nervous system assignment high school

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High School Biology : Nervous System

Study concepts, example questions & explanations for high school biology, all high school biology resources, example questions, example question #1 : nervous system.

Which of the following depicts the soma of a neuron?

The soma is the cell body of the neuron (D). The soma is the site of neuron metabolism and protein synthesis.

The dendrites of the neuron (A) receive incoming action potential signals. The axon (B) sends the action potential outward from the soma to the axon terminal (C). Vesicles of neurotransmitter are released from the axon terminal to the dendrites of other nearby neurons. Neurons can have numerous dendrites, but will only have one soma and one axon.

Example Question #2 : Tissues, Organs, And Organ Systems

Which brain structure is responsible for the body's balance and coordination?

Medulla oblongata

The cerebellum is responsible for maintaining balance and coordination.

The medulla oblongata is responsible for maintaining subconscious body functions, such as heart rate and breathing. The cerebrum is responsible for higher level functions such as movement and memory. The thalamus mediates survival instincts, including hunger, thirst, and sexual instinct.

Example Question #2 : Nervous System

Which of the following structures is NOT part of the central nervous system?

The brain stem

The cerebral cortex

The spinal cord

Spinal nerves

The central nervous system is composed of the brain (including the cerebrum and brain stem) and spinal cord. Cranial and spinal nerves branch directly off of these structures, but are considered part of the peripheral nervous system.

Example Question #3 : Nervous System

Which of the following is the most basic functional unit found in the nervous system?

Mitochondria

Action potentials

The cerebellum

Glial cells

The nervous system is used to conduct electrical signals throughout the body. These signals stimulate various functions, frequently causing muscles to contract or carrying sensory signals to the brain. The brain and spinal cord are key components for organizing and interpreting these signals.

Neurons are the cells responsible for conducting electrical impulses. The impulses themselves are known as action potentials.

Glial cells provide support for the nervous system. Different types of glial cells perform different functions, such as myelination of axons, immune activity, and the production of cerebrospinal fluid. The cerebellum is a region of the brain responsible for balance and coordination. Since the cerebellum is a part of the nervous system, its structure is primarily composed of neurons. Mitochondria are organelles found in most eukaryotic cells. They generate ATP, which provides energy to the cell. Their function is not inherently linked to the nervous system.

Example Question #4 : Understanding Structures Of The Nervous System

What type of cell provides support for neurons?

Connective tissue

Blood vessels

Epithelial cells

Glial cells provide support for neurons. Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and ependymal cells are a few examples of glia. Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes provide myelination for neurons. Astrocytes play a key role in supporting the blood-brain barrier, while epedymal cells are responsible for secreting and circulating cerebrospinal fluid.

Blood vessels provide oxygenated blood and nutrients necessary for proper neuronal function. Connective tissue is a large component of the dura surrounding the brain itself, but it doesn't provide support for neurons themselves. Similarly, epithelial cells help structurally support the blood-brain barrier, but do not interact directly with neurons. Mitochondria are not a cell type, but are an organelle found within neurons.

Example Question #4 : Nervous System

What are the three structural regions of a neuron?

Cell body, dendrites, cell wall

Dendrites, cell body, flagellum

Cell body, cell wall, axon

Axon, dendrites, cell wall

Cell body, dendrites, axon

The three structural regions of the neuron include the cell body (or soma), dendrites, and axon. The dendrites receive electrical inputs and stimulation and transfer incoming information to the cell body, or soma. Signals accumulate in the soma before triggering the threshold for conducting an action potential down the axon. The axon then interfaces with the dendrites of another neuron, or with the membrane of a neighboring muscle cell.

Cell walls are not found in human cells, including neurons. Though flagella can be found in certain human cells and somewhat resembles the long, narrow structure of an axon, the two are functionally very different. Neurons do not have flagella.

Example Question #5 : Nervous System

What part of the neuron contains the nucleus and other organelles?

The axon terminal

The dendrites

The cell body

The synapse

The cell body (or soma) contains the nucleus of the neuron, as well as other organelles. Most basic cell processes, such as transcription and translation, take place in the cell body. For example, ribosomes synthesize neurotransmitters in the cell body. The neurotransmitters are then packaged in vesicles and transported to the axon terminal.

The axon of the neuron is responsible for conveying electrical signals away from the cell body, while the dendrites convey electrical signals toward the cell body. The axon terminal is located most distal from the cell body and marks the end of the axon. Neurotransmitters are stored and released from the axon terminal. The synapse is not technically a part of the neuron structure, but is instead the small space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites of another.

Example Question #7 : Nervous System

Which of the following refers to a long projection off the cell body of the neuron that is used to conduct electrical signals to neighboring cells?

Action potential

The axon is the long extension of the nerve cell body that transmits nerve impulses to other cells. Neurotransmitters are stored at the end of the axon and released into the synapse to communicate with other neurons and cells.

Dendrites are generally not as long as axons, and are responsible for receiving the nerve impulses rather than transmitting them. Flagella are not related to nerve cells, as nerve cells do not need to travel from one place to another and have no use for motility. Action potentials are the electrical signals that travel down the axons from the cell body to the axon terminal. The synapse is the space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another.

Example Question #8 : Nervous System

Which of the following consists of spinal nerves that pass through the inferior aspect of the vertebral column?

