judgment, which can introduce biases and limit the study’s real-world application.

4. Snowball or referral sampling

With this approach, people recruited to be part of a sample are asked to invite those they know to take part, who are then asked to invite their friends and family and so on. The participation radiates through a community of connected individuals like a snowball rolling downhill.

Pros: Especially useful for hard-to-reach or secretive populations, snowball sampling is effective for certain niche studies.

Cons: The method can introduce bias due to the reliance on participant referrals, and the choice of initial seeds can significantly influence the final sample.

What type of sampling should I use?

Choosing the right sampling method is a pivotal aspect of any research process, but it can be a stumbling block for many.

Here’s a structured approach to guide your decision.

1) Define your research goals

If you aim to get a general sense of a larger group, simple random or stratified sampling could be your best bet. For focused insights or studying unique communities, snowball or purposive sampling might be more suitable.

2) Assess the nature of your population

The nature of the group you’re studying can guide your method. For a diverse group with different categories, stratified sampling can ensure all segments are covered. If they’re widely spread geographically , cluster sampling becomes useful. If they’re arranged in a certain sequence or order, systematic sampling might be effective.

3) Consider your constraints

Your available time, budget and ease of accessing participants matter. Convenience or quota sampling can be practical for quicker studies, but they come with some trade-offs. If reaching everyone in your desired group is challenging, snowball or purposive sampling can be more feasible.

4) Determine the reach of your findings

Decide if you want your findings to represent a much broader group. For a wider representation, methods that include everyone fairly (like probability sampling ) are a good option. For specialized insights into specific groups, non-probability sampling methods can be more suitable.

5) Get feedback

Before fully committing, discuss your chosen method with others in your field and consider a test run.

Avoid or reduce sampling errors and bias

Using a sample is a kind of short-cut. If you could ask every single person in a population to take part in your study and have each of them reply, you’d have a highly accurate (and very labor-intensive) project on your hands.

But since that’s not realistic, sampling offers a “good-enough” solution that sacrifices some accuracy for the sake of practicality and ease. How much accuracy you lose out on depends on how well you control for sampling error, non-sampling error, and bias in your survey design . Our blog post helps you to steer clear of some of these issues.

How to choose the correct sample size

Finding the best sample size for your target population is something you’ll need to do again and again, as it’s different for every study.

To make life easier, we’ve provided a sample size calculator . To use it, you need to know your:

• Population size
• Confidence level
• Margin of error (confidence interval)

If any of those terms are unfamiliar, have a look at our blog post on determining sample size for details of what they mean and how to find them.

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How to determine sample size 12 min read, selection bias 11 min read, systematic random sampling 15 min read, convenience sampling 18 min read, probability sampling 8 min read, non-probability sampling 17 min read, stratified random sampling 12 min read, request demo.

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Statistics By Jim

Making statistics intuitive

Sampling Methods: Different Types in Research

By Jim Frost 3 Comments

What Are Sampling Methods?

Sampling methods are the processes by which you draw a sample from a population . When performing research, you’re typically interested in the results for an entire population. Unfortunately, they are almost always too large to study fully. Consequently, researchers use samples to draw conclusions about a population—the process of making statistical inferences.

A population is the complete set of individuals that you’re studying. A sample is the subset of the population that you actually measure, test, or evaluate and base your results. Sampling methods are how you obtain your sample.

Before beginning your study, carefully define the population because your results apply to the target population. You can define your population as narrowly as necessary to meet the needs of your study—for example, adult Swedish women who are otherwise healthy but have osteoporosis. Then choose your sampling method.

Learn more about populations and samples , inferential vs. descriptive statistics and populations and parameters .

In research and inferential statistics , sampling methods are a vital issue. How you draw your sample affects how much you can trust the results! If your sample doesn’t reflect the population, your results might not be valid. It’s a crucial part of experimental design .

In this post, learn more about sampling methods, which ones produce representative samples, and the pros and cons of each procedure.

Probability vs Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Sampling methods have the following two broad categories:

• Probability sampling : Entails random selection and typically, but not always, requires a list of the entire population.
• Non-probability sampling : Does not use random selection but some other process, such as convenience. Usually does not sample from the whole population.

Probability sampling is typically more difficult and costly to implement, but, in exchange, these processes tend to increase validity by producing representative samples. In short, you can make valid conclusions about the population.  A statistical inference is when you use a sample to learn about a population. Learn more about Making Statistical Inferences .

On the other hand, non-probability sampling methods are often easier and less expensive, but the trade-off is that the validity of your conclusions is questionable. You might not be able to trust the results. Sampling bias is more likely to occur.

Learn more about Validity in Research and Psychology: Types & Examples and Internal and External Validity .

Probability Sampling Methods

Given the benefits of using representative samples, you’ll typically want to use a probability sampling method whenever possible. Let’s go over the standard methods. They each have pros and cons. Click the links to learn more about each sampling method and see examples. Learn more about representative samples .

To use a probability method, you’ll first need to develop a sampling frame, which lists all members of your target population. Then you can use one of the following methods.

Learn more about Sampling Frames: Definition, Examples & Uses .

Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

In simple random sampling (SRS), researchers take a complete list of the population and randomly select participants from it. All population members have an equal likelihood of being selected. Out of all sampling methods, statisticians consider this one to be the gold standard for producing representative samples. It’s entirely random, leaving little room for accidentally biasing the results.

However, this sampling method has some drawbacks.

First and foremost, this method can be pretty unwieldy and require abundant resources. For one thing, it requires a list of all population members, which can be a tremendous hurdle by itself. Attempting to perform SRS with an incomplete population list causes undercoverage bias and a nonrepresentative sample.

Furthermore, while random selection is beneficial, it also ensures that the subjects are maximally dispersed, making them harder to contact.

SRS can exclude smaller but crucial subpopulations purely by chance. Additionally, this approach produces less precise estimates for subgroups and the differences between subgroups than some other probability sampling methods.

