essay about happiness with coherence and cohesion

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Cohesion & Coherence

What this resource is about:.

This resource defines both cohesive and coherent writing and explains how to write cohesively and coherently.   

Creating Cohesive and Coherent Paragraphs  

Cohesive writing is “based on how each sentence ends and the next begins” (Williams & Bizup, 2017, p. 65). Each sentence should, in terms of their content , connect to the sentences surrounding it.  

Here are a few tips for composing cohesive paragraphs:  

     "1. Begin sentences with information familiar to your readers.

      2. End sentences with information that readers cannot anticipate.

      3. Begin sentences with information that readers will find simple; end with information they will find complex”              (Williams & Bizup, 2017, p. 67).  

Coherent writing is “based on how all the sentences in it cumulatively begin” (Williams & Bizup, 2017, p. 65). The ideas of the sentences in the passage ought to be related in topic and structured so the reader increases their understanding within each sentence and between sentences.  

Here are a few tips for composing coherent paragraphs:  

• Analyze: Find the subjects (or noun phrases) of your sentences.
• Assess: Do these subjects reference related ideas? Will your reader see this relatedness of ideas? Are they referencing your “actors” (subject) doing the main “actions” (action verb)?
• Rewrite: Rewrite your paragraphs so that you answer ‘yes’ to the questions above (Williams & Bizup, 2017)

Example paragraphs

To illustrate the difference between noncoherent and coherent writing, consider these paragraphs. Subjects are bolded both paragraphs.  

• "Consistent ideas toward the beginnings of sentences, especially in their subjects, help readers understand what a passage is generally about. A sense of coherence arises when a sequence of topics comprises a narrow set of related ideas. But the context of each sentence is lost by seemingly random shifts of topics. Unfocused, even disorganized paragraphs result when that happens" (Williams & Bizup, 2017, p. 71).
•   “ Readers  understand what a passage is generally about when  they  see consistent ideas toward the beginnings of sentences, especially in their subjects.  They  feel a passage is coherent when  they  read a sequence of topics that focuses on a narrow set of related ideas. But when  topics  seem to shift randomly,  readers  lose their context of each sentence. When  that  happens,  they feel they are reading paragraphs that are unfocused and even disorganized” (Williams & Bizup, 2017, p. 71-72).  

The subjects in the second paragraph are only ‘readers’ and ‘topics,' whereas the subjects in the first paragraph are more scattered. By unifying the subjects of your paragraphs to one or two kinds of subjects, you can write coherently. By following these tips, writers may establish a flow of information that helpfully and logically organizes information for the reader.  

The purpose of these aspects of writing is to think about, understand, and write for your readers. You can improve the clarity and organization of your writing by knowing the differences between concrete versus abstract language and making your paragraphs cohesive and coherent.  

Source: Williams, J.M., & Bizup, J. (2017). Style: Lessons in clarity and grace (12th ed.). Pearson Education Inc.  

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Cohesion and Coherence

Introduction

Every writer wishes to make their points clearly to their readers, with pieces of writing that are are easy to read and have logical links between the various points made. This coherence , this clarity of expression , is created by grammar and vocabulary (lexis) through cohesion . This is the “glue” that joins your ideas together to form a cohesive whole.

In this Learning Object we are going to focus on how this is done, in order to assist you when you come to write your next assignments and in your reading. In reading, if you understand how the author makes connections within the text, you gain a better understanding of his or her message. As regards your writing, after analysing the texts in this Learning Object, you should analyse your own writing in the same way. This will help you to realise which techniques you could use more to benefit your reader.

Before starting the activities, you can obtain an overview of how best to use this Learning Object, using a Screencast (with audio), by following this link Overview

• To raise awareness of how cohesion contributes to coherence in text
• To raise awareness of how cohesion is created through: reference, conjunction, ellipsis, substitution and lexis , including cohesive nouns .
• To raise your awareness of cohesion at paragraph level and how punctuation plays a crucial role in this

Activity 1: Ways of creating cohesion in text

According to the writers Halliday and Hasan (1976), there are six main ways that cohesion is created in a text. These they called: Reference , Substitution , Ellipsis , Lexical Chains , Cohesive Nouns and Conjunction .

Open this Cohesion Presentation PDF document that shows you examples of each of them.

For the following six ways of creating cohesion, select each one to read detailed explanations and examples:

This way of creating cohesion uses:

• determiners (e.g. "this" , "that" , "these" and "those" );
• pronouns (e.g. "him" , "them" , "me" );
• possessive pronouns (e.g. "your" , "their" , "hers" );
• relative pronouns (e.g. "which" , "who" , "whose" ).
• This type of cohesion can also be achieved comparatively with expressions like: "similarly" , "likewise" , "less" .

In this way of creating cohesion you can use:

• synonyms (e.g. "beautiful" for "lovely" );
• hyponyms and superordinates (e.g. "daffodil" , "rose" and "daisy" , are all hyponyms of the superordinate "flower" ).
• Lexical chains are created in a text by using words in the same lexical set (e.g. "army" , "soldiers" , "barracks" , "weapons" ).

These techniques allow for the central themes to be reiterated in a way that avoids monotony for the reader.

These words are a kind of lexical reference.

• They can summarise many words in one (e.g. "attitude" , "solution" , "difficulty" ), and have been called 'umbrella' nouns for this reason (Bailey 2006:150).
• They are used to signal what is to come (e.g. "the problem to be discussed..." ), or can refer back (e.g. "The issue mentioned above..." ).

This method of creating cohesion uses one word/phrase to replace a word/phrase used earlier. For example,

• "the one(s)" and "the same" can be used to replace nouns (e.g. "I'll have the same." ).
• Verbs can be replaced by "do" (e.g. "The authorities said they had acted , but nobody believed they had done .").
• In speaking, whole clauses can be replaced by, "so" or "not" (e.g. "I hope so/not." ).

In this way of creating cohesion, words are omitted because they are understood from the context. e.g.

• " John can type and I can [type] too! ";
• " I don't want to go out, do you? [want to go out] ."

This type of cohesion includes:

• listing words (e.g. "firstly" , "next" , "lastly" );
• linkers for addition (e.g. " moreover" , "and" , "also" );
• concession (e.g. "but" , "however" , "despite" ); and
• cause and effect (e.g. "so" , "because" , "as a result" ).

Then try this Cohesion quiz to test your memory of the terms.

Activity 2: Highlighting cohesion in a text

For this activity you are going to read the short narrative text below, which is a piece of creative writing about a student, and then complete an exercise in highlighting the cohesive words, using colour codes. First, read the text quickly and try to think of a title for it.

The student sighed as she handed in the assignment, at last it was finished. This was the most difficult piece of writing which she had been set, but she had completed it. The ‘magnum opus’ was 10,000 words long. This project, though not quite a dissertation, was still the longest piece of academic writing she had ever written. She had thought she would never complete it and it had taken all her strength to do so.

Her achievement made her elated, but had left her exhausted. When she had read the title of the task, she knew it was not going to be just another essay, not an easy one at all. Finally, the completed work lay on the counter of the reception [and was] beautifully bound. She would sleep easy at night, [and she would be] no longer troubled by thoughts of its accusing blank pages – the nightmare was over!

Instruction

Now try this colour coding exercise to highlight the 6 different ways of creating cohesion.

--> Show feedback Hide feedback

The original title of the piece of writing was “The Assignment” .

Now try this interactive exercise to colour-code the words and phrases that create cohesion in the 6 different ways using the six colours.

You can download this Feedback 1 PDF for a summary of the answers to the task.

Activity 3: Cohesion in a discursive text

In this exercise you are going to see how the 6 ways of creating cohesion are used in a short text arguing in favour of working in groups as a way to learn better in class. Before you read the text, you might like to predict what the arguments might be in favour of and against classes being organised to work together in this way.

To do a series of exercises to raise awareness of different forms of cohesion used in academic writing, try these interactive cloze exercises .

Activity 4: Colour coding the cohesion in the discursive text

Now, we are going to use the same text to see how your awareness of cohesion is improving.

Read this longer discursive text about working in groups. As you read, notice the different forms of cohesion that are used in the text. After you’ve read it, move on to the colour-coding exercise that follows.

“Working in groups is a bad idea because it encourages weak students to let the others do the work.” Discuss

The idea that working in groups is a bad thing is fundamentally mistaken because, overall, the advantages of this way of configuring the class outweigh the potential disadvantages [of this way of configuring the class]. In groups there is the opportunity for peer teaching, which can often be invaluable. In addition, lessons organised in this way become less teacher-centred. Moreover, in life today, team-working is a feature of every workplace and one of the roles of university education is to provide a preparation for students’ future careers.

Firstly, peer teaching can contribute to effective learning in most classroom situations. Many students (especially in large classes) can benefit from this approach. Weaker students are often less afraid of making mistakes and taking risks in front of their peers, than in close contact with their teacher or in front of the whole class. Also, with regard to the stronger students, a perfect way to consolidate their learning is to transmit that knowledge to others. Furthermore, most pedagogic approaches today concur that a lesson that is focused on the teacher at all times, is one from which the students are unlikely to benefit. Certainly, some classroom activities, like project work for example, are best conducted in small groups. The teacher as the source of all wisdom standing at the front of the class, the ‘jug and mug’ model of education, is not only antiquated, but also ineffective.