Thoracic nerves

Cranial nerves

Cauda equina

Cervical nerves

The cauda equina is the batch of spinal nerves that run down through the inferior end of the vertebral column. It is located in the area of the lumbar vertebral column. Cervical and thoracic nerves are located toward the upper part of the vertebral column. The dura mater is the connective tissue covering that surrounds the central nervous system. Cranial nerves come off the brain, and are part of the central nervous system.

Example Question #9 : Understanding Structures Of The Nervous System

Which of the cranial nerves is associated with sense of smell?

The olfactory nerve is the first of 12 cranial nerves and is associated with a sense of smell. The optic nerve is associated with vision, the trigeminal nerve is associated with sensation of the head and face, and the facial nerve is associated with control of the facial muscles.

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• The Brain Facts Book

Nervous System Activities

• Published 4 Aug 2016
• Reviewed 4 Aug 2016
• Author Emma Lindberg
• Source BrainFacts/SfN

From building a spinal cord to discerning the flavor of a jelly bean, the five activities and crafts presented here will help your students understand how the human nervous system works.

About the Author

Emma Lindberg

Emma is the former Outreach Associate at the Society for Neuroscience. She helped find and create Educator Resources for BrainFacts.org , as well as promote the site at conferences and events across the country.

CONTENT PROVIDED BY

BrainFacts/SfN

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Nervous system.

The human nervous system is a system of nerves that begins in the brain and is part of every area of your body from your fingertips to your eyes, from the skin on your toes to your bones, tendons and ligaments. The nervous system is designed to help humans perceive the world around them and to keep them safe.

A simple example of the human nervous system is when your finger or hand gets too close to a heat source and you instinctively pull back. Your brain and nerve endings feel the heat and signal your muscles to retract your hand.

Teaching the Human Nervous System

Teaching the human nervous system is a big job. It's a complicated system that can be difficult to teach. Teacher Planet is here to help. Beginning with the lesson plans you can teach the nervous system to your class room in an easy and enjoyable way. Add worksheets, clip art and activities to really help your young students absorb the science and learn the concepts. Finally, take advantage of the teaching resources to add depth and additional learning to your unit on the nervous system.

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Neuroscience Is... Cool

The brain is fun to study, and here students and teachers can get ideas for classroom activities, experiments, and supplies to learn more about the brain.

What is neuroscience?

Neuroscience is the study of your brain and nervous system.

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• Biology Article
• Nervous System

Human Nervous System

Living organisms adapt to their moves and positions in response to the environmental changes for their protection or to their advantage. When an entity reacts to the changes in its surroundings, it is referred to as stimulus while the reaction to the stimulus is referred to as a response. Common stimuli are sound, light, air, heat, smell, taste, water and gravity.

Think of burning your finger of fracturing your bone without any pain sensation. It may certainly sound like a superpower or an ideal situation, however, when it comes to the standpoint of survival, it can be disastrous.

The characteristic behaviour of living entities is to respond to stimuli with the intervention of the nervous system. It is an organ system ascribed to send signals from the spinal cord and the brain throughout the body and then back from all the body parts to the brain. The neuron acts as the mediator and is the basic signalling unit of the nervous system.

Pain is the body’s way of letting us know that something is not right. It can prevent further injuries or push us to seek medical attention. Moreover, all of this is possible because humans can respond and react to stimuli due to control and coordination among the various organs and organ systems.

Control and Coordination in simple multicellular organisms take place through only the Nervous system which coordinates activities of our body. It is the control system for all our actions, thinking, and behaviour.

Refer more:  Control and Coordination

Let us have a detailed look at the nervous system notes to explore what is the nervous system, and the different functions of the nervous system with the help of diagrams. Table of Contents

What is the Nervous System?

Human nervous system diagram, central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, recommended video:.

The nervous system or the neural system is a complex network of neurons specialized to carry messages .  The complexity of the nervous system increases as we move towards higher animals.

For instance, cnidarians such as jellyfish have relatively simple nerve nets spread throughout their body. Crabs have a more complicated nervous system in the form of 2 nerve centers called dorsal ganglion and ventral ganglion.

As we move further up the ladder, higher organisms such as vertebrates have a developed brain. Moreover, it is one of the most complicated structures in the animal kingdom, containing billions of neurons, all intricately connected.

In the human body, the neural system integrates the activities of organs based on the stimuli, which the neurons detect and transmit. They transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses and convey messages to and from the sense organs. Thus, the nervous coordination involves the participation of the sense organs, nerves, spinal cord, and brain.

Also Read:  Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease

Diagram of the Human Nervous System

One of the most complex organ system to ever evolve, the human nervous system consists of two parts, namely:

• Central Nervous System (consists of the brain and spinal cord)
• Peripheral Nervous System (includes all the nerves of the body)

Central Nervous System (CNS) is often called the central processing unit of the body. It consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

The brain is one of the important, largest and central organ of the human nervous system. It is the control unit of the nervous system, which helps us in discovering new things, remembering and understanding, making decisions, and a lot more. It is enclosed within the skull, which provides frontal, lateral and dorsal protection. The human brain is composed of three major parts:

Forebrain : The anterior part of the brain, consists of Cerebrum, Hypothalamus and Thalamus.

Midbrain : The smaller and central part of the brainstem, consists of Tectum and Tegmentum.

Hindbrain : The central region of the brain, composed of Cerebellum, Medulla and Pons.