Learn more about Simple Random Sampling  and Undercoverage Bias: Definition & Examples

Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is similar to SRS but attempts to ease some of the difficulties for researchers. There are several versions of this method.

One form uses a complete list of the population. The researchers randomly select the first subject and then move down the list choosing every X th subject rather than using a randomized technique.

The other form does not use a complete list of the population. This sampling method is suitable for populations that are tough to document, such as the homeless, because a comprehensive list won’t exist. The essential requirement for this sampling method is knowing how to locate them. While it’s not perfect, it’s a feasible option when you can’t obtain the full list.

Suppose you want to survey theater patrons but lack a complete list. Instead, you can use systematic sampling and recruit every 20th person who exits the theater. This approach works because they leave randomly.

This sampling method has some disadvantages. The form that uses a complete list of the population can closely mirror the results of simple random sampling. However, the non-randomness increases the potential for manipulation, even if accidentally. Additionally, patterns in the list can unintentionally create a non-representative sample.

The form that doesn’t use a list has more potential problems. Namely, it increases the potential for missing subgroups and acquiring a non-representative sample. This sampling method increases the knowledge you must have about the population and their habits. Without that knowledge, you won’t be able to find subjects that reflect the whole population.

Learn more about Systematic Sampling .

Stratified Sampling

In stratified sampling, researchers divide a population into similar subpopulations (strata). Then they randomly sample from the strata.

This sampling method can guarantee the presence of small but vital subpopulations in the sample. Relative to SRS, this method can increase the precision of subgroup estimates and the differences between subgroups. In short, it helps researchers gain a better understanding of the subgroups. Dividing the whole population into smaller, more similar subsets can also reduce costs and simplify data collection.

The drawbacks are that this sampling method requires additional upfront knowledge and planning. The researchers must know enough about the subgroups to devise an effective strata scheme. Then they must have sufficient information about all population members to assign them to the correct strata.

Learn more about Stratified Sampling .

Cluster Sampling

Like stratified sampling, the cluster sampling method divides the whole population into smaller groups. However, unlike strata, each cluster mirrors the full diversity present in the population. Then the researchers randomly sample from some of these clusters.

The primary benefit of this sampling method is that it reduces the costs of studying large, geographically dispersed populations. Using this method, researchers don’t need to sample the entire geographic region but only certain areas because they know individual clusters are similar to the population. Additionally, they don’t need to develop a list of potential subjects for clusters from which they’re not sampling. These considerations can significantly reduce planning, administrative, and travel costs.

When researchers can’t create a list of the entire population, cluster sampling can be an excellent choice.

On the downside, cluster sampling increases the design complexity. Researchers must understand how well each cluster approximates the whole population. If the clusters don’t fully represent the population, results can be biased. In real-world studies, clusters tend to be naturally occurring groups that don’t mirror the population, which reduces the ability to draw valid conclusions.

Learn more about Cluster Sampling .

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Non-probability sampling methods don’t use random selection, and they typically don’t use a complete population list. While these methods are simpler and less expensive, your results are more likely to be biased, reducing your ability to make sound conclusions.

Researchers often use non-probability sampling methods for exploratory research, pilot studies, and qualitative research . These sampling methods provide quick and rough assessments, help work kinks out of measurement instruments and procedures, and help refine the design for a more rigorous study in the future.

Below are several standard non-probability sampling methods:

• Convenience sampling : The main criteria for recruiting subjects are those who are easy to contact and willing to participate. There are no inclusion requirements. Online polls are a type of convenience sampling. Learn more about Convenience Sampling .
• Quota Sampling : Non-random selection of subjects from population subgroups that the researchers define. Learn more about Quota Sampling .
• Purposive sampling : Investigators use subject-area knowledge to handpick a sample they think will help their study. Learn more about Purposive Sampling .
• Snowball sampling : Researchers use subjects to find and recruit other subjects. This method is helpful when a population is hard to contact. When recruits help you find more recruits, and those help find even more, and so on, the total number snowballs. Learn more about Snowball Sampling .

As you can see, there are many sampling methods. Each one has benefits and disadvantages. When designing a study, evaluate the nature of your target population, your research goals, and the available time and resources to choose your sampling method. After deciding between the sampling methods, calculate your sample size using a power analysis .

Sampling in Developmental Science: Situations, Shortcomings, Solutions, and Standards (nih.gov)

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Reader Interactions

July 24, 2024 at 8:56 am

Hello Mr. Frost,

I would like to know whether people with mild Parkinson’s Disease symptoms are less likely to have kidney stones. Do PwP (People with Parkinson’s) have significantly less incidences of kidney stones than in the general population (~ 10%). So far, I have asked 12 people I know who has been diagnosed with Parkinson’s and 0% had kidney stones. I would like to increase my sampling size by randomly sampling members of a forum for PwP I belong to. Should I get a list of all forum subscribers and randomly select around 40 forum members to pose the question, “If you have been officially diagnosed with Parkinson’s, have also had a kidney stone?”. What would you suggest? I had posed the question in the forum before, but only PwP folks that had a Kidney stone responded.

Thanks, Mike

May 17, 2022 at 12:38 am

I think stratified sampling will work __ mke two groups as stratas _ then use SRS to obtain a complete sample .

May 15, 2022 at 7:37 pm

hi.what sampling technique will i use if my respondents are 1st yr college students awardees vs non awardees of different courses?

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What are sampling methods and how do you choose the best one?

Posted on 18th November 2020 by Mohamed Khalifa

This tutorial will introduce sampling methods and potential sampling errors to avoid when conducting medical research.

Introduction to sampling methods

Examples of different sampling methods, choosing the best sampling method.

It is important to understand why we sample the population; for example, studies are built to investigate the relationships between risk factors and disease. In other words, we want to find out if this is a true association, while still aiming for the minimum risk for errors such as: chance, bias or confounding .