A further benefit of group-teaching is the preparation it provides for working in teams. In a great variety of careers today, the employees are asked to, and are judged on their ability to work in teams. Group working in class represents basically the same concept. The same skills are being tested and developed – interpersonal skills and emotional intelligence, to mention just two. In business today, the ability to lead effectively and to support one’s peers is prized almost above all other skills.

In conclusion then, while it may sometimes be true that the weak students may ‘take it easy’ sometimes in groups, allowing others to work hard to compensate for their laziness, if the lesson materials are interesting and the teacher motivating, this is a rare occurrence. As outlined above, there are so many ‘pros’ to this method of classroom configuration that these easily outweigh this somewhat questionable ‘con’.

Now try these Cohesion colour-coding exercies , using the 6 different colours.

Show feedback Hide feedback

You can download this Feedback 2 PDF document for a summary of the answers to the task.

Activity 5: Cohesive nouns, reference and substitution

For more exercises to practise cohesive nouns, reference and substitution try this Reference and Substitution cloze exercise .

Activity 6: Cohesion and coherence at paragraph level

Cohesion has a strong connection to coherence (logic and meaning). In fact, cohesion is the grammatical and lexical realisation of coherence at a profound level within the text. It is what makes a text more than just a jumbled mixture of sentences.

In this exercise, you will use your understanding of cohesion and punctuation, and your understanding of the underlying meaning of paragraphs, to put them into the most logical order. Now try these Paragraph Cohesion Activities .

Would you like to review the main points?

Show review Hide review

To review the way we create cohesion in texts follow this link The 6 Ways of Creating Cohesion

For websites with more information and exercises to raise your awareness of cohesion and the way we organise information following a ‘given-to-new’ pattern, we recommend the following websites:

• The Grammar of English Ideas
• Academic Writing in English

References:

Batstone, R. (1994). Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Cook, G. (1996). Discourse. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Halliday, M. A. K. and R. Hasan (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman UK Group Limited.

Lubelska, D. (1991). “An approach to teaching cohesion to improve in reading” in Reading in a Foreign Language, 7 (2)

© William Tweddle, Queen Mary, University of London, 2010, visual created by the author using a Smartboard and Jing

Coherence and Cohesion: Essential Skills for Effective Essay Writing

Coherence and cohesion are essential elements of effective essay writing. Coherence refers to the logical flow and clarity of ideas in an essay, ensuring that each part connects smoothly to the next. Cohesion involves the use of linking words and phrases to tie sentences and paragraphs together, making the text easy to follow. These skills help create a well-organized essay that is easy to read and understand. Improving these techniques is crucial for achieving higher grades and effective communication in IELTS essay writing tasks or academic writing .

The Importance of Coherence in Essay Writing

Coherence is crucial in essay writing as it ensures that the ideas presented flow logically and are easy to understand. Without coherence, an essay can become disjointed and confusing, making it difficult for readers to follow the writer's train of thought. When an essay lacks coherence, readers may struggle to make sense of the arguments or information presented, leading to a loss of interest and engagement.

To achieve coherence, writers must ensure that each paragraph builds upon the previous one and leads into the next. This can be done by using transitional words and phrases that signal the relationship between ideas. Additionally, writers should structure their essays in a logical manner, presenting information in a clear and organized way. By maintaining coherence, writers can guide readers through their essays effortlessly, allowing them to fully grasp the intended message.

Techniques for Achieving Coherence in Essays

There are several techniques that writers can employ to achieve coherence in their essays. One effective technique is the use of topic sentences at the beginning of each paragraph. A topic sentence provides a clear focus for the paragraph and helps the reader understand how it relates to the overall argument. By starting each paragraph with a topic sentence, writers can ensure that their ideas are presented in a coherent and logical manner.

Another technique for achieving coherence is the use of transitional words and phrases . These words and phrases act as signposts, guiding the reader through the essay and indicating the relationship between ideas. Examples of transitional words and phrases include "however," "in addition," and "on the other hand." By incorporating these words and phrases, writers can create smooth transitions between paragraphs and ensure that their arguments are presented in a cohesive manner.

Furthermore, writers should also pay attention to the organization and structure of their essays. By arranging information in a logical sequence, writers can help readers follow the flow of ideas more easily. This can be achieved through the use of headings, subheadings, and bullet points to provide a clear and organized structure. Additionally, writers should ensure that each paragraph focuses on a single main idea and that supporting details are presented in a logical order.

The Role of Cohesion in Essay Writing

While coherence focuses on the overall flow and clarity of ideas in an essay, cohesion is concerned with the internal connections between sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion ensures that the various parts of an essay are linked together, creating a unified and cohesive piece of writing. Without cohesion, an essay can feel disjointed and difficult to follow, making it challenging for readers to fully grasp the writer's message.

While coherence focuses on the overall flow and clarity of ideas in an essay, cohesion is concerned with the internal connections between sentences and paragraphs. Cohesion ensures that the various parts of an essay are linked together, creating a unified and cohesive piece of writing. Without cohesion, an essay can feel disjointed and difficult to follow, making it challenging for readers to fully grasp the writer's message. Utilizing transitional words effectively can enhance cohesion, and a solid understanding of parts of speech and using grammatically correct sentences is essential for constructing clear and connected sentences. These elements work together to create a well-organized and persuasive essay.

One way to achieve cohesion is through the use of cohesive devices, such as pronouns , conjunctions , and transitional expressions. These devices help establish connections between sentences and paragraphs, making the text more coherent. For example, the use of pronouns like "it" or "this" can refer back to a previously mentioned idea, providing continuity and clarity.

Additionally, writers can create cohesion by using repetition of key words or phrases throughout their essays. This repetition helps reinforce important ideas and themes, making the essay more cohesive. However, it is important to use repetition judiciously and not overdo it, as excessive repetition can become monotonous and detract from the overall quality of the writing.

Strategies for Creating Cohesion in Essays

Creating cohesion in essays requires careful attention to the use of linking words and phrases. These words and phrases act as bridges, connecting ideas and ensuring a smooth flow of information. Some commonly used linking words and phrases include "however," "therefore," "in contrast," and "for example." By incorporating these expressions, writers can create clear connections between sentences and paragraphs, enhancing the overall cohesion of their essays.

Another strategy for creating cohesion is the use of parallel structure. Parallel structure involves using the same grammatical form for similar ideas or elements within a sentence or paragraph. This technique helps create a sense of balance and harmony, making the text more cohesive. For example, a writer might use parallel structure by starting a series of points with phrases like "firstly," "secondly," and "finally."

Additionally, writers should be mindful of the use of pronouns and other cohesive devices to maintain cohesion. Pronouns such as "he," "she," or "it" can refer back to previously mentioned nouns , reducing repetition and improving the overall flow of the text. Furthermore, the use of transitional expressions like "in conclusion," "on the other hand," and "as a result" can signal shifts in ideas and help maintain cohesion throughout the essay.

Common Mistakes to Avoid in Coherence and Cohesion

While coherence and cohesion are crucial for effective essay writing, there are common mistakes that writers should avoid. One common mistake is the lack of clear and logical organization. Without a well-structured essay, readers may become confused and lose interest in the writer's arguments. To avoid this, writers should carefully plan and outline their essays before writing, ensuring that each paragraph serves a specific purpose and contributes to the overall coherence of the essay.

Another mistake is the overuse or misuse of transitional words and phrases. While these expressions are essential for creating cohesion, excessive or incorrect use can hinder the readability of an essay. Writers should use transitional words and phrases judiciously, ensuring that they are used appropriately and contribute to the overall clarity of the text.

Additionally, writers should avoid excessive repetition of words or ideas. While some repetition can be useful for reinforcing key points, too much repetition can make an essay monotonous and reduce its overall coherence and cohesion. Writers should strive to use a variety of vocabulary and sentence structures to keep the essay engaging and interesting.

Examples of Well-Cohesive and Coherent Essays

To better understand the importance of coherence and cohesion in essay writing, let's look at some examples of well-cohesive and coherent essays. In a well-written essay, each paragraph should flow smoothly into the next, with clear connections between ideas. Transitional words and phrases should be used effectively to guide the reader through the essay. Additionally, the essay should have a clear structure and logical organization, allowing the reader to easily follow the writer's arguments.

For example, consider an essay about the “benefits of exercise”. In a well-cohesive and coherent essay, the writer might start with an introduction that presents the thesis statement and provides an overview of the main points. Each subsequent paragraph would then focus on a specific benefit of exercise, such as improved cardiovascular health, increased energy levels, and reduced stress. The writer would use transitional words and phrases to link these paragraphs together, creating a cohesive and coherent essay.

If you want to see examples of essays that are well-structured and coherent, and learn how to write them, please visit the link below and explore different essays, research papers, and sample papers.

How Coherence and Cohesion Affect Essay Readability

Coherence and cohesion greatly impact the readability of an essay. When an essay lacks coherence, readers may struggle to follow the writer's arguments and lose interest in the topic. Similarly, without cohesion, an essay can feel disjointed and confusing, making it difficult for readers to understand the writer's message.