Also read: Human Brain

Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is a cylindrical bundle of nerve fibers and associated tissues enclosed within the spine and connect all parts of the body to the brain. It begins in continuation with the medulla and extends downwards. It is enclosed in a bony cage called vertebral column and surrounded by membranes called meninges. The spinal cord is concerned with spinal reflex actions and the conduction of nerve impulses to and from the brain.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is the lateral part of the nervous system that develops from the central nervous system which connects different parts of the body with the CNS. We carry out both voluntary and involuntary actions with the help of peripheral nerves.

Also refer:  Peripheral Nervous System

PNS includes two types of nerve fibers:

• Afferent nerve fibers – These are responsible for transmitting messages from tissues and organs to the CNS.
• Efferent nerve-fibers – These are responsible for conveying messages from CNS to the corresponding peripheral organ.

Classification of the peripheral nervous system:

Somatic neural system (SNS): It is the neural system that controls the voluntary actions in the body by transmitting impulses from CNS to skeletal muscle cells. It consists of the somatic nerves.

Autonomic neural system (ANS): The autonomic neural system is involved in involuntary actions like regulation of physiological functions (digestion, respiration, salivation, etc.). It is a self-regulating system which conveys the impulses from the CNS to the smooth muscles and involuntary organs (heart, bladder and pupil). The autonomic neural system can be further divided into:

• Sympathetic nervous system
• Parasympathetic nervous system

A Neuron is a structured and functional unit of the nervous system and unlike other cells, neurons are irregular in shape and able to conduct electrochemical signals. The different parts of a neuron are discussed below.

• Dendrite stretches out from the cell body of a neuron, and it is the shortest fibre in the cell body.
• Axon is the longest thread on the cell body of a neuron and has an insulating and protective sheath of myelin around it.
• Cell body consists of cytoplasm and nucleus.
• Synapse is the microscopic gap between a pair of adjacent neurons over which nerve impulses pass, when moving from one neuron to the other.

Explore more:  Placebo Effect

Nerves are thread-like structures that emerge from the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for carrying messages to all the parts of the body. There are three types of nerves. Some of these neurons can fire signals at speeds of over 119 m/s or above 428 km/h.

• Sensory nerves send messages from all the senses to the brain.
• Motor nerves carry messages from the brain to all the muscles.
• Mixed nerves carry both sensory and motor nerves.

Also read: Nerves

Cranial nerves begin from the brain as these nerves carry impulses to start from the central nervous system. Certain cranial nerves belong to the group of mixed nerves while certain ones fall under sensory nerves. Spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord. All the spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the central nervous system and these are part of mixed nerves. The above nervous system diagram depicts the various nerves arising from various parts of the body.

Learn more in detail about the  Human Nervous System with diagrams or any  other related topics by referring to the nervous system notes provided at BYJU’S website. Download BYJU’S app for further reference.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the two divisions of the nervous system.

The human nervous system controls all activities of the body in a quicker fashion. It can be divided into the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system includes spinal cord and brain and the peripheral covers the nerves branching from spinal cord and brain.

What are nerves and neurons?

Nerves are thread-like structures that emerge from the spinal cord and brain. These nerves are actual projections of neurons. A neuron is a basic structural and functional unit of a nervous system that conducts electrochemical signals.

What are cranial nerves?

The nerves that extend throughout the body on both sides and emerges directly from the brain stem and brain are called cranial nerves. They carry information from the brain to other parts, primarily to the neck and head.

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Overview of the nervous system

Author: Jana Vasković, MD • Reviewer: Nicola McLaren, MSc Last reviewed: November 03, 2023 Reading time: 21 minutes

The nervous system is a network of neurons whose main feature is to generate, modulate and transmit information between all the different parts of the human body . This property enables many important functions of the nervous system, such as regulation of vital body functions ( heartbeat , breathing , digestion), sensation and body movements . Ultimately, the nervous system structures preside over everything that makes us human; our consciousness, cognition, behaviour and memories.

The nervous system consists of two divisions; 

• Central nervous system (CNS) is the integration and command center of the body
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS) represents the conduit between the CNS and the body. It is further subdivided into the somatic nervous system (SNS) and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) . 

Understanding the nervous system requires knowledge of its various parts, so in this article you will learn about the nervous system breakdown and all its various divisions.

How do neurons function?

Glial cells, white and gray matter, nervous system divisions, central nervous system, cranial nerves, spinal nerves, somatic nervous system, sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system, enteric nervous system, cranial nerve palsies, affected taste in the anterior 2/3 of the tongue, limb nerve lesions, hirschsprung’s disease, spina bifida, parkinson’s disease.

Cells of the nervous system 

Two basic types of cells are present in the nervous system; 

Neurons , or nerve cell, are the main structural and functional units of the nervous system. Every neuron consists of a body (soma) and a number of processes (neurites). The nerve cell body contains the cellular organelles and is where neural impulses ( action potentials ) are generated. The processes stem from the body, they connect neurons with each other and with other body cells , enabling the flow of neural impulses. There are two types of neural processes that differ in structure and function; 

• Axons are long and conduct impulses away from the neuronal body. 
• Dendrites are short and act to receive impulses from other neurons, conducting the electrical signal towards the nerve cell body.

Every neuron has a single axon, while the number of dendrites varies. Based on that number, there are four structural types of neurons ; multipolar, bipolar, pseudounipolar and unipolar. 