However, it would not be feasible to experiment on the whole population, we would need to take a good sample and aim to reduce the risk of having errors by proper sampling technique.

What is a sampling frame?

A sampling frame is a record of the target population containing all participants of interest. In other words, it is a list from which we can extract a sample.

What makes a good sample?

A good sample should be a representative subset of the population we are interested in studying, therefore, with each participant having equal chance of being randomly selected into the study.

We could choose a sampling method based on whether we want to account for sampling bias; a random sampling method is often preferred over a non-random method for this reason. Random sampling examples include: simple, systematic, stratified, and cluster sampling. Non-random sampling methods are liable to bias, and common examples include: convenience, purposive, snowballing, and quota sampling. For the purposes of this blog we will be focusing on random sampling methods .

Example: We want to conduct an experimental trial in a small population such as: employees in a company, or students in a college. We include everyone in a list and use a random number generator to select the participants

Advantages: Generalisable results possible, random sampling, the sampling frame is the whole population, every participant has an equal probability of being selected

Disadvantages: Less precise than stratified method, less representative than the systematic method

Example: Every nth patient entering the out-patient clinic is selected and included in our sample

Advantages: More feasible than simple or stratified methods, sampling frame is not always required

Disadvantages:  Generalisability may decrease if baseline characteristics repeat across every nth participant

Example: We have a big population (a city) and we want to ensure representativeness of all groups with a pre-determined characteristic such as: age groups, ethnic origin, and gender

Advantages:  Inclusive of strata (subgroups), reliable and generalisable results

Disadvantages: Does not work well with multiple variables

Example: 10 schools have the same number of students across the county. We can randomly select 3 out of 10 schools as our clusters

Advantages: Readily doable with most budgets, does not require a sampling frame

Disadvantages: Results may not be reliable nor generalisable

How can you identify sampling errors?

Non-random selection increases the probability of sampling (selection) bias if the sample does not represent the population we want to study. We could avoid this by random sampling and ensuring representativeness of our sample with regards to sample size.

An inadequate sample size decreases the confidence in our results as we may think there is no significant difference when actually there is. This type two error results from having a small sample size, or from participants dropping out of the sample.

In medical research of disease, if we select people with certain diseases while strictly excluding participants with other co-morbidities, we run the risk of diagnostic purity bias where important sub-groups of the population are not represented.

Furthermore, measurement bias may occur during re-collection of risk factors by participants (recall bias) or assessment of outcome where people who live longer are associated with treatment success, when in fact people who died were not included in the sample or data analysis (survivors bias).

By following the steps below we could choose the best sampling method for our study in an orderly fashion.

Research objectiveness

Firstly, a refined research question and goal would help us define our population of interest. If our calculated sample size is small then it would be easier to get a random sample. If, however, the sample size is large, then we should check if our budget and resources can handle a random sampling method.

Sampling frame availability

Secondly, we need to check for availability of a sampling frame (Simple), if not, could we make a list of our own (Stratified). If neither option is possible, we could still use other random sampling methods, for instance, systematic or cluster sampling.

Study design

Moreover, we could consider the prevalence of the topic (exposure or outcome) in the population, and what would be the suitable study design. In addition, checking if our target population is widely varied in its baseline characteristics. For example, a population with large ethnic subgroups could best be studied using a stratified sampling method.

Random sampling

Finally, the best sampling method is always the one that could best answer our research question while also allowing for others to make use of our results (generalisability of results). When we cannot afford a random sampling method, we can always choose from the non-random sampling methods.

To sum up, we now understand that choosing between random or non-random sampling methods is multifactorial. We might often be tempted to choose a convenience sample from the start, but that would not only decrease precision of our results, and would make us miss out on producing research that is more robust and reliable.

References (pdf)

Mohamed Khalifa

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No Comments on What are sampling methods and how do you choose the best one?

Thank you for this overview. A concise approach for research.

really helps! am an ecology student preparing to write my lab report for sampling.

I learned a lot to the given presentation.. It’s very comprehensive… Thanks for sharing…

Very informative and useful for my study. Thank you

Oversimplified info on sampling methods. Probabilistic of the sampling and sampling of samples by chance does rest solely on the random methods. Factors such as the random visits or presentation of the potential participants at clinics or sites could be sufficiently random in nature and should be used for the sake of efficiency and feasibility. Nevertheless, this approach has to be taken only after careful thoughts. Representativeness of the study samples have to be checked at the end or during reporting by comparing it to the published larger studies or register of some kind in/from the local population.

Thank you so much Mr.mohamed very useful and informative article

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Sampling Methods In Reseach: Types, Techniques, & Examples

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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On This Page:

Sampling methods in psychology refer to strategies used to select a subset of individuals (a sample) from a larger population, to study and draw inferences about the entire population. Common methods include random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and convenience sampling. Proper sampling ensures representative, generalizable, and valid research results.

• Sampling : the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study.
• Target population : the total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn.
• Sample: a subset of individuals selected from a larger population for study or investigation. Those included in the sample are termed “participants.”
• Generalizability : the ability to apply research findings from a sample to the broader target population, contingent on the sample being representative of that population.

For instance, if the advert for volunteers is published in the New York Times, this limits how much the study’s findings can be generalized to the whole population, because NYT readers may not represent the entire population in certain respects (e.g., politically, socio-economically).

The Purpose of Sampling

We are interested in learning about large groups of people with something in common in psychological research. We call the group interested in studying our “target population.”

In some types of research, the target population might be as broad as all humans. Still, in other types of research, the target population might be a smaller group, such as teenagers, preschool children, or people who misuse drugs.

Studying every person in a target population is more or less impossible. Hence, psychologists select a sample or sub-group of the population that is likely to be representative of the target population we are interested in.

This is important because we want to generalize from the sample to the target population. The more representative the sample, the more confident the researcher can be that the results can be generalized to the target population.