On the other hand, a well-cohesive and coherent essay is easy to read and understand. The logical flow of ideas and clear connections between sentences and paragraphs make the text more engaging and enjoyable to read. Readers can follow the writer's arguments effortlessly, allowing them to fully grasp the intended message and appreciate the essay's content.

Tips for Improving Coherence and Cohesion in Essay Writing

Improving coherence and cohesion in essay writing requires practice and attention to detail. Here are some tips to improve these essential skills:

Plan and outline your essay before writing. This will help you organize your thoughts and ensure a logical flow of ideas.

Use topic sentences at the beginning of each paragraph to provide a clear focus and guide the reader through the essay.

Incorporate transitional words and phrases to create smooth transitions between sentences and paragraphs.

Pay attention to the overall structure and organization of your essay. Use headings, subheadings, and bullet points to provide a clear and organized structure.

Be mindful of parallel structure to create a sense of balance and harmony within your sentences and paragraphs.

Use pronouns and other cohesive devices to maintain continuity and reduce repetition.

Read your essay aloud or have someone else read it to identify any areas where coherence and cohesion can be improved.

By incorporating these tips into your essay writing process, you can enhance the coherence and cohesion of your essays, making them more effective and engaging.

Coherence and cohesion are essential skills for effective essay writing. Coherence ensures that the ideas presented in an essay flow logically and are easy to understand, while cohesion creates connections between sentences and paragraphs, making the text cohesive and unified. By improving these skills, writers can clearly convey their ideas and arguments, making their essays more persuasive and enjoyable to read. Improving coherence and cohesion in essay writing requires practice and attention to detail, but the effort is worthwhile for achieving higher grades and effective communication. So, next time you sit down to write an essay, remember the importance of coherence and cohesion to create a well-organized and engaging piece of writing.

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Coherence And Cohesion: Writing Tips For Seamless Texts

Learn coherence and cohesion secrets to create seamlessly flowing, impactful writing. Read this content and understand both.

Understanding the importance of coherence and cohesion in writing is fundamental, as these principles significantly impact how well your message is conveyed to the reader. These concepts empower you to create clear, logical, and organized content. 

When your writing lacks coherence, it may appear disjointed, confusing, and challenging for the reader to follow. On the other hand, without cohesion, your ideas may seem scattered and unrelated. Mastering these aspects not only enhances the overall quality of your writing but also ensures your audience can easily grasp and appreciate the information you’re presenting. 

In this article, you will gain an in-depth understanding of these essential elements. The exploration begins with a clear definition of coherence and cohesion, followed by an examination of their intricate relationship.

Definition Of Coherence

Coherence is a fundamental aspect of effective communication through written language. It encompasses the logical and orderly arrangement of ideas, details, and arguments within a text, ensuring that they connect seamlessly to convey a clear and unified message. Coherent writing allows readers to follow the author’s thought process without confusion or disruption. 

This connection of ideas is achieved through the strategic use of organization, structure, transitional elements, and logical progression. In essence, coherence is the glue that binds individual sentences, paragraphs, and sections into a cohesive and comprehensible whole, making it an indispensable element for conveying information, presenting arguments, and telling compelling stories in written form.

Definition Of Cohesion

Cohesion refers to the quality of a written text that makes it clear, organized, and logically connected. It is achieved through various linguistic devices such as transitional words, pronoun references, repetition, and logical sequencing. 

Cohesion ensures that the ideas within a text flow smoothly and are linked together, making the text easier to understand and follow. In essence, cohesion contributes to the overall coherence of a written piece, ensuring that it is cohesive and well-structured.

Relationship Between Coherence And Cohesion

The relationship between coherence and cohesion in writing is a close and interdependent one. Coherence and cohesion work together to create well-structured and easily understandable texts.

Coherence primarily deals with the overall clarity and logical flow of ideas in a piece of writing. It involves the organization of content in a way that makes sense to the reader. Coherent writing maintains a clear and consistent focus on the topic, using logical transitions between sentences and paragraphs.

On the other hand, cohesion focuses on the specific linguistic devices and techniques used to connect different parts of a text. These devices include transitional words (e.g., “therefore,” “however”), pronoun references (e.g., “it,” “they”), repetition of key terms, and logical sequencing of ideas. Cohesion ensures that the sentences within a text are linked together smoothly, enhancing the readability and comprehension of the content.

In essence, cohesion serves as a tool to achieve coherence. When a writer effectively employs cohesive elements in their writing, it enhances the overall coherence of the text. Without cohesion, even well-structured ideas may appear disjointed or confusing to the reader. Therefore, coherence and cohesion are complementary aspects of effective writing, working hand in hand to convey ideas clearly and persuasively.

Types Of Cohesion

Cohesion plays a vital role in the coherence and flow of your writing. In this section, we will explore different types of cohesion, each contributing to the overall clarity and structure of your text.

Grammatical Cohesion

Grammatical cohesion focuses on the grammatical and structural elements within a text that contribute to its coherence. It involves using linguistic devices, like pronouns and sentence structure, to create clear relationships between ideas and sentences. This type of cohesion ensures smooth writing flow and aids readers in understanding connections between different parts of your text.

For instance, pronouns like “it,” “they,” and “this” refer back to previously mentioned nouns, preventing repetition. Sentence structure, including parallelism and transitional words, also plays a crucial role in achieving grammatical cohesion. It ensures consistent presentation of similar ideas and guides readers through your writing.

Reiterative Cohesion

Reiterative cohesion involves the repetition of words, phrases, or ideas within a text to reinforce key concepts and enhance clarity. This type of cohesion is particularly useful when you want to emphasize specific points or themes throughout your writing.

By restating essential elements, you create a sense of continuity and remind readers of the central message. However, it’s crucial to use reiteration judiciously to avoid redundancy and monotony.

Lexical/Semantic/Logical Cohesion

Lexical, semantic, or logical cohesion ensures meaningful connections in your text. Writers use techniques like synonyms, antonyms, and precise vocabulary to clarify complex ideas. It also maintains consistency in word meanings and logical progression, enhancing clarity and engagement.

Referential Cohesion

Referential cohesion involves linking ideas and information within a text. It’s achieved by using pronouns, demonstratives, or repetition to connect concepts. This cohesion helps readers follow the flow of the text and understand the relationships between different parts of the content.

Textual Or Interpersonal Cohesion

Textual or interpersonal cohesion focuses on how language is used to engage and communicate with the reader. It involves strategies such as addressing the reader directly, using inclusive language, and creating a sense of connection. This type of cohesion aims to make the text more relatable and interactive, enhancing the reader’s overall experience.

Tips For Using Coherence And Cohesion In Writing

When it comes to effective writing, coherence, and cohesion play a pivotal role in shaping the clarity and flow of your text. In this section, we’ll delve into practical tips for harnessing these vital elements to create well-structured and engaging content.

Develop Topic Sentences And Themes

Effective writing hinges on clear topic sentences and well-defined themes. These elements act as your text’s structural framework, ensuring both you and your readers follow a logical path through your content.

• Identify Core Ideas: Before you begin writing, pinpoint the central concepts or themes you want to convey. These serve as the core messages or arguments you’ll explore.
• Craft Concise Topic Sentences: Start each paragraph with a concise topic sentence that introduces its main idea. Think of these sentences as guideposts, signaling what’s ahead and providing clarity.
• Establish a Strong Base: Topic sentences and themes set your text’s direction and purpose. Without them, your writing can seem disjointed and confusing.
• Map Out Content: Effective topic sentences not only introduce a paragraph’s main point but also outline the supporting details. They create a roadmap, making your content structure clear.
• Improve Readability: Strong topic sentences and themes make your writing more accessible. They help readers grasp ideas quickly and navigate your text effortlessly, making your message compelling.

By integrating these techniques into your writing, you enhance your content’s coherence and cohesion, making it more engaging and persuasive. Crafting clear topic sentences and themes provides a foundation for your ideas to shine and resonate with your audience.

Make Connections Between Ideas And Sentences

Writing with coherence involves crafting a seamless path for your readers. This means ensuring that your ideas flow logically and cohesively from one to the next. To achieve this, use transition words and phrases like “however,” “therefore,” “in contrast,” and “moreover” to signal relationships between ideas. 

Avoid abrupt shifts, as these can confuse readers and disrupt the flow. By making these connections, you not only maintain coherence but also enhance clarity and engagement, providing your audience with a richer and more enjoyable reading experience.

Utilize Transition Words To Enhance Understanding

Transition words are the glue that holds your writing together, creating a bridge between sentences and paragraphs. These words and phrases, such as “however,” “in addition,” “consequently,” and “for instance,” help guide readers through your text, making it easier for them to follow your line of thought. 

When used effectively, transition words create a smooth and logical flow, enhancing the coherence of your writing. They clarify relationships between ideas, signal shifts in focus, and add depth to your arguments. By incorporating these linguistic tools into your writing, you not only boost comprehension but also elevate the overall quality of your work.

Use Repetition When Appropriate

Repetition in writing, when used judiciously, can be a powerful tool to reinforce key ideas, engage readers, and create memorable content. By repeating certain words, phrases, or concepts, you can emphasize their significance and drive your point home effectively. 

However, the key is to use repetition purposefully and sparingly, ensuring that it aligns with your writing’s objectives. Whether it’s repeating a central theme, a thought-provoking question, or a striking metaphor, strategic repetition can enhance the cohesiveness and impact of your writing, leaving a lasting impression on your audience.