Learn more about the neurons in our study unit:

The morphology of neurons makes them highly specialized to work with neural impulses; they generate, receive and send these impulses onto other neurons and non-neural tissues. 

There are two types of neurons, named according to whether they send an electrical signal towards or away from the CNS;

• Efferent neurons (motor or descending) send neural impulses from the CNS to the peripheral tissues , instructing them how to function. 
• Afferent neurons (sensory or ascending) conduct impulses from the peripheral tissues to the CNS. These impulses contain sensory information, describing the tissue's environment.

The site where an axon connects to another cell to pass the neural impulse is called a synapse . The synapse doesn't connect to the next cell directly. Instead, the impulse triggers the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters from the very end of an axon. These neurotransmitters bind to the effector cell’s membrane, causing biochemical events to occur within that cell according to the orders sent by the CNS.

Ready to reinforce your knowledge about the neurons? Try out our quiz below:

Glial cells , also called neuroglia or simply glia, are smaller non-excitatory cells that act to support neurons. They do not propagate action potentials. Instead, they myelinate neurons, maintain homeostatic balance, provide structural support, protection and nutrition for neurons throughout the nervous system. 

This set of functions is provided for by four different types of glial cells;

• Myelinating glia produce the axon-insulating myelin sheath. These are called oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS. Remember these easily with the mnemonic "COPS" ( C entral - O ligodendrocytes; P eripheral - S chwann)
• Astrocytes (CNS) and satellite glial cells (PNS) both share the function of supporting and protecting neurons. 
• Other two glial cell types are found in CNS exclusively; microglia are the phagocytes of the CNS and ependymal cells which line the ventricular system of the CNS. The PNS doesn’t have a glial equivalent to microglia as the phagocytic role is performed by macrophages.

Most axons are wrapped by a white insulating substance known as a  myelin sheath , which is produced by oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells. Myelin encloses an axon segmentally, leaving interruptions between the segments known as myelin sheath gaps (a.ka.  nodes of Ranvier) . The neural impulses propagate through the myelin sheath gaps only, skipping the myelin sheath. This significantly increases the speed of neural impulse propagation. 

The white color of myelinated axons is distinguished from the gray colored neuronal bodies and dendrites. Based on this, nervous tissue is divided into white matter and gray matter, both of which has a specific distribution; 

• White matter comprises the outermost layer of the spinal cord and the inner part of the brain .
• Gray matter is located in the central part of the spinal cord, outermost layer of the brain ( cerebral cortex ), and in several subcortical nuclei of the brain deep to the cerebral cortex.

Master the histology of nervous tissue with our customizable quiz: We got you covered with neurons, nerves and ganglia!

So nervous tissue, comprised of neurons and neuroglia, forms our nervous organs (e.g. the brain, nerves). These organs unite according to their common function, forming the evolutionary perfection that is our nervous system. 

The nervous system (NS) is structurally broken down into two divisions; 

• Central nervous system (CNS) - consists of the brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - gathers all neural tissue outside the CNS

Functionally , the nervous system can be categorized into three main areas: sensation , integration  and response .

The sensory (afferent) nervous system is responsible for detecting stimuli through receptors and transmitting this information to the central nervous system. Sensory inputs are further divided into somatic , visceral , and special senses . Integration occurs within the brain, processing sensory information at both lower and higher levels, including basic bodily functions and complex decision-making.

Finally, the motor (efferent) nervous system carries signals from the brain to effectors, facilitating responses such as muscle movement or glandular secretion. This motor division includes somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) systems , the latter further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic responses , which regulate stress-related and resting activities, respectively.

Learn more about the functional divisions of the nervous system in the video below:

Although divided structurally into central and peripheral parts, the nervous system divisions are actually interconnected with each other. Axon bundles pass impulses between the brain and spinal cord. These bundles within the CNS are called afferent and efferent neural pathways or tracts . Axons that extend from the CNS to connect with peripheral tissues belong to the PNS. Axons bundles within the PNS are called afferent and efferent peripheral nerves .

They say that the nervous system is one of the hardest anatomy topic. But you're in luck, as we've got a learning strategy for you to master neuroanatomy in a lot shorter time than you though you'll need. Check out our quizzes and more for the nervous system anatomy practice !

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. These are found housed within the skull and vertebral column respectively.

The brain is made of four parts; cerebrum , diencephalon , cerebellum and brainstem . Together these parts process the incoming information from peripheral tissues and generate commands; telling the tissues how to respond and function. These commands tackle the most complex voluntary and involuntary human body functions, from breathing to thinking.

The spinal cord continues from the brainstem. It also has the ability to generate commands but for involuntary processes only, i.e. reflexes . However, its main function is to pass information between the CNS and periphery. 

Learn more about the CNS anatomy here:

Peripheral nervous system

The PNS consists of 12 pairs of cranial nerves, 31 pairs of spinal nerves and a number of small neuronal clusters throughout the body called ganglia. Peripheral nerves can be sensory (afferent), motor (efferent) or mixed (both). Depending on what structures they innervate, peripheral nerves can have the following modalities;

• Special - innervating special senses (e.g. eye ) and is found only in afferent fibers
• General - supplying everything except special senses
• Somatic - innervates the skin and skeletal muscles (e.g. biceps brachii )
• Visceral - supplies internal organs . 