One of the problems that can occur when selecting a sample from a target population is sampling bias. Sampling bias refers to situations where the sample does not reflect the characteristics of the target population.

Many psychology studies have a biased sample because they have used an opportunity sample that comprises university students as their participants (e.g., Asch ).

OK, so you’ve thought up this brilliant psychological study and designed it perfectly. But who will you try it out on, and how will you select your participants?

There are various sampling methods. The one chosen will depend on a number of factors (such as time, money, etc.).

Random Sampling

Random sampling is a type of probability sampling where everyone in the entire target population has an equal chance of being selected.

This is similar to the national lottery. If the “population” is everyone who bought a lottery ticket, then everyone has an equal chance of winning the lottery (assuming they all have one ticket each).

Random samples require naming or numbering the target population and then using some raffle method to choose those to make up the sample. Random samples are the best method of selecting your sample from the population of interest.

• The advantages are that your sample should represent the target population and eliminate sampling bias.
• The disadvantage is that it is very difficult to achieve (i.e., time, effort, and money).

Stratified Sampling

During stratified sampling , the researcher identifies the different types of people that make up the target population and works out the proportions needed for the sample to be representative.

A list is made of each variable (e.g., IQ, gender, etc.) that might have an effect on the research. For example, if we are interested in the money spent on books by undergraduates, then the main subject studied may be an important variable.

For example, students studying English Literature may spend more money on books than engineering students, so if we use a large percentage of English students or engineering students, our results will not be accurate.

We have to determine the relative percentage of each group at a university, e.g., Engineering 10%, Social Sciences 15%, English 20%, Sciences 25%, Languages 10%, Law 5%, and Medicine 15%. The sample must then contain all these groups in the same proportion as the target population (university students).

• The disadvantage of stratified sampling is that gathering such a sample would be extremely time-consuming and difficult to do. This method is rarely used in Psychology.
• However, the advantage is that the sample should be highly representative of the target population, and therefore we can generalize from the results obtained.

Opportunity Sampling

Opportunity sampling is a method in which participants are chosen based on their ease of availability and proximity to the researcher, rather than using random or systematic criteria. It’s a type of convenience sampling .

An opportunity sample is obtained by asking members of the population of interest if they would participate in your research. An example would be selecting a sample of students from those coming out of the library.

• This is a quick and easy way of choosing participants (advantage)
• It may not provide a representative sample and could be biased (disadvantage).

Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is a method where every nth individual is selected from a list or sequence to form a sample, ensuring even and regular intervals between chosen subjects.

Participants are systematically selected (i.e., orderly/logical) from the target population, like every nth participant on a list of names.

To take a systematic sample, you list all the population members and then decide upon a sample you would like. By dividing the number of people in the population by the number of people you want in your sample, you get a number we will call n.

If you take every nth name, you will get a systematic sample of the correct size. If, for example, you wanted to sample 150 children from a school of 1,500, you would take every 10th name.

• The advantage of this method is that it should provide a representative sample.

Sample size

The sample size is a critical factor in determining the reliability and validity of a study’s findings. While increasing the sample size can enhance the generalizability of results, it’s also essential to balance practical considerations, such as resource constraints and diminishing returns from ever-larger samples.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability refers to the consistency and reproducibility of research findings across different occasions, researchers, or instruments. A small sample size may lead to inconsistent results due to increased susceptibility to random error or the influence of outliers. In contrast, a larger sample minimizes these errors, promoting more reliable results.

Validity pertains to the accuracy and truthfulness of research findings. For a study to be valid, it should accurately measure what it intends to do. A small, unrepresentative sample can compromise external validity, meaning the results don’t generalize well to the larger population. A larger sample captures more variability, ensuring that specific subgroups or anomalies don’t overly influence results.

Practical Considerations

Resource Constraints : Larger samples demand more time, money, and resources. Data collection becomes more extensive, data analysis more complex, and logistics more challenging.

Diminishing Returns : While increasing the sample size generally leads to improved accuracy and precision, there’s a point where adding more participants yields only marginal benefits. For instance, going from 50 to 500 participants might significantly boost a study’s robustness, but jumping from 10,000 to 10,500 might not offer a comparable advantage, especially considering the added costs.

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Sampling Methods

Affiliation.

• 1 14742 School of Nursing, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, USA.
• PMID: 32155099
• DOI: 10.1177/0890334420906850

Knowledge of sampling methods is essential to design quality research. Critical questions are provided to help researchers choose a sampling method. This article reviews probability and non-probability sampling methods, lists and defines specific sampling techniques, and provides pros and cons for consideration. In addition, issues related to sampling methods are described to highlight potential problems.

Keywords: breastfeeding; non-probability sampling; probability sampling; sampling; sampling methods.

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• What Is Probability Sampling? | Types & Examples

What Is Probability Sampling? | Types & Examples

Published on July 5, 2022 by Kassiani Nikolopoulou . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Probability sampling is a sampling method that involves randomly selecting a sample, or a part of the population that you want to research. It is also sometimes called random sampling.

To qualify as being random, each research unit (e.g., person, business, or organization in your population) must have an equal chance of being selected. This is usually done through a random selection process, like a drawing.

Table of contents

Types of probability sampling, examples of probability sampling methods, probability vs. non-probability sampling, advantages and disadvantages of probability sampling, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about probability sampling.

There are four commonly used types of probability sampling designs:

Simple random sampling

• Stratified sampling

Systematic sampling

• Cluster sampling

Simple random sampling gathers a random selection from the entire population, where each unit has an equal chance of selection. This is the most common way to select a random sample.

To compile a list of the units in your research population, consider using a random number generator. There are several free ones available online, such as random.org , calculator.net , and randomnumbergenerator.org .

Writing down the names of all 4,000 inhabitants by hand to randomly draw 100 of them would be impractical and time-consuming, as well as questionable for ethical reasons. Instead, you decide to use a random number generator to draw a simple random sample.