Checklist For Essay Coherence And Cohesiveness

When crafting an essay, ensuring that it has both coherence and cohesion is paramount to engage your audience and effectively convey your message. Follow this checklist to enhance the quality of your writing:

• Clear Thesis Statement: Begin with a concise and well-defined thesis statement that sets the tone for your essay.
• Logical Flow: Organize your ideas logically, ensuring each paragraph connects seamlessly to the next.
• Transitions: Use transitional words and phrases like “however,” “therefore,” and “in addition” to guide your reader through your essay.
• Topic Sentences: Start each paragraph with a clear topic sentence that previews the content to follow.
• Consistent Point of View: Maintain a consistent perspective (first, second, or third person) throughout your essay.
• Repetition with Purpose: Use repetition thoughtfully to reinforce key points or themes.
• Parallel Structure: Structure sentences and lists in a parallel format for clarity.
• Pronoun Clarity: Ensure pronouns have clear antecedents to avoid confusion.
• Sentence Variety: Vary your sentence structure for rhythm and engagement.
• Proofreading: Thoroughly proofread your essay for grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors.

By implementing these strategies, you can create essays that are not only coherent and cohesive but also compelling and impactful.

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Coherence & cohesion.

Coherence and cohesion are essential for aiding readability and idea communication.  Coherence is about the unity of the ideas and cohesion the unity of structural elements.  One way to do this is through the use of cohesive devices: logical bridges (repetition), verbal bridges (synonyms), linking words, and clear back referencing.  If these types of devices are missing in the text, it not only becomes more difficult to read the text, but also to understand its contents since the reader must guess how the various parts of the paragraph or text are connected, which will involve re-reading sentences or larger sections more than once.

With logical bridges, the same idea of a topic is carried over (repeated) from sentence to sentence, and successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form. With verbal bridges, key words or synonymous words can be repeated, pronouns can replace nouns and transition words (as shown below) can be used.   In the paragraph below, words and phrases that serve to increase the coherence of the paragraph are highlight and underlined. As this sample paragraph indicates, coherence and cohesion in a paragraph is established by combining more than one device.

A more direct way of emphasizing the inherent logic of a paragraph is through the use of linking words and phrases which mark transitions within and between sentences. The table below gives a sample of such linking words and groups them based on the connection they illustrate/indicate.

Back referencing is another effective device for creating coherence, but this device must be used carefully because it can cause confusion rather than create clarity. Consider whether or not the use of back referencing is clear in the following example.

It is perfectly acceptable to use back referencing, just be sure to make it clear. One way to do this, as exemplified in the remarks above, is to add a summary word to the back reference (e.g. this situation, where situation is the summary word). Using a summary word specifies the back reference, often making it much clearer.

Coherence and Cohesion in Academic Writing

by Lilian Farag Allah | 23 Aug 2013

This lesson focuses on teaching university students or adults studying academic writing about the concepts of coherence and cohesion in academic writing. This lesson is better conducted after students have written their first draft of an essay. They usually have problems with coherence and, mostly, with cohesion. This should give them some practical ideas for what to look for and what to fix for their second drafts. Problem: Students may not be able to detect the problems in the sample texts. Solution: Ask them some questions to draw their attention to the problematic part(s). After eliciting their answers, the teacher explains what this means and why it is a problem.

Resource Type: Lesson Plan

Audience: Adult, University

Audience Language Proficiency: Intermediate, Advanced

Duration: 35 minutes

Handouts with sample texts

1. Content By the end of this session students will be able to:

• Understand the meaning and importance of coherence and cohesion
• Identify problems of coherence and cohesion in written texts
• Revise their own papers and fix problems of coherence and cohesion

2. Cognitive/Attitudinal By the end of this session students will be able to:

• Know different kinds of cohesive devices, namely reference, conjunctions, and repetition
• Change their ideas about the extensive use of conjunctions
• Learn different ways to make their writing more cohesive
• Explain simply what coherence means; the connection and organization of ideas in a text to create unity.
• Ask students what they think can make a text coherent based on this simple definition. Elicit and lead them to think of the link between ideas. Thesis statement and topic sentences create this sense of unity in a piece of writing. I can show them a graph illustrating how thesis statement and topic sentence can link the essay (Fig. 1 in the handout)
• Ask students to read through texts 1 & 2 one at a time and decide what problems they have (if they can't come up with the problem, You can draw their attention to the problematic sentences and ask them to think of the relation between them and the rest of each paragraph).
• Summarize about coherence, listing the main ideas on the board.
• Explain that while coherence focuses on the overall (macro) structure of the essay, cohesion is more specific. It pays attention to links between words and sentences.
• Ask and elicit their ideas on what links sentences together.
• Ask students to underline all pronouns in texts 3 & 4 and see if their reference is clear to them. If not, then what seems to be the problem and how they can make the texts better.
• Stress the clarity of reference.
• Ask students to underline conjunctions in texts 5 & 6 and read the sentence before and after each one. They decide on the relation between the two sentences. Then, they think of the conjunction used and whether it serves this relation. If not, then which other conjunction(s) should be used to deliver the intended meaning.
• Draw students' attention (if no one mentioned this) that linking sentences does not have to be done by using extra words (pronouns and conjunctions)
• Ask them to identify the topic of the paragraph in text 7. Then ask them how the writer connects sentences together. Help, if necessary, with pointing out repeated words (mummify, mummification, mummified).
• Explain that repeating key words, in relation to the main topic, helps add unity to the text.
• List the elements of cohesion that have been discussed on the board with a quick reminder of  what has been said.
• Ask students to review their drafts of the essay they had written
• and see how coherent they are, checking on their use of cohesive ties before they write their 2nd drafts. Students will work individually.

Useful Link: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp1/coherent.htm http://www.ivcc.edu/rambo/tip_checklist_organization_development.htm https://eee.uci.edu/faculty/losh/resources/in-class/  (the part on transitions)

Supporting Files: Coherence And Cohesion In Academic Writing.pdf

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Coherence vs. Cohesion

What's the difference.

Coherence and cohesion are two essential elements in effective writing. Coherence refers to the logical and clear flow of ideas within a text. It ensures that the information presented is organized and connected in a way that makes sense to the reader. On the other hand, cohesion focuses on the linguistic devices used to connect different parts of a text. It involves the use of transitional words, pronouns, and repetition to create a smooth and seamless reading experience. While coherence ensures the overall unity and clarity of a piece of writing, cohesion enhances the connectivity and fluency of the individual sentences and paragraphs. Both coherence and cohesion are crucial for creating well-structured and easily understandable written works.

Further Detail

Introduction.

When it comes to effective writing, two key concepts that play a crucial role in enhancing the quality and readability of a text are coherence and cohesion. While these terms are often used interchangeably, they have distinct attributes that contribute to the overall clarity and organization of a piece of writing. In this article, we will delve into the differences and similarities between coherence and cohesion, exploring their individual characteristics and highlighting their importance in creating well-structured and engaging written content.

Coherence refers to the logical and consistent flow of ideas within a text. It ensures that the information presented is connected and easily understandable for the reader. Achieving coherence involves organizing thoughts and concepts in a way that allows the reader to follow the writer's intended message without confusion or ambiguity.

One of the key attributes of coherence is the presence of clear and well-developed topic sentences. These topic sentences act as a roadmap for the reader, guiding them through the main ideas of each paragraph. By clearly stating the main point, the writer establishes a foundation for the subsequent sentences, ensuring that they are relevant and contribute to the overall coherence of the text.

In addition to topic sentences, the use of appropriate transitions and logical connectors is crucial in maintaining coherence. These words and phrases help to establish relationships between ideas, making the text more cohesive and easier to follow. Examples of such transitions include "furthermore," "however," and "in contrast," which signal shifts in thought or provide additional information.

Furthermore, coherence can be enhanced through the use of consistent verb tenses and pronoun references. By maintaining a consistent grammatical structure, the writer avoids confusion and ensures that the reader can easily identify the subject and understand the intended meaning.

Overall, coherence is essential in creating a well-structured and comprehensible piece of writing. It allows the reader to navigate through the text smoothly, understanding the writer's message and the relationships between ideas.

While coherence focuses on the overall flow and logical progression of ideas, cohesion refers to the linguistic and grammatical elements that bind the text together. It ensures that the sentences and paragraphs are connected in a way that makes the writing cohesive and coherent.

One of the primary attributes of cohesion is the use of cohesive devices, such as pronouns, conjunctions, and lexical repetition. These devices help to establish connections between sentences and paragraphs, creating a sense of unity and continuity in the text. For example, the use of pronouns like "it" or "they" allows the writer to refer back to previously mentioned concepts, avoiding unnecessary repetition and maintaining a smooth flow of ideas.

Another important aspect of cohesion is the consistent use of referencing and substitution. This involves using words or phrases that refer back to previously mentioned ideas or concepts. By doing so, the writer ensures that the reader can easily follow the train of thought and understand the relationships between different parts of the text.

Furthermore, the use of lexical repetition, or the repetition of key words or phrases, can contribute to cohesion. By repeating certain terms, the writer reinforces the main ideas and creates a sense of unity throughout the text. However, it is important to use repetition judiciously to avoid monotony or redundancy.