Cranial nerves are peripheral nerves that emerge from the cranial nerve nuclei of the brainstem and spinal cord. They innervate the head and neck . Cranial nerves are numbered one to twelve according to their order of exit through the skull fissures . Namely, they are: olfactory nerve (CN I), optic nerve (CN II), oculomotor nerve (CN III), trochlear nerve (CN IV), trigeminal nerve (CN V), abducens nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII), vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII), glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), vagus nerve (X), accessory nerve (XI), and hypoglossal nerve (XII). These nerves are motor (III, IV, VI, XI, and XII), sensory (I, II and VIII) or mixed (V, VII, IX, and X).

Among many strategies for learning cranial nerves anatomy, our experts have determined that one of the most efficient is through interactive learning. Check out Kenhub’s interactive cranial nerves quizzes and labeling exercises to cut your studying time in half.

Jump right into our cranial nerves quiz in multiple difficulty levels:

Or learn more about the cranial nerves in this study unit.

Spinal nerves  emerge from the segments of the spinal cord . They are numbered according to their specific segment of origin. Hence, the 31 pairs of spinal nerves are divided into 8 cervical pairs, 12 thoracic pairs, 5 lumbar pairs, 5 sacral pairs, and 1 coccygeal spinal nerve. All spinal nerves are mixed, containing both sensory and motor fibers.

Spinal nerves innervate the entire body, with the exception of the head. They do so by either directly synapsing with their target organs or by interlacing with each other and forming plexuses. There are four major plexuses that supply the body regions ; 

• Cervical plexus (C1-C4) - innervates the neck 
• Brachial plexus (C5-T1) - innervates the upper limb  
• Lumbar plexus (L1-L4) - innervates the lower abdominal wall , anterior hip and thigh  
• Sacral plexus (L4-S4) - innervates the pelvis and the lower limb

Want to learn more about the spinal nerves and plexuses? Check out our resources.

Ganglia (sing. ganglion) are clusters of neuronal cell bodies outside of the CNS, meaning that they are the PNS equivalents to subcortical nuclei of the CNS. Ganglia can be sensory or visceral motor (autonomic) and their distribution in the body is clearly defined.

Dorsal root ganglia are clusters of sensory nerve cell bodies located adjacent to the spinal cord. They are a component of the posterior root of a spinal nerve.

Autonomic ganglia are either sympathetic or parasympathetic. Sympathetic ganglia are found in the thorax and abdomen , grouped into paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia. Paravertebral ganglia lie on either side of vertebral column ( para- means beside), comprising two ganglionic chains that extend from the base of the skull to the coccyx, called sympathetic trunks. Prevertebral ganglia (collateral ganglia, preaortic ganglia) are found anterior to the vertebral column ( pre- means in front of), closer to their target organ. They are further grouped according to which branch of abdominal aorta they surround; celiac, aorticorenal, superior and inferior mesenteric ganglia.

Parasympathetic ganglia are found in the head and pelvis. Ganglia in the head are associated with relevant cranial nerves and are the ciliary, pterygopalatine , otic and submandibular ganglia. Pelvic ganglia lie close to the reproductive organs comprising autonomic plexuses for innervation of pelvic viscera, such as prostatic and uterovaginal plexuses.

Find everything about ganglia needed for your neuroanatomy exam here.

The somatic nervous system is the voluntary component of the peripheral nervous system. It consists of all the fibers within cranial and spinal nerves that enable us to perform voluntary body movements (efferent nerves) and feel sensation from the skin, muscles and joints (afferent nerves). Somatic sensation relates to touch, pressure, vibration, pain, temperature, stretch and position sense from these three types of structures. 

Sensation from the glands, smooth and cardiac muscles is conveyed by the autonomic nerves.

Autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system is the involuntary part of the peripheral nervous system. Further divided into the sympathetic (SANS), parasympathetic (PANS) systems, it is comprised exclusively of visceral motor fibers. Nerves from both these divisions innervate all involuntary structures of the body; 

• Cardiac muscle
• Glandular cells
• Smooth muscles present in the walls of the blood vessels and hollow organs. 

Balanced functioning of these two systems plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis, meaning that the SANS and PANS do not oppose each other but rather, they complement each other. They do so by potentiating the activity of different organs under various circumstances; for example, the PSNS will stimulate higher intestine activity after food intake, while SANS will stimulate the heart to increase the output during exercise.

Autonomic nerves synapse within autonomic ganglia before reaching their target organ, thus all of them have presynaptic and postsynaptic parts. Presynaptic fibers originate from CNS and end by synapsing with neurons of the peripheral autonomic ganglia. Postsynaptic fibers are the axons of ganglion neurons, extending from the ganglion to peripheral tissues. In sympathetic nerves, the presynaptic fiber is short as the ganglia are located very close to the spinal cord, while the postsynaptic fiber is much longer in order to reach the target organ. In parasympathetic nerves it’s the opposite; the presynaptic fiber is longer than the postsynaptic.

The autonomic nervous system seems to be the only thing that can act without your free will. Learn about how it does that here.

The sympathetic system (SANS) adjusts our bodies for situations of increased physical activity. Its actions are commonly described as the “fight-or-flight” response as it stimulates responses such as faster breathing, increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, dilated pupils and redirection of blood flow from the skin, kidneys , stomach and intestines to the heart and muscles, where it’s needed. 