Stratified sampling collects a random selection of a sample from within certain strata, or subgroups within the population. Each subgroup is separated from the others on the basis of a common characteristic, such as gender, race, or religion. This way, you can ensure that all subgroups of a given population are adequately represented within your sample population.

For example, if you are dividing a student population by college majors, Engineering, Linguistics, and Physical Education students are three different strata within that population.

To split your population into different subgroups, first choose which characteristic you would like to divide them by. Then you can select your sample from each subgroup. You can do this in one of two ways:

• By selecting an equal number of units from each subgroup
• By selecting units from each subgroup equal to their proportion in the total population

If you take a simple random sample, children from urban areas will have a far greater chance of being selected, so the best way of getting a representative sample is to take a stratified sample.

First, you divide the population into your strata: one for children from urban areas and one for children from rural areas. Then, you take a simple random sample from each subgroup. You can use one of two options:

• Select 100 urban and 100 rural, i.e., an equal number of units
• Select 80 urban and 20 rural, which gives you a representative sample of 100 people

Systematic sampling draws a random sample from the target population by selecting units at regular intervals starting from a random point. This method is useful in situations where records of your target population already exist, such as records of an agency’s clients, enrollment lists of university students, or a company’s employment records. Any of these can be used as a sampling frame.

To start your systematic sample, you first need to divide your sampling frame into a number of segments, called intervals. You calculate these by dividing your population size by the desired sample size.

Then, from the first interval, you select one unit using simple random sampling. The selection of the next units from other intervals depends upon the position of the unit selected in the first interval.

Let’s refer back to our example about the political views of the municipality of 4,000 inhabitants. You can also draw a sample of 100 people using systematic sampling. To do so, follow these steps:

• Determine your interval: 4,000 / 100 = 40. This means that you must select 1 inhabitant from every 40 in the record.
• Using simple random sampling (e.g., a random number generator), you select 1 inhabitant.
• Let’s say you select the 11th person on the list. In every subsequent interval, you need to select the 11th person in that interval, until you have a sample of 100 people.

Cluster sampling is the process of dividing the target population into groups, called clusters. A randomly selected subsection of these groups then forms your sample. Cluster sampling is an efficient approach when you want to study large, geographically dispersed populations. It usually involves existing groups that are similar to each other in some way (e.g., classes in a school).

There are two types of cluster sampling:

• Single (or one-stage) cluster sampling, when you divide the entire population into clusters
• Multistage cluster sampling, when you divide the cluster further into more clusters, in order to narrow down the sample size

Clusters are pre-existing groups, so each high school is a cluster, and you assign a number to each one of them. Then, you use simple random sampling to further select clusters. How many clusters you select will depend on the sample size that you need.

Multi-stage sampling is a more complex form of cluster sampling, in which smaller groups are successively selected from larger populations to form the sample population used in your study.

First, you take a simple random sample of departments. Then, again using simple random sampling, you select a number of units. Based on the size of the population (i.e., how many employees work at the company) and your desired sample size, you establish that you need to include 3 units in your sample.

In stratified sampling , you divide your population in groups (strata) that share a common characteristic and then select some members from every group for your sample. In cluster sampling , you use pre-existing groups to divide your population into clusters and then include all members from randomly selected clusters for your sample.

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There are a few methods you can use to draw a random sample. Here are a few examples:

• The fishbowl draw
• A random number generator
• The random number function

Fishbowl draw

You are investigating the use of a popular portable e‐reader device among library and information science students and its effects on individual reading practices. You write the names of 25 students on pieces of paper, put them in a jar, and then, without looking, randomly select three students to be interviewed for your research.

All students have equal chances of being selected and no other consideration (such as personal preference) can influence this selection. This method is suitable when your total population is small, so writing the names or numbers of each unit on a piece of paper is feasible.

Random number generator

Suppose you are researching what people think about road safety in a specific residential area. You make a list of all the suburbs and assign a number to each one of them. Then, using an online random number generator, you select four numbers, corresponding to four suburbs, and focus on them.

This works best when you already have a list with the total population and you can easily assign every individual a number.

RAND function in Microsoft Excel

If your data are in a spreadsheet, you can also use the random number function (RAND) in Microsoft Excel to select a random sample.

Suppose you have a list of 4,000 people and you need a sample of 300. By typing in the formula =RAND() and then pressing enter, you can have Excel assign a random number to each name on the list. For this to work, make sure there are no blank rows.

This video explains how to use the RAND function.

Depending on the goals of your research study, there are two sampling methods you can use:

• Probability sampling : Sampling method that ensures that each unit in the study population has an equal chance of being selected
• Non-probability sampling : Sampling method that uses a non-random sample from the population you want to research, based on specific criteria, such as convenience

Probability sampling

In quantitative research , it is important that your sample is representative of your target population. This allows you to make strong statistical inferences based on the collected data. Having a sufficiently large random probability sample is the best guarantee that the sample will be representative and the results are generalizable and free from research biases like selection bias and sampling bias .

Non-probability sampling

Non-probability sampling designs are used in both quantitative and qualitative research when the number of units in the population is either unknown or impossible to individually identify. It is also used when you want to apply the results only to a certain subsection or organization rather than the general public. Non-probability sampling is at higher risk than probability sampling for research biases like sampling bias .

You are unlikely to be able to compile a list of every practicing organizational psychologist in the country, but you could compile a list with all the experts in your area and select a few to interview.

It’s important to be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of probability sampling, as it will help you decide if this is the right sampling method for your research design.

Advantages of probability sampling

There are two main advantages to probability sampling.

• Samples selected with this method are representative of the population at large. Due to this, inferences drawn from such samples can be generalized to the total population you are studying.
• As some statistical tests, such as multiple linear regression , t test , or ANOVA , can only be applied to a sample size large enough to approximate the true distribution of the population, using probability sampling allows you to establish correlation or cause-and-effect relationship between your variables.