In summary, cohesion plays a vital role in creating a well-connected and coherent piece of writing. By utilizing cohesive devices and maintaining consistency in referencing and substitution, the writer ensures that the text flows smoothly and is easily understood by the reader.

While coherence and cohesion are closely related and both contribute to the overall quality of a text, they differ in their focus and application. Coherence primarily deals with the logical organization and flow of ideas, ensuring that the text is easy to follow and understand. On the other hand, cohesion focuses on the linguistic and grammatical elements that bind the text together, creating a sense of unity and continuity.

Coherence is achieved through the use of clear topic sentences, appropriate transitions, and consistent verb tenses and pronoun references. It ensures that the ideas are logically connected and that the reader can easily navigate through the text. Cohesion, on the other hand, is achieved through the use of cohesive devices, referencing and substitution, and lexical repetition. It ensures that the sentences and paragraphs are connected in a way that makes the writing cohesive and coherent.

While coherence is more concerned with the overall structure and organization of the text, cohesion focuses on the linguistic and grammatical aspects that contribute to the text's unity. Both coherence and cohesion are essential for effective writing, as they work together to create a well-structured and engaging piece of text.

Importance of Coherence and Cohesion

Coherence and cohesion are crucial elements in effective writing for several reasons. Firstly, they enhance the readability and comprehension of the text. By ensuring that the ideas are logically connected and the sentences flow smoothly, coherence and cohesion make it easier for the reader to understand the writer's message.

Secondly, coherence and cohesion contribute to the overall persuasiveness and impact of the writing. A well-structured and cohesive text is more likely to convince and engage the reader, as it presents a clear and organized argument or narrative.

Furthermore, coherence and cohesion help to establish the writer's credibility and professionalism. A text that lacks coherence and cohesion may be perceived as disorganized or poorly thought out, diminishing the writer's authority on the subject matter.

Lastly, coherence and cohesion facilitate effective communication. Whether it is an academic essay, a business report, or a creative piece, a well-coordinated and cohesive text ensures that the writer's ideas are effectively conveyed to the reader, fostering understanding and engagement.

In conclusion, coherence and cohesion are two essential components of effective writing. While coherence focuses on the logical organization and flow of ideas, cohesion deals with the linguistic and grammatical elements that bind the text together. Both coherence and cohesion contribute to the overall clarity, readability, and impact of a piece of writing.

By understanding and implementing the principles of coherence and cohesion, writers can create well-structured and engaging texts that effectively convey their intended message. Whether it is an academic paper, a professional report, or a creative piece, coherence and cohesion are indispensable tools for achieving clarity, readability, and impact in writing.

Comparisons may contain inaccurate information about people, places, or facts. Please report any issues.

Definition of Coherence

Types of coherence, examples of coherence in literature, example #1:  one man’s meat (by e.b. white).

“Scientific agriculture, however sound in principle, often seems strangely unrelated to, and unaware of, the vital, grueling job of making a living by farming. Farmers sense this quality in it as they study their bulletins, just as a poor man senses in a rich man an incomprehension of his own problems. The farmer of today knows, for example, that manure loses some of its value when exposed to the weather … But he knows also that to make hay he needs settled weather – better weather than you usually get in June.”

Example #2:  A Tale of Two Cities (by Charles Dickens)

“The wine was red wine, and had stained the ground of the narrow street in the suburb of Saint Antoine, in Paris, where it was spilled. It had stained many hands, too, and many faces, and many naked feet, and many wooden shoes. The hands of the man who sawed the wood, left red marks on the billets; and the forehead of the woman who nursed her baby, was stained with the stain of the old rag she wound about her head again. Those who had been greedy with the staves of the cask … scrawled upon a wall with his finger dipped in muddy wine-lees—BLOOD.”

Example #3:  Animal Farm (by George Orwell)

“ Now , comrades, what is the nature of this life of ours? Let us face it: our lives are miserable, laborious, and short. We are born, we are given just so much food as will keep the breath in our bodies, and those of us who are capable of it are forced to work to the last atom of our strength … “No animal in England knows the meaning of happiness or leisure after he is a year old. The life of an animal is misery and slavery: that is the plain truth.”

Example #4:  Unpopular Essays (by Bertrand Russell)

“The word “philosophy” is one of which the meaning is by no means fixed. Like the word “religion,” it has one sense when used to describe certain features of historical cultures, and another when used to denote a study or an attitude of mind which is considered desirable in the present day. Philosophy, as pursued in the universities of the Western democratic world, is, at least in intention, part of the pursuit of knowledge, aiming at the same kind of detachment as is sought in science …”

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Greater Good Science Center • Magazine • In Action • In Education

How Does Your Personality Affect Your Happiness?

Many of us don’t necessarily have the kind of lives we want. We may not enjoy intimate relationships, jobs that fulfill us, the ideal home, or enough income to do what we want to do.

But do these circumstances dictate our happiness? According to a new study led by René Mõttus of Edinburgh University and the University of Tartu in Estonia, they don’t—at least not exclusively. Instead, our personalities play a significant role in determining how satisfied we are with our life, and changing our circumstances doesn’t really matter as much as we think.

“You can think, Oh, if I get these 10 papers published and I get this promotion, that’ll make things much better , but probably not,” says Mõttus.” You will be happier if something more broadly changes in you.”

What personality traits lead to happiness

In this study, over 21,000 European and British adults (many of them Estonians or ethnic Russians living in Estonia) reported on how satisfied they were in different domains of their lives (like their work, health, relationships, and finances). They also filled out a detailed personality survey that measured several aspects of personality, including the “Big Five” traits or how extroverted (outgoing and energetic), conscientious (efficient and organized), neurotic (sensitive and nervous), agreeable (friendly and compassionate), and open to experience (inventive and curious) they were. And the survey measured other aspects of personality, such as how envious, competitive, loyal, narcissistic, or spiritual someone was.

To get a less biased view of each person’s personality, participants designated someone they knew well to assess their personality traits, too, and the researchers used these to verify self-reports. Ultimately, Mõttus and his team found that people who were less neurotic, more extraverted, and more conscientious tended to be more satisfied with life in all domains, while agreeableness and openness to experience were hardly related to life satisfaction at all.

To Mõttus, these results weren’t too surprising, especially how life satisfaction was higher in people who were less neurotic and more extraverted. But, by looking more granularly into their data, he found that certain specific traits were much more strongly associated with life satisfaction than the Big Five.

For example, people who were risk takers, found it easy to apologize, felt committed to their family, were loyal, respected authority, liked to visit new places, and were working on self-improvement tended to be more satisfied with life, whereas the opposite was true of people who made enemies easily, told lies, often forgot things, and cried easily.

In fact, when they looked at scores on just three of the more nuanced personality factors—how much someone felt understood, excited by life, or able to make decisions easily—they found that these alone predicted life satisfaction with 80% accuracy. Of the three, though, feeling understood was the most strongly predictive of all.

“The single most important thing from which you can recognize somebody with low life satisfaction is if they feel that other people don’t understand them,” says Mõttus. “That’s the thing that really stood out. . . . It was by far the most consistent predictor.”

Does this mean that creating greater understanding between people might increase life satisfaction more widely, then? Maybe feeling understood could help people feel less lonely or isolated.

But given his findings, Mõttus isn’t willing to conclude that. Personality traits tend to be stable over our lifetimes, which is what classifies something as an aspect of personality, and that will likely still influence how people respond to social situations.

“Relationships don’t just happen to people; people choose relationships and work for them. And they can screw up relationships by, for example, constantly going around showing that they feel misunderstood,” he says. So, personality is important to consider, even in our quest for more satisfying relationships.

Though these findings are based on a very large number of people, they don’t necessarily prove that someone’s personality causes them to have high or low life satisfaction. To get at that, Mõttus and his team looked at a smaller group of the participants who had also been surveyed about their personalities and life satisfaction 10 years earlier.

The Science of Happiness

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What they found surprised Mõttus: Even if someone’s life satisfaction had dipped a bit over time, it could still be pretty accurately predicted just by looking at personality traits measured 10 years earlier.

“Whatever the link between personality and life satisfaction is, it persists over time,” says Mõttus. “If we wanted to predict someone’s life satisfaction in 10 years, we could just as well predict it from their personality traits now.”

Of course, that’s not 100% true. Even Mõttus says that they couldn’t predict life satisfaction well for one out of four people. Perhaps in some cases, he says, a change in their life somehow knocked their stability out of whack, and their personality was no longer a strong driver of their life satisfaction.

But, in general, many of the things that happen in our ordinary lives don’t affect our happiness as much as we think, he says. And that has relevance for us all.

Can personality change?

While this message may seem disheartening—that our personalities strongly influence our happiness—Mõttus doesn’t think it’s all bad news. Sure, having certain personality traits may make you feel less satisfied with life no matter what happens. But, on the flipside, other traits may buffer you through difficult times. For example, if you are low in neuroticism, you may be able to see the silver linings and not become overwhelmed, even in stressful circumstances.

It’s also possible that people can affect their life satisfaction deliberately through specific behaviors or practices, making it less tied to their personality. For example, research has found that many well-being practices —like gratitude and self-compassion , for example—can shift people’s life satisfaction without consideration of their personality type, per se.