Sympathetic nerve fibers have a thoracolumbar origin, meaning that they stem from the T1-L2/L3 spinal cord segments. They synapse with prevertebral and paravertebral ganglia, from which the postsynaptic fibers travel to supply the target viscera.

The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) adjusts our bodies for energy conservation, activating “rest and digest” or “feed and breed” activities. The nerves of the PSNS slow down the actions of cardiovascular system , divert blood away from muscles and increase peristalsis and gland secretion. 

Parasympathetic fibers have craniosacral outflow, meaning that they originate from the brainstem (cranio-) and S2-S4 spinal cord segments (-sacral). These fibers travel to thoracic and abdominal organs, where they synapse in ganglia located close to or within the target organ.

Enteric nervous system comprises the SANS and PANS fibers that regulate the activity of the gastrointestinal tract . This system is made of parasympathetic fibers of the vagus nerve (CN X) and sympathetic fibers of the thoracic splanchnic nerves . These fibers form two plexuses within the wall of the intestinal tube which are responsible for modulating intestinal peristalsis, i.e. propagation of consumed food from esophagus to rectum ;

• Submucosal plexus (of Meissner) found in the submucosa of the intestines and contains only parasympathetic fibers
• Myenteric plexus (of Auerbach) located in the muscularis externa of intestines, containing both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers

You can easily remember these two plexuses using a simple mnemonic! ' SMP & MAPS ', which stands for:

• S ubmucosal
• M eissner's
• P arasympathetic
• A uerbach's
• S ympathetic

Clinical notes

Vagotomy for gastric ulcers is an old procedure which is used as surgical management in patients with recurrent gastric ulcers when there is no effect of diet alterations or antiulcer drugs. The vagus nerve stimulates the secretion of gastric acid. Three types of vagotomy can be performed which would greatly diminish this effect.

The 12 cranial nerves all leave/enter the skull through various foramina. Narrowing of these foramina or any constriction along the nerves course results in nerve palsy. For example, Bell’s palsy affects the facial nerve. On the affected side of the face, the patient has:

• dry eyesan absent corneal reflex, overloud hearing and affected taste in the anterior 2/3 of the tongue.
• an absent corneal reflex
• overloud hearing

Limb nerve palsies often result from fracture, constriction or overuse. For example, carpal tunnel syndrome affects the median nerve, and occurs when the nerve is compressed within the tunnel. This is due to enlargement of the flexor tendons within the tunnel or swelling due to oedema. It often occurs in pregnancy and acromegaly.

This is colonic atony secondary to a failure of the ganglion cells (described in the enteric nervous system section) to migrate into the enteric nervous system. This results in a severely constipated and malnourished child, which is in desperate need of corrective surgery.

Failure of normal development of the meninges and/or vertebral neural arch results in a defect usually in the lumbar spine, where part of the spinal cord is covered only by meninges and therefore sits outside the body. Both environmental and genetic factors contribute to its cause. Folate supplements are now given to all pregnant mothers in early pregnancy for its prevention.

Dopamine is essential for the correct functioning of the basal ganglia, structures in the brain that control our cognition and movement. Parkinson’s patients suffer degradation of these dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, resulting in:

• difficulty initiating movement
• shuffling gait
• masked facies
• cog-wheel/lead-pipe rigidity in the limbs

References:

• Blumenfeld, H. (2018). Neuroanatomy through clinical cases. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer.
• Goodfellow, J., Collins, D., Silva, D., Dardis, R., & Nagaraya, S. (2016). Neurology & neurosurgery. New Delhi, India: Jp medical pub.
• Patestas, M. A., & Gartner, L. P. (2016). A textbook of neuroanatomy. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell
• Waxman, S. G. (2010). Clinical neuroanatomy. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical.

Author, review and layout:

Illustrators:

• Nervous system (anterior view) - Begoña Rodriguez
• 12 cranial nerves (diagram) - Paul Kim

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FREE K-12 standards-aligned STEM

curriculum for educators everywhere!

Find more at TeachEngineering.org .

• TeachEngineering
• Building the Neuron

Hands-on Activity Building the Neuron

Grade Level: 7 (5-7)

(four 40-minute class periods)

This activity also requires some non-expendable (reusable) items, such as a microscope and microscope slides; see the Materials List for details.

Group Size: 2

Activity Dependency: Highlighting the Neuron

Subject Areas: Biology, Life Science

NGSS Performance Expectations:

Activities Associated with this Lesson Units serve as guides to a particular content or subject area. Nested under units are lessons (in purple) and hands-on activities (in blue). Note that not all lessons and activities will exist under a unit, and instead may exist as "standalone" curriculum.

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Engineering connection, learning objectives, materials list, worksheets and attachments, more curriculum like this, pre-req knowledge, introduction/motivation, vocabulary/definitions, troubleshooting tips, activity extensions, activity scaling, user comments & tips.

Biomedical engineers often create models to describe and illustrate what cannot be easily seen, such as neural networks in the brain. Biomedical engineers who develop neural devices design and build models and prototypes to help explain how devices are able to carry out the function of the neuron. Additionally, models are used for preliminary testing, prior to testing on live specimens.

After this activity, students should be able to:

• Design and build a model of a neuron.
• Explain the structures of a neuron and how each structure contributes to the overall function of neuron.
• List reasons why engineers use models to explain natural phenomenon.