Disadvantages of probability sampling

Choosing probability sampling as your sampling method comes with some challenges, too. These include the following:

• It may be difficult to access a list of the entire population, due to ethical or privacy concerns, or a full list may not exist. It can be expensive and time-consuming to compile this yourself.
• Although probability sampling reduces the risk of sampling bias , it can still occur. When your selected sample is not inclusive enough, representation of the full population is skewed .

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Prospective cohort study

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic
• Social desirability bias

When your population is large in size, geographically dispersed, or difficult to contact, it’s necessary to use a sampling method .

This allows you to gather information from a smaller part of the population (i.e., the sample) and make accurate statements by using statistical analysis. A few sampling methods include simple random sampling , convenience sampling , and snowball sampling .

Stratified and cluster sampling may look similar, but bear in mind that groups created in cluster sampling are heterogeneous , so the individual characteristics in the cluster vary. In contrast, groups created in stratified sampling are homogeneous , as units share characteristics.

Relatedly, in cluster sampling you randomly select entire groups and include all units of each group in your sample. However, in stratified sampling, you select some units of all groups and include them in your sample. In this way, both methods can ensure that your sample is representative of the target population .

A sampling frame is a list of every member in the entire population . It is important that the sampling frame is as complete as possible, so that your sample accurately reflects your population.

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Sampling Techniques for Qualitative Research

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This chapter explains how to design suitable sampling strategies for qualitative research. The focus of this chapter is purposive (or theoretical) sampling to produce credible and trustworthy explanations of a phenomenon (a specific aspect of society). A specific research question (RQ) guides the methodology (the study design or approach ). It defines the participants, location, and actions to be used to answer the question. Qualitative studies use specific tools and techniques ( methods ) to sample people, organizations, or whatever is to be examined. The methodology guides the selection of tools and techniques for sampling, data analysis, quality assurance, etc. These all vary according to the purpose and design of the study and the RQ. In this chapter, a fake example is used to demonstrate how to apply your sampling strategy in a developing country.

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Reviewing the research methods literature: principles and strategies illustrated by a systematic overview of sampling in qualitative research, the role of sampling in mixed methods-research.

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Douglas, H. (2010). Divergent orientations in social entrepreneurship organisations. In K. Hockerts, J. Robinson, & J. Mair (Eds.), Values and opportunities in social entrepreneurship (pp. 71–95). Palgrave Macmillan.

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Douglas, H. (2022). Sampling Techniques for Qualitative Research. In: Islam, M.R., Khan, N.A., Baikady, R. (eds) Principles of Social Research Methodology. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-5441-2_29

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Sampling methods in Clinical Research; an Educational Review

Mohamed elfil.

1 Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt.

Ahmed Negida

2 Faculty of Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt.

Clinical research usually involves patients with a certain disease or a condition. The generalizability of clinical research findings is based on multiple factors related to the internal and external validity of the research methods. The main methodological issue that influences the generalizability of clinical research findings is the sampling method. In this educational article, we are explaining the different sampling methods in clinical research.

Introduction

In clinical research, we define the population as a group of people who share a common character or a condition, usually the disease. If we are conducting a study on patients with ischemic stroke, it will be difficult to include the whole population of ischemic stroke all over the world. It is difficult to locate the whole population everywhere and to have access to all the population. Therefore, the practical approach in clinical research is to include a part of this population, called “sample population”. The whole population is sometimes called “target population” while the sample population is called “study population. When doing a research study, we should consider the sample to be representative to the target population, as much as possible, with the least possible error and without substitution or incompleteness. The process of selecting a sample population from the target population is called the “sampling method”.

Sampling types

There are two major categories of sampling methods ( figure 1 ): 1; probability sampling methods where all subjects in the target population have equal chances to be selected in the sample [ 1 , 2 ] and 2; non-probability sampling methods where the sample population is selected in a non-systematic process that does not guarantee equal chances for each subject in the target population [ 2 , 3 ]. Samples which were selected using probability sampling methods are more representatives of the target population.

Sampling methods.

Probability sampling method

Simple random sampling

This method is used when the whole population is accessible and the investigators have a list of all subjects in this target population. The list of all subjects in this population is called the “sampling frame”. From this list, we draw a random sample using lottery method or using a computer generated random list [ 4 ].

Stratified random sampling

This method is a modification of the simple random sampling therefore, it requires the condition of sampling frame being available, as well. However, in this method, the whole population is divided into homogeneous strata or subgroups according a demographic factor (e.g. gender, age, religion, socio-economic level, education, or diagnosis etc.). Then, the researchers select draw a random sample from the different strata [ 3 , 4 ]. The advantages of this method are: (1) it allows researchers to obtain an effect size from each strata separately, as if it was a different study. Therefore, the between group differences become apparent, and (2) it allows obtaining samples from minority/under-represented populations. If the researchers used the simple random sampling, the minority population will remain underrepresented in the sample, as well. Simply, because the simple random method usually represents the whole target population. In such case, investigators can better use the stratified random sample to obtain adequate samples from all strata in the population.

Systematic random sampling (Interval sampling)

In this method, the investigators select subjects to be included in the sample based on a systematic rule, using a fixed interval. For example: If the rule is to include the last patient from every 5 patients. We will include patients with these numbers (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ...etc.). In some situations, it is not necessary to have the sampling frame if there is a specific hospital or center which the patients are visiting regularly. In this case, the researcher can start randomly and then systemically chooses next patients using a fixed interval [ 4 ].