Similarly, even though we tend to think of personality as fixed, more and more research suggests that personalities can evolve via specific effort, says Mõttus, and this gives him some (guarded) hope.

“I’ve been very skeptical about personality change research, but I’m really changing my mind,” he says. “There is a reason we should try these things, and the initial findings are pretty encouraging.”

However, he cautions, shifting from being neurotic to not neurotic at all might be difficult. Instead, it could be more realistic to just learn to worry a little less or feel a little less misunderstood. Those more nuanced traits might be more malleable and a better target for change than the “Big Five,” he says.

To that end, he and his team have been developing a toolkit that could be widely available as a phone app and would allow people to choose personality traits to work on. He hopes to test it in the years ahead to see if it helps people make the changes they want.

In the meantime, we can keep in mind that, while getting that great job or relationship we’ve been wanting won’t necessarily make us happier, having bad things happen won’t necessarily permanently tank our happiness either. And there is some solace in that.

“Circumstances just happen—they come and go,” says Mõttus. “On the positive side of this, if negative things happen, they probably don’t matter that much. You can be happy based on your personality, and you will probably bounce back pretty quickly.”

About the Author

Jill Suttie

Jill Suttie, Psy.D. , is Greater Good ’s former book review editor and now serves as a staff writer and contributing editor for the magazine. She received her doctorate of psychology from the University of San Francisco in 1998 and was a psychologist in private practice before coming to Greater Good .

You May Also Enjoy

Does Your Personality Predict Your Happiness?

The Genetics of Happiness

How Much Control Do You Have Over Your Own Happiness?

How Much of Your Happiness Is Under Your Control?

Can Your Personality Change Over Your Lifetime?

Can You Change Your Personality?

Pasco-Hernando State College

• Unity and Coherence in Essays
• The Writing Process
• Paragraphs and Essays
• Proving the Thesis/Critical Thinking
• Appropriate Language

Test Yourself

• Essay Organization Quiz
• Sample Essay - Fairies
• Sample Essay - Modern Technology

Related Pages

• Proving the Thesis

Unity is the idea that all parts of the writing work to achieve the same goal: proving the thesis. Just as the content of a paragraph should focus on a topic sentence, the content of an essay must focus on the thesis.  The introduction paragraph introduces the thesis, the body paragraphs each have a proof point (topic sentence) with content that proves the thesis, and the concluding paragraph sums up the proof and restates the thesis. Extraneous information in any part of the essay that is not related to the thesis is distracting and takes away from the strength of proving the thesis.

An essay must have coherence. The sentences must flow smoothly and logically from one to the next as they support the purpose of each paragraph in proving the thesis.

Just as the last sentence in a paragraph must connect back to the topic sentence of the paragraph, the last paragraph of the essay should connect back to the thesis by reviewing the proof and restating the thesis.

Example of Essay with Problems of Unity and Coherence

Here is an example of a brief essay that includes a paragraph that does not support the thesis “Many people are changing their diets to be healthier.”

     People are concerned about pesticides, steroids, and antibiotics in the food they eat.  Many now shop for organic foods since they don’t have the pesticides used in conventionally grown food.  Meat from chicken and cows that are not given steroids or antibiotics are gaining popularity even though they are much more expensive. More and more, people are eliminating pesticides, steroids, and antibiotics from their diets.     Eating healthier also is beneficial to the environment since there are less pesticides poisoning the earth. Pesticides getting into the waterways is creating a problem with drinking water.  Historically, safe drinking water has been a problem. It is believed the Ancient Egyptians drank beer since the water was not safe to drink.  Brewing beer killed the harmful organisms and bacteria in the water from the Nile. There is a growing concern about eating genetically modified foods, and people are opting for non-GMO diets.  Some people say there are more allergic reactions and other health problems resulting from these foods.  Others are concerned because there are no long-term studies that clearly show no adverse health effects such as cancers or other illnesses. Avoiding GMO food is another way people are eating healthier food.

See how just one paragraph can take away from the effectiveness of the essay in showing how people are changing to healthier food since unity and coherence are affected. There is no longer unity among all the paragraphs. The thought pattern is disjointed and the essay loses its coherence.

Transitions and Logical Flow of Ideas

Transitions are words, groups of words, or sentences that connect one sentence to another or one paragraph to another.

They promote a logical flow from one idea to the next and overall unity and coherence.

While transitions are not needed in every sentence or at the end of every paragraph, they are missed when they are omitted since the flow of thoughts becomes disjointed or even confusing.

There are different types of transitions:

• Time – before, after, during, in the meantime, nowadays
• Space – over, around, under
• Examples – for instance, one example is
• Comparison – on the other hand, the opposing view
• Consequence – as a result, subsequently

These are just a few examples.  The idea is to paint a clear, logical connection between sentences and between paragraphs.

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EnglishPost.org

Cohesion and Coherence: Features of Better Writing

There are several characteristics that make up a good piece of writing in a foreign language class.

Two fundamental features of good writing are Cohesion and c oherence.

Coherence  means the connection of ideas at the idea level, and cohesion means the connection of ideas at the sentence level.

Table of Contents

What’s the Difference Between Cohesion and Coherence?

What’s cohesion in writing, what’s coherence in writing, cohesion and coherence in writing .

Cohesion and coherence are two essential characteristics of good writing.

Coherence refers to the “rhetorical” aspects of your writing, which include developing and supporting your argument, synthesizing and integrating readings, organizing and clarifying ideas.

The  cohesion  of writing focuses on the “grammatical” aspects of writing. 

Cohesion  is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or sentence that holds a text together and gives it meaning.

From a language point of view a text uses certain conventions that help to make a text cohesive.

The topic of the text enables the writer to select from a lexical set of related words.

We can also use grammatical features to allow the reader to comprehend what is being referred to throughout the text.

Let’s look at these in a little more details.

We can repeat key content words throughout the piece of writing. This helps the reader know who or what is being referred to.

Writers also use similar related words that form part of a lexical chain . 

An example of this is when describing a festival, the writer may use words such as celebration , party and festivity, or fancy dress , costumes and masks. Reference words (such as it, they or them) also may be part of a lexical chain .

A good writer tends to use the same tense to hold the text together. This helps to make the text more comprehensible for the reader, rather than jumping from one tense to another.

Writers use linking words to allow the reader to predict the information that is coming also helps the reader. These might be related to time; e.g. ‘an hour later’ or sequence ; e.g. ‘before that’.

Words are sometimes left out because the meaning is clear from a previous sentence or clause.

This is called ellipsis . For example, “I love horror movies!” might get an answer “I don’t.” which is short for “I don’t like horror movies.”

From a communicative point of view however, we need to examine the overall communicative aspect of a piece of writing. This involves other skills which relate to the overall organization and message of the text.

A written text usually has some kind of logic or coherence which allows the reader to follow the intended message.

This may reflect the writer’s reason for writing or their line of thought. If a written text lacks these features it may cause a strain on the reader.

Writing also involves knowledge of the genre o f texts (writing in such a way that is typical of the style, construction and choice of language, for example: email writing).

When we understand the audience and purpose of the text we are writing we can use the conventions of genre to make it easy to read.

The final consideration for a writer is the register or the actual language we use with a particular group of people .

For example, when writing an academic essay, we use formal language related to the topic and assume it is shared by the intended recipients.

In this video, we will look at the elements that create strong cohesion and coherence that will make your writing stronger, better, and easier for the reader to follow.

Manuel Campos

I am Jose Manuel, English professor and creator of EnglishPost.org, a blog whose mission is to share lessons for those who want to learn and improve their English

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Paragraph Unity, Coherence, and Development

In each paragraph of an essay, one particular idea or topic is developed and explained. In order to successfully do so, however, it is essential that the paragraph be written in a unified and coherent manner. 

A unified paragraph must follow the idea mentioned in the topic sentence and must not deviate from it. For a further explanation on topic sentences, see the Write Right on Topic Sentences .

A coherent paragraph has sentences that all logically follow each other; they are not isolated thoughts. Coherence can be achieved in several ways. First, using transitions helps connect ideas from one sentence to the next. For more on transitions, see the Write Right on Transitions . Second, ordering thoughts in numerical sequence helps to direct the reader from one point to the next. Third, structuring each paragraph according to one of the following patterns helps to organize sentences: general to particular; particular to general; whole to parts; question to answer; or effect to cause. 

Remember that a paragraph should have enough sentences so that the main idea of the topic sentence is completely developed. Generalizations should be supported with examples or illustrations. Also, details and descriptions help the reader to understand what you mean. Don't ever assume that the reader can read your mind: be specific enough to develop your ideas thoroughly, but avoid repetition

An effective paragraph might look like this:

It is commonly recognized that dogs have an extreme antagonism toward cats. This enmity between these two species can be traced back to the time of the early Egyptian dynasties. Archaeologists in recent years have discovered Egyptian texts in which there are detailed accounts of canines brutally mauling felines. Today this type of cruelty between these two domestic pets can be witnessed in regions as close as your own neighborhood. For example, when dogs are walked by their masters (and they happen to catch sight of a stray cat), they will pull with all their strength on their leash until the master is forced to yield; the typical result is that a feline is chased up a tree. The hatred between dogs and cats has lasted for many centuries, so it is unlikely that this conflict will ever end.