Educational Standards Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN) , a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g. , by state; within source by type; e.g. , science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc .

Ngss: next generation science standards - science.

International Technology and Engineering Educators Association - Technology

View aligned curriculum

Do you agree with this alignment? Thanks for your feedback!

State Standards

Michigan - science.

Each group needs:

• 1 mammal neuron cell slide, available for $7 each at http://www.carolina.com/histology-microscope-slides/mammal-neuron-motor-nerve-cells-smear-microscope-slide/313570.pr?catId=&mCat=&sCat=&ssCat=&question=mammalian+neuron
• microscope (if only 1 micorscope is availabe, share with the class)
• 2-3 sheets of graph paper
• Viewing the Neuron Worksheet
• Peer Review Checklist
• Presentation Preparation Guide
• Presentation Evaluation Form

To share with the entire class:

Note: To create their neuron models, have student groups select from the variety of materials listed below, or modify the list based upon your supplies availability.

• 1-2 rolls tape (any kind)
• 1-2 packages pipe cleaners
• molding clay
• assortment of beads
• electrical or copper wire, 1spool
• string or yarn, 1 spool/skein
• assorted paint and brushes
• recycled newspaper or butcher paper
• assortment of Styrofoam balls
• computer with Internet access and projector, to show a short video

A familiarity with the structure and function of a neuron, in addition to an understanding of the nervous system, is helpful. Students should also be able to create an at-scale drawing using graph paper.

In this video you saw a monkey feed itself a banana without the use of his own arms. Instead, he thought about moving his arm, which sent signals to a computer. The computer interpreted these signals, and subsequently, moved the robotic arm. The monkey was able to move the robotic arm with his thoughts because of the activation of the neurons in his brain. Once this was discovered, many engineers thought about how the monkey could act as a model for humans.

In addition to using monkeys as models for humans, engineers also rely on rats as models to help them understand whether an LED light device could activate neurons inside the brain. Once engineers see that the device works with a rat, then they present what they learned and predict how the same technology might impact humans. We rely on various types of models, living and nonliving, to help us understand what is or what could be.

During this activity, you play the role of engineers who need a model to help others understand what is already known. Your task is to design and create a model of a neuron that will help you explain to others the structures of a neuron and how each structure contributes to the overall function of the neuron. To conclude the activity, you will meet with a younger student to teach him or her about the neuron and explain how your model can help engineers create devices that activate neurons.

Before the Activity

• Gather model-making materials and microscope(s).
• Make copies of the Viewing the Neuron Worksheet , Peer Review Checklist , Presentation Preparation Guide , and Presentation Evaluation Form , one each per group.
• Before Day 4, arrange for your class to present its neuron model presentations to a younger group of students via video conferencing or a in-person visitation to another class in the school.

With the Students

• Divide the class into groups of two students each, and assign each group to a microscope or determine an order in which they will share the existing number of microscopes.
• Discuss the Pre-Activity Assessment questions as a class: Why do engineers rely on models to show their thinking? What is a neuron and why is it important?
• Provide each group with a worksheet. (Note: Students should not answer question #3 on until Day 3 of this activity.)

• Using graph paper, have students draw an at-scale design for their models. Direct students to label their designs and include the following parts: dendrites, cell body, nucleus, axon and axon terminals.
• Prior to the start of today's tasks, display materials available for the construction of the neuron model.
• Direct students to retrieve their design drawings from Day 1 and take a look at the available materials. Have students record the materials they want to use to represent each neuron structure by placing the name of the material next to the name of the structure. For example, a pipe cleaner may be used to represent the axon.
• Once their design plans are ready, that is, students have labeled their drawings with the materials they intend to use, have them begin to construct their models.
• Begin the session with a peer review. Have student pairs partner up with another group, and use the peer review checklist, to evaluate the model of the other group. The team whose model is being reviewed is referred to as the "engineers" while the team doing the reviewing is referred to as the "reviewers." Remind students to record written feedback for each criterion. Feedback might include suggestions for improvement (such as, "It might be helpful to make the axon terminal more apparent") or compliments (such as, "You represented the axon with the pipe cleaner really well because it shows that it is long").
• Based on peer feedback, direct groups to use the remainder of the time to revise their designs and make any final changes and improvements.
• Hand out a presentation preparation guide to each group to prepare for the Day 4 presentation.
• Complete the Activity Embedded Assessment . Students may record their responses on a lined sheet of paper and turn it in prior to the conclusion of the day.
• If possible, brief the class of younger evaluating students on how to complete the presentation evaluation form.
• Direct student partnerships to present their models to the student evaluators.
• Once all presentations have ended, have students critique the effectiveness of their own models by asking them the following questions:
• Do you believe your model was useful in helping you to explain the structures and function of the neuron? Why?
• What advantages did the model have in helping you to explain?
• What disadvantages did the model have in helping you to explain?

axon: A string-like structure that transports messages from one end of the neuron to the other.

axon terminal: A round structure at the end of the branches of axons that transports messages to the next neuron.

cell body: Surrounded by dendrites, contains the nucleus of the neuron.

dendrite: A branch-like structure that receives messages from other neurons.

model: A three-dimensional representation of a person, thing or proposed structure, typically on a smaller scale than the original.

neuron: A specialized cell that transmits messages throughout an organism's body.

structure: The arrangement of parts within a whole.

synapse: The gap between neurons in which messages are transported.