Cluster sampling (Multistage sampling)

It is used when creating a sampling frame is nearly impossible due to the large size of the population. In this method, the population is divided by geographic location into clusters. A list of all clusters is made and investigators draw a random number of clusters to be included. Then, they list all individuals within these clusters, and run another turn of random selection to get a final random sample exactly as simple random sampling. This method is called multistage because the selection passed with two stages: firstly, the selection of eligible clusters, then, the selection of sample from individuals of these clusters. An example for this, if we are conducting a research project on primary school students from Iran. It will be very difficult to get a list of all primary school students all over the country. In this case, a list of primary schools is made and the researcher randomly picks up a number of schools, then pick a random sample from the eligible schools [ 3 ].

Non-probability sampling method

Convenience sampling

Although it is a non-probability sampling method, it is the most applicable and widely used method in clinical research. In this method, the investigators enroll subjects according to their availability and accessibility. Therefore, this method is quick, inexpensive, and convenient. It is called convenient sampling as the researcher selects the sample elements according to their convenient accessibility and proximity [ 3 , 6 ]. For example: assume that we will perform a cohort study on Egyptian patients with Hepatitis C (HCV) virus. The convenience sample here will be confined to the accessible population for the research team. Accessible population are HCV patients attending in Zagazig University Hospital and Cairo University Hospitals. Therefore, within the study period, all patients attending these two hospitals and meet the eligibility criteria will be included in this study.

Judgmental sampling

In this method, the subjects are selected by the choice of the investigators. The researcher assumes specific characteristics for the sample (e.g. male/female ratio = 2/1) and therefore, they judge the sample to be suitable for representing the population. This method is widely criticized due to the likelihood of bias by investigator judgement [ 5 ].

Snow-ball sampling

This method is used when the population cannot be located in a specific place and therefore, it is different to access this population. In this method, the investigator asks each subject to give him access to his colleagues from the same population. This situation is common in social science research, for example, if we running a survey on street children, there will be no list with the homeless children and it will be difficult to locate this population in one place e.g. a school/hospital. Here, the investigators will deliver the survey to one child then, ask him to take them to his colleagues or deliver the surveys to them.

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Types of Sampling: Which is the Most Effective in Market Research?

Table of contents, what is sampling, types of probability sampling, types of non-probability sampling  , how to determine which sampling method to use, common sampling errors and how to avoid them, faqs (frequently asked questions).

Sampling is an essential technique in market research because it allows you to gather representative information about a population without analyzing every individual. There are several types of sampling, each suitable for different situations and research objectives. At Netquest, our mission is to facilitate your market research, so we're here to explain the main types of sampling and help you decide which is best for your study.  

Before diving into the different types of sampling, it is important to understand what sampling is. Sampling is the process of selecting a sample, or a subset of individuals, from a larger population for analysis. This method is fundamental in market research as it allows you to collect valuable data efficiently and cost-effectively.  

You Might Be Interested In: How to Obtain a Representative Sample for a Survey

Probability sampling is characterized by the fact that each member of the population has a known and non-zero probability of being selected. This approach ensures that the results are representative and allows for statistical inference.  

Simple Random Sampling

In this type of sampling, each individual in the population has the same chance of being chosen. It is the simplest method and is used when a complete list of the population is available.  

Example : If you have a list of 1,000 customers, you randomly select 100 for a survey.  

Systematic Sampling

In systematic sampling, a random starting point is chosen, and then every nth individual from the list is selected.  

Example : If you have a list of 1,000 customers and need a sample of 100, you select the 10th, 20th, 30th customer, and so on.  

Stratified Sampling

  This method is used when the population is divided into subgroups (or strata), and samples are drawn from each one. It is useful to ensure that all relevant segments of the population are included.  

Example : If you want to ensure that both men and women are represented in your sample, you divide the population by gender and select a proportional sample from each group.  

Cluster Sampling

Instead of selecting individuals from a complete list, groups or clusters are randomly selected, and then all or some members of those groups are studied.  

Example : If you want to study buying behavior in different cities, you randomly select several cities and then survey all the residents of those cities.  

Non-probability sampling does not guarantee that all members of the population have the same chance of being selected, which can introduce bias. However, it is useful in situations where a complete list of the population is not available or when a quick sample is needed.  

• Convenience Sampling

Individuals are chosen based on their availability or because they volunteer to participate. It is common in exploratory studies.  

Example : Surveying people passing by in a shopping mall.  

• Judgmental or Purposive Sampling

Researchers select participants based on their knowledge of the population. It is useful when specific expertise or characteristics are needed.  

Example : Selecting technology experts for a survey on digital innovation.  

• Snowball Sampling

This method is used when it is difficult to access the target population. Initial participants recommend others, and so on.  

Example : In a study on a specific niche market, such as antique collectors, the initial participants invite others they know.  

The choice of sampling method depends on several factors: the nature of the population, available resources, the study's objectives, and the desired level of accuracy. Probability sampling is preferable when representativeness and statistical precision are sought, while non-probability sampling is useful in exploratory studies or when time and budget are limited.  

Some common sampling errors include biased sample selection, inadequate sample size, or lack of representativeness of the target population. To avoid these, it is crucial to clearly define the study's objectives and choose the sampling method that best suits them.  

Learn About Survey Panels: Market Decisions in 2024 and How to Maximize Data Accuracy: Survey Validation and Reliability

• What is the difference between probability sampling and non-probability sampling?*

Probability sampling ensures that each member of the population has a known chance of being selected, reducing bias and allowing for statistical inference. Non-probability sampling does not offer these guarantees.  

• Which sampling method is best for an exploratory study?

Convenience sampling or judgmental sampling are common options for exploratory studies as they are quick and easy to implement.  

• How can I ensure my sample is representative?

To ensure representativeness, it is advisable to use a probability sampling method and carefully consider the sample's size and composition.  

Understanding the different types of sampling is essential for conducting effective market research. Depending on your objectives, resources, and the nature of the population, you should choose between probability and non-probability methods. With the right choice, you can obtain accurate and representative results that will guide your business decisions.  