This paragraph is effective for the following reasons:

• The paragraph shows unity. All the sentences effectively relate back to the topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. 
• The paragraph shows coherence. There is a flow of thoughts and ideas among the sentences in this paragraph. There are good transitions employed in the paragraph. The writer also presents her sub-topics in an orderly fashion that the reader can follow easily.
• The paragraph is developed. The writer gives herself enough space to develop the topic. She gives us at least two reasons to accept her argument and incorporates some examples in order to give those reasons more validity.

Reference: Strunk, Wiliam Jr., and E. B. White. The Elements of Style . 4th ed., Allyn and Bacon, 2000.

Copyright © 2009 Wheaton College Writing Center

• December 25, 2020

Cohesion and Coherence in Writing

Cohesion and coherence are often mentioned together because they are the two pillars of a well-written piece of writing. Without them, your work won’t make any sense to your readers. But what are they exactly? What is the difference between them? How do we achieve good cohesion and coherence? If you are trying to find the answers to these questions, you are at the right place.

What is cohesion?

Imagine a high-rise building. How is it made? Bricks, wood, and many other materials are put together to build it. In other words, all those materials become one large unit to make it happen. That’s what cohesion in writing is about. If your words and sentences stick together, they will form an essay or an article (our high-rise building). That said, not every word and sentence can be used with another word or a sentence. That’s why there are two main types of cohesion: Grammatical Cohesion and Lexical Cohesion .

Grammatical cohesion

As the name suggests, this type of cohesion deals with the grammatical relations between text elements. More precisely, it is about referencing, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction.

Referencing

Referencing means to refer back to something or someone that you have mentioned earlier in your essay. This can be done in several ways:

By using pronouns like I , you , he , them , us , mine , this , those … :  

• Alice loves hiking. She is also interested in rock climbing.
• A severe storm is expected to hit the town. This is the reason why people have turned to panic buying at grocery stores and pharmacies.

By using comparative references to talk about identity, similarities, or differences:

• Some animals like snakes and scorpions are venomous. Being too close to such animals is therefore unwise.
• Yesterday, someone on the street came up to me and asked for my autograph. He thought that I was Mark Wahlberg. Surprisingly, the same thing happened today.

Substitution

Simply put, substitution means to replace a word or phrase with another one to avoid repetition. The three most common words for this purpose are one, ones, and different forms of the verb do.

• I asked him which car he liked, and he pointed at the blue one.
• We had a stupid competition to see who could drink a bottle of milk faster. Jack finished before I did.

Ellipsis refers to the omission of a word or part of a sentence because the meaning is clear even without them. Since those parts are replaced with no other word(s), we can also call it substitution by zero .

Sentence with poor cohesion: I’d like to visit New York, but I can’t afford to visit New York.

Sentence with good cohesion: I ‘ d like to visit New York, but I can’t afford to.

Sentence with poor cohesion: Teenagers play online games as often as they can play online games.

Sentence with good cohesion: Teenagers play online games as often as they can.

Conjunction

The last type of grammatical cohesion is conjunction. It shows the relationship between a sentence and the one following or preceding it. This is usually done by using conjunctives (e.g., firstly, moreover, in addition, for example, nevertheless, on the other hand, however, in conclusion …).

• This is a simple process. However, there are dangers.
• It’s very expensive to live in New York. For example , I pay $1250 for a one-bedroom apartment.

Lexical Cohesion

Lexical cohesion refers to the meaningful relationship between the words in your sentences. There are two main forms of lexical cohesion: Repetition and Collocation.

Repeating keywords, phrases, and ideas throughout your work helps your readers follow the main threads more easily. Take a look at the example below to understand how it works.

My roommate is an annoying person. I am annoyed each time I have to shut the ice-covered windows that John, my roommate, insists on opening every night even during the winter.

Question: My English teacher once said that if we repeat a word, our cohesion score will go down. Is he wrong?

Answer: Well, word or phrase repetition is like adding salt to food. You can do it with the right amount, but if you repeat a word a lot, yes, it will have a negative effect on the quality of your writing. Let me clarify this point using our example.

Poor cohesion because of the excessive use of the word “ annoy” : In the early morning I am easily annoyed by my roommate. I am annoyed each time I have to shut the ice-covered windows that John, my roommate, insists on opening every night even during the winter. Another annoying habit of his is that he smokes cigarettes at home, which makes life unbearable to me. And last but not least, I am annoyed by the fact that he doesn’t care about his dandruff problem, and I have to cope with the white tornado swirling around the apartment.

Question: So what is the solution to this problem?

Answer: appropriate synonyms or more specific words !

Synonyms or near-synonyms are words that convey almost the same meaning. That said, you should always be careful because, in most cases, you can’t just replace a word with another. For example, many people believe that the words annoying and irritating are synonyms and can be used interchangeably, but the truth is that these two words cannot be used in that way 100% of the time. As for our example above, we can replace some of the repeated words with others that are close to the original ones but also more precise.

Better cohesion because of the use of synonyms or more precise vocabulary: In the early morning I am easily annoyed by my roommate. I am annoyed each time I have to shut the ice-covered windows that John, my roommate, insists on opening every night even during the winter. Another infuriating habit of his is that he smokes cigarettes at home, which makes life unbearable to me. And last but not least, I am disgusted by the fact that he doesn’t care about his dandruff problem, and I have to cope with the white tornado swirling around the apartment.

We could also take one more step and add more variety to our writing by using different parts of speech if we had to use a word more than once:

My roommate is a really annoying person. I am annoyed every morning that I have to shut the ice-covered windows that John, my roommate, insists…

Note: As you can see, I started the paragraph with the main idea (the roommate being annoying) and then provided vivid examples to support that while repeating the idea that the roommate is an annoying person. I used the same word , its synonym, and a word that conveys a close but more precise meaning. This is how you use repetition to your advantage.

Collocation

Collocation is how some words are often used together or a particular combination of words used in this way. For example,  “take a shower” is a typical collocation in English. These word combinations make your work sound natural; therefore, it is best to learn new words with their collocations. For non-native learners, the best way to learn them is to use a good online dictionary.

• Yesterday, I received an avalanche of emails .
• Unfortunately, domestic violence increased during the pandemic.

Other factors contributing to a good cohesion

Thematic development.

By now, we know that cohesion is all about sticking together. Thematic development refers to how a sentence prepares the reader for the next. To understand how it works, take a look at the example below:

People should consider doing unpaid community service from time to time. Such voluntary work creates a feeling of happiness among them and boosts their self-esteem . Experiencing those feelings on a daily basis  helps people have a higher sense of life satisfaction.

Notice how the second part of each sentence forms the theme/main subject of the next sentence . In other words, if you pay attention, you will see that the sentences are connected to each other like a chain.

Note: Although this kind of paragraph development results in very good cohesion, it is not always possible to develop your ideas this way. On such occasions, conjunctives are what you need to use.

Consistency in point of view

Point of view refers to the angle from which you want to present ideas. Do you want to tell the reader that those ideas are your opinions? Do you want to speak directly to your readers and give them some tips and advice? Or do you just want to present facts? In order to have good cohesion in your work, you need to choose the appropriate one and stick to it; otherwise, you’ll just cause confusion, and that is the worst thing that can happen to a piece of writing.

There are three main points of view that you can use in your writing:

First person: In this point of view, you use pronouns like I, my, me, we, our, and us to present your opinion. It is suitable if you are writing a personal letter or an opinion essay.

While I agree that healthcare and education must be the government’s first priority, I also believe that space exploration should be considered as the second.

Second person: In this point of view, you structure your work around the pronouns you and your. Use this point of view if you want to speak directly to your readers or give them some pieces of advice. As you can see, this paragraph is written in the second-person point of view.

Third person: This is the most formal point of view. You should use this in formal or academic writing. It uses the pronouns he, she, it, and they. Writers usually choose this one to present facts and not opinions.

When it comes to news editing, a variety of factors influence the process. First of all, the political affiliations of the editors or the owners of the media company play a major role in selecting the news items to be broadcast. They would like to promote their favorite political parties…

Consistency in tense

Use the past tense if you are referring to past events (e.g. I took a trip to Vancouver last summer, and I really enjoyed it), but if you are presenting facts and opinions, it is better to use the present tense. What’s more important is that you stick to one tense throughout your essay and avoid switching your tense unless it’s necessary.

Change can sometimes be a difficult thing to accept. No matter how big or small, sadly, many of us fear it.

Note: Sometimes, it is necessary to refer to past events. Take a look at the example below:

Change can sometimes be a difficult thing to accept. No matter how big or small, sadly, many of us fear it. Having said that, we should always remember that a change may sometimes bring about better opportunities in life. For example, when I was ten years old , my family moved to a new house. I was upset at first because I didn’t want to lose my friends, but my old friends and I figured out a way to hang out from time to time. Plus, we had such great neighbors that I made some new friends. Now I’m 15 and no more scared of changes.

Notice how the writer helped the reader understand which part is in the past and which is in the present by using time indicators. 

What is coherence?