Pre-Activity Assessment

Discussion Questions : As a class, discuss the following questions:

• Why do engineers rely on models to show their thinking? (Possible answers: Models are used to represent something else. A model of a neuron helps us to see what cannot be seen with the unaided eye. The model can be used to show the structure of the object and aid a person in describing the object's components and function.)
• What is a neuron and why is it important? (Example answer: A neuron is the cell that makes up the nervous system. It is important because it causes messages to travel throughout an organism. Those messages are analyzed and stored in the brain, and the brain sends a response back to other parts of the organism.)

Activity Embedded Assessment

Exit Ticket : On a new sheet of paper, have students answer the following questions:

• What is the function of the dendrites? (Answer: Dendrites receive messages from other neurons.)
• What is the function of axon terminals? (Answer: Axon terminals send messages to other neurons.)
• Why it is important to understand the structures and the function of the neuron? Explain. (Example answer: Without an understanding of the neuron, we would not be able to know how organisms respond to stimuli. We would not understand why our bodies react when we touch something else. We would not know how to help people who have had nervous system injuries. We would not know how to use external devices to support people with nervous system injuries.)

Post-Activity Assessment

Presenting the Neuron : Have student groups present their models to younger groups of students who serve as evaluators. Have the evaluators complete the Presentation Evaluation Form . Student presenters are assessed on their knowledge and ability to present information to an audience based on the evaluators' ability to complete the listening guide.

Safety Issues

Remind students to be careful with scissors.

To avoid running out of supplies, direct students to use supplies conservatively.

Presentation Preparation Guide : If you wish to make available extra credit points, have students turn in their presentation preparation guides and offer bonus points for their completion of the guide.

For lower grades:

• Deciding which supplies to use may overwhelm younger students; consider paring down the supply options to reduce students' indecision when designing.
• Have students present to their peers, rather than another class.
• Have students work in groups of three or four.

For upper grades:

• Have students work individually.
• Consider giving students a supply budget. Decide in advance what each supply will cost to "buy," thus introducing the idea of designing within constraints.
• Allow students to work on their models at home.

In this lesson on the brain's neural networks, students investigate the structure and function of the neuron. They discover ways in which engineers apply this knowledge to the development of devices that can activate neurons.

Students learn about the first attempts at machine learning and specifically about the perceptron model—a simplified model of a biological neuron.

Students learn about the function and components of the human nervous system, which helps them understand the purpose of our brains, spinal cords, nerves and five senses. In addition, how the nervous system is affected during spaceflight is also discussed.

Students learn about complex networks and how to represent them using graphs. They also learn that graph theory is a useful mathematical tool for studying complex networks in diverse applications of science and engineering, such as neural networks in the brain, biochemical reaction networks in cells...

Buchen, Lizzie. "Neuroscience: Illuminating the Brain." Published online 5 May 2010; corrected online 30 June 2010. News Feature, Nature. Vol. 465, No. 6 (2010): pp. 26-28. Nature. Web 30 July 2013. (optogenetics) http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100505/full/465026a.html

Hopkin, Michael. "Monkeys Move Robotic Arm Using Brain Power: 'Brain-Machine Interface' Might One Day Help People with Disabilities." Nature News . Nature Publishing Group. 28 May 2008. Web 30 July 2013. http://www.nature.com/news/2008/080528/full/news.2008.861.html

"Nerve Regeneration." Nerve Regeneration-Introduction . Brown University Division of Biology and Medicine, RI. N.d. Web 12 July 2013. http://biomed.brown.edu/Courses/BI108/BI108_2001_Groups/Nerve_Regeneration/Introduction/Introduction.htm

Contributors

Supporting program, acknowledgements.

The contents of this digital library curriculum were developed through the Robotics Engineering for Better Life and Sustainable Future research experience for teachers under National Science Foundation RET grant number CNS 1300794. However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policies of the NSF and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government.

Last modified: May 10, 2017

Human Bio Media

Anatomy and Physiology

Lab simulations.

This section features free, open-source virtual lab exercises. Most of our simulations are intended as alternatives for in-person activities that can no longer be offered due to their complexity, health concerns, and cost constraints.

Even though the exercises are performed on a computer, they are designed to promote critical thinking and active learning. Students execute test procedures using prompted animations and touch-controlled activities. While interpreting the test results, students also practice their analytic and decision-making skills.

Teachers can also use our simulations to flip classrooms, promote independent learning, or supplement other classroom assignments. Because our exercise narratives, images, animations, and activities are open-source, teachers can make modifications and create new lessons.

Currently Available

Virtual Labs for Anatomy and Physiology

Circulatory system, hematocrit lab simulation.

An exercise to measure the percentage of red blood cells in whole blood.

Blood Typing Lab Simulation

An exercise to determine the presence of red blood cell surface antigens using the slide method.

Cardiac Labs

Cardiac cycle simulation.

A guided interactive exploration of the phases and events that occur during each heartbeat.

Nervous System

Neurophysiology labs, resting membrane potential simulation.

An interactive exploration of the factors influencing resting membrane potentials using animations, activities, and real-world case studies.

Urinary System

Urinalysis lab simulation.

An exercise to determine urine’s macroscopic, chemical, and microscopic properties.