A seasoned marketer with over 20 years of experience, she specializes in online and retail platforms. With an MBA and multilingual proficiency, she excels in dynamic, multicultural environments. As the Marketing and Communication Director at Netquest, she leads a team, driving digital marketing strategies for B2B and B2C brands, focusing on lead generation, website optimization, content creation, and brand consistency.

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Types of sampling in research

• January 2019
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Understanding Sampling Errors

Table of Contents

What is sampling in sociological research, types of sampling errors, common causes of sampling errors, consequences of sampling errors.

• Strategies to Minimize Sampling Errors

Sampling errors are a critical concept within sociological research and quantitative analysis. Whether conducting surveys, interviews, or observational studies, sociologists often rely on samples—subsets of a population—to make inferences about larger groups. The use of samples is essential due to the logistical difficulties, time constraints, and costs associated with studying entire populations. However, sampling is not without its challenges, and errors that occur during this process can have significant implications for the validity and reliability of research findings. This article will explore what sampling errors are, how they occur, and what sociologists can do to minimize their impact. By the end of this discussion, you should have a clear understanding of how sampling errors shape the landscape of sociological research.

Before delving into sampling errors, it is essential to define what sampling itself entails. Sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of individuals or units from a larger population to represent the whole. In sociological research, the goal is to make inferences about a population based on the characteristics of a sample. Samples can be drawn from various sources, including human participants, documents, events, or even artifacts, depending on the research focus.

The rationale behind sampling is straightforward: it is often impractical to study entire populations. For example, if a sociologist wants to understand attitudes toward immigration in a large country, surveying every citizen is not feasible. Instead, the researcher selects a representative sample of individuals to participate. Ideally, this sample should accurately reflect the diversity and complexity of the larger population, allowing the sociologist to generalize findings.

However, regardless of how well-designed a study may be, sampling errors can still occur. Understanding these errors and their potential effects on research is vital for any sociologist.

Sampling errors are deviations between the characteristics of the sample and those of the entire population. They can distort research findings, leading to inaccurate conclusions. Sociologists generally categorize sampling errors into two broad types: random sampling errors and systematic sampling errors. Each type of error has distinct causes and effects on research outcomes.

Random Sampling Error

Random sampling error occurs when the sample selected, despite being random and theoretically representative, does not perfectly match the population. This mismatch happens by chance and is an inevitable part of using samples. The key characteristic of random sampling error is that it is unpredictable. For instance, if a researcher randomly selects 1,000 individuals from a population of 10,000, the sample might have slightly more women or fewer individuals from specific age groups simply due to chance.

Random sampling error is usually quantified using statistics such as the margin of error and confidence intervals . These tools allow researchers to estimate how much their sample results may deviate from the true population parameters. The larger the sample size, the smaller the random sampling error tends to be, as larger samples are more likely to approximate the diversity and characteristics of the population.

Despite being unpredictable, random sampling error can be anticipated and measured, allowing sociologists to account for it when interpreting their results. However, it cannot be entirely eliminated, even in the most rigorous studies.

Systematic Sampling Error

In contrast to random sampling errors, systematic sampling errors occur when there is a bias in the selection of the sample that leads to consistent misrepresentation of the population. These errors arise from flaws in the sampling process itself, rather than from random chance. For example, if a researcher only surveys people in urban areas while studying national attitudes toward rural issues, the sample will be systematically biased, leading to skewed results.

Systematic sampling errors can have more severe consequences than random sampling errors because they distort findings in a predictable and often unrecognized way. Unlike random errors, systematic errors do not decrease as sample size increases; they may even be exacerbated if the sampling bias is replicated across a larger group. Consequently, recognizing and avoiding systematic sampling errors is crucial for producing valid sociological research.

Sampling errors, both random and systematic, can arise from various sources. Understanding these causes is key to minimizing their occurrence and ensuring the accuracy of research findings.

Sample Size

One of the most common causes of random sampling error is insufficient sample size. Smaller samples are less likely to capture the full range of variability present in a population, leading to greater deviations between the sample and the population. While small samples can provide valuable insights, their findings are often accompanied by higher margins of error. In contrast, larger samples tend to reduce random sampling error, although they are not immune to it.

Sample size also interacts with systematic sampling error. If the sample is small and drawn from a biased source, the systematic error will be even more pronounced. For example, if a researcher conducting a small study on public opinion uses a sampling method that disproportionately selects individuals from a particular socioeconomic background, the results will likely be skewed.

Sampling Method

The method used to select participants or units from the population can significantly influence the occurrence of systematic sampling errors. Several types of sampling methods are commonly employed in sociological research, including simple random sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling.

• Simple random sampling involves selecting individuals purely by chance, which reduces the likelihood of systematic bias.
• Stratified sampling ensures that key subgroups within the population are adequately represented by dividing the population into strata (e.g., based on age, gender, or ethnicity ) and randomly selecting participants from each group.
• Cluster sampling involves selecting groups or clusters (e.g., schools or neighborhoods) rather than individuals, which can introduce bias if the clusters themselves are not representative of the population.

Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, but if a researcher fails to choose the appropriate method for their study, systematic sampling errors may result. For example, using cluster sampling in a study where individual-level variability is crucial could lead to inaccurate conclusions.

Nonresponse and Voluntary Response Bias

Nonresponse bias occurs when certain individuals or groups are systematically underrepresented because they choose not to participate in the study. For example, in a survey about income, wealthier individuals might be less inclined to disclose financial information, leading to an overrepresentation of lower-income respondents. This type of bias can lead to systematic sampling errors, as the sample no longer accurately reflects the broader population.

Voluntary response bias is another common issue, particularly in surveys where participation is optional. In these cases, individuals who feel strongly about the topic are more likely to respond, skewing the results. For instance, in a survey on controversial social issues, respondents with extreme views may disproportionately participate, while moderate individuals are underrepresented. Voluntary response bias is a significant cause of systematic sampling error in sociological research.

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Mr Edwards has a PhD in sociology and 10 years of experience in sociological knowledge

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