Coherence is achieved when it is easy for the reader to follow the ideas and sentences in your writing. In other words, if the reader can easily move from one sentence to the other or from one paragraph to the next, the work is then coherent. One quick way to assess the coherence of a piece of writing is to read it and see if you can understand everything in one try. If you had to read the paragraph twice or more, it’s probably because it is not coherent. The following are some methods that you can use to improve your work’s coherence:

Improve your cohesion

Earlier in this article, we discussed cohesion and the ways that can help you improve it. Without cohesion, you cannot achieve coherence. So read those tips carefully and implement them in your writing. You’ll soon see a significant improvement in the quality of your work. However, cohesion is not enough to achieve coherence. A piece of writing can have cohesion but lack coherence. This is why you also need to follow other rules to create an easy-to-read essay.

Use transitional words or phrases to link ideas, sentences, and paragraphs.

Readers must always know where they are in the paragraph. Use transitional or linking devices at critical locations, not in front of every sentence , to help the reader know how your points are connected and understand where you are moving from explanation to example or from pros to cons. Using conjunctives, which are already mentioned in this article, can help you with this.

Bad coherence: Australia is home to many unusual animals. The platypus is a mammal but lays eggs.

In this example, the reader may think that the second sentence is a new idea, but it is strange jumping so fast from one idea to the next. So he or she hesitates to think about what is going on. That hesitation is a sign of poor coherence.

Good coherence: Australia is home to many unusual animals. The platypus, for example , is a mammal but lays eggs.

Now the reader knows that the second sentence is an example for the first one. There’s no need to stop and think because the flow of ideas is smooth.

Use parallel structures

Simply put, if you are writing about a list of things, all the items should take the same grammatical form.

Not parallel : I like to watch TV, playing soccer, and to eat pizza.

Parallel: I like to watch TV, play soccer, and eat pizza.

Parallel: I like watching  TV, playing soccer, and eating pizza.

Not parallel : A new athletic program is both worthwhile and a necessity.

Not parallel because worthwhile is an adjective, but necessity is a noun.

Parallel: A new athletic program is both worthwhile and necessary.

Now both of them are adjectives (the same grammatical form).

Not parallel: You can see birds on the ground, in the trees, and flying.

Not parallel because on the ground and in the trees are prepositional phrases, but flying is an adjective.

Parallel: You can see birds on the ground , in the trees , and in the air.

Now all of them are prepositional phrases.

Final Note : If you want to improve your writing skills, you should practice writing regularly. Also, make a habit of reading high-quality materials like magazines, novels, or online articles from reputable sources. If you do these, you will be on the right track and see improvement in your writing skills.

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Coherence and Cohesion

Harshdeep Kaur

April 1, 2018

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When it comes to planned, non-spontaneous texts including written discourse and speeches, the manner in which the text is put together can be explained by elements of coherence and cohesion. While spontaneous discourse will also display coherence and cohesion, it is emphasized in planned texts because there is a greater deal of thought and intention behind the use of cohesive ties and devices of coherence.

They can however often be difficult concepts to grasp. For starters, it is essential to understand the difference between the two terms.

Coherence is defined as the quality of being logical, consistent and able to be understood. Imagine coherence as a building (It’s an analogy, go with it).

Cohesion on the other hand refers to the act of forming a whole unit. It is effectively a subset of coherence. Picture cohesion as the bricks and cement which make up the building.

Bricks and cement can be put together to create any form of structure. However, it is only when they are laid together properly that they form a building. Similarly, a text will be cohesive if cohesive ties are used however it will only be coherent if the cohesive ties are used appropriately to create meaning.

You can have cohesion without coherence but you cannot have coherence without cohesion. The picture does not make sense unless the correct pieces are placed in the correct order, even if certain pieces may be the same size and shape.

“I bought some hummus to eat with celery. Green vegetables can boost your metabolism. The Australian Greens is a political party. I couldn’t decide what to wear to the new year’s party.”

In the example above, there are lexical links from one sentence to the next; cohesive ties are used to join the sentences. There is evidence of lexical repetition, ‘green’ ‘party’ and collocations, ‘new years’. 

However, this string of sentences do not make any sense; there is no binding semantic link. This is an example of cohesion without coherence.

Cohesive devices effectively help the discourse flow. They include collocations, lexical repetition, linking adverbials, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctions, synonymy/antonymy, hypernyms/hyponyms and referencing (anaphoric, cataphoric, deictic). These devices create physical links between the words in a discourse.

Coherence which we previously defined as understanding can be achieved through devices such as cohesive ties, formatting techniques, inference, logical ordering of information, semantic patterning and consistency.

These all enhance the ability of a text to be successfully interpreted and understood. Recipes, terms and condition documents, informative brochures all make use of formatting in the form of headings, bolding, underlines etc. to emphasis certain aspects of the text and draw audience attention to the most important elements.

The focus of coherence factors is determined by the social purpose of the text. Is the text made to entertain? Inform? Persuade? Celebrate? If so, why? What is the overarching intention of the text? Answering such questions can help explain the purpose of coherence factors and cohesive devices within a discourse.

This is effectively what you are aiming to do in your analytical commentaries and short answer questions in the exam. Identify the social purposes of the text and use them to explain the role of coherence and cohesion within the discourse.

The other major factor of consideration is the intended audience of the text. Is the text aimed at teenagers? the Australian public? Or specifically to “bogan” Australians? The language choices and ideas implied in the text will reflect the intended audience. If a text is aimed at Victorian’s it may include lexemes such as “Mornington Peninsula” or “Shepparton” which Victorian’s can infer as locations within Victoria, however these terms would need to be further explained to those who reside outside this state. Lexical choices which require outside inference would be included if it can be reasonably interpreted that the intended audience would be aware of their meaning. Finding examples of inference in texts can be useful in identifying the social purpose of the text.

The main thing to be mindful of is that finding cohesive devices and evidence of coherence in texts alone is not enough. You will gain your marks in your exam for linking these fragments of evidence to the wider social purposes of the text.

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For an overview of English Language, the study design, what’s involved in the exam and more, take a look at our Ultimate Guide to English Language .

There are several strategies you can use to your advantage to extend yourself in VCE English Language. 

Make Finding Examples a Habit

One simple way to expose yourself to more examples is to follow news pages on social media so that you can see regular updates about current affairs. Have a read through of point 7: Year 12 Essay Topic Categories in our Ultimate Guide to English Language so that you can understand what types of examples you should be keeping an eye out for. 

Right from the start of the school year, make sure you set up a system to keep track of your examples. You could do this by setting up a document with headings (such as ‘free speech’, ‘egalitarianism’, ‘ political correctness ’, ‘double-speak’, ‘ethnolects’ and ‘ Australian identity ’) and adding examples to this document throughout the year as you find them. For more information about the potential headings you could use, have a look at the dot points in the VCE English Language Study Design from page 17 onwards. 

I’d also highly recommend checking out Building Essay Evidence Banks for English Language as it teaches you a great table method for storing and analysing your examples. 

The advantage of creating an example/evidence bank of some sort is that if you start looking for examples right at the start of the year, you’ll have more time to analyse and memorise them. Additionally, you’ll also be able to use them far earlier in your essays, which means that the quotes and examples you select will become much easier to remember for the final exam.

Have a Basic Understanding of Australian History, Politics and Social Issues

Having a basic understanding of Australian history, politics and social issues is highly beneficial for enhancing your analytical skills for English Language. This is essential in developing strong contentions for your essays. Some key issues that would be worth having some background information on include the following:

Australia’s colonial history and treatment of Indigenous communities, racism, and the language surrounding these matters.

 Look into the following: 

• How does language reflect or perpetuate prejudice? 
• How does hate speech affect social harmony? 
• How can language be used to establish in-group solidarity?

Sexism, racism, ableism, homophobia and transphobia.

• How can bias and prejudice be conveyed through language? 
• What are some examples of implicit and explicit bias? 
• What role does political correctness play in this context? 
• Does political correctness create benefits or does it restrict societies? 

Environmental issues, and the way this intersects with politics. 

• How can euphemisms , doublespeak, and bureaucratic language be used to obfuscate or mitigate blame? 

Immigration and refugee policy related discourse. 

• What are the origins of pejoratives such as ‘boat people’ and ‘queue jumper’ that are frequently used against refugees? 
• How does this influence the values or beliefs of a society? 

Business and economic issues, labour exploitation 

• How can bureaucratic language and jargon be used to mislead and manipulate?

Political affairs (historical and recent)

• How can formal language be used to mitigate blame and responsibility, negotiate social taboos, or establish national identity? 

Having an awareness of key events and social issues in Australia, an understanding of the groups that make up Australia, and exposing yourself to a diverse set of media is really important in developing your essay writing skills. It does take time, but what will ultimately happen is that your discussions in your essays will be much more insightful and demonstrate a well thought out argument.

Apply Your Critical Thinking Skills

When writing essays, try your best to apply your critical thinking skills . Identify the assumptions you’re making when you present a certain point, and try to develop arguments against your position so that you can better understand why you have chosen your side. Developing a holistic and detailed contention is far better than just picking one side out of simplicity, as it allows you to demonstrate consideration and analysis of a range of factors that affect a certain issue. Use your evidence (contemporary examples, linguist quotes and stimulus material) to develop your points, and position yourself to be mindful of any biases you may have by continuously asking yourself what has influenced your way of thinking. Above all, try to discuss your essay prompts with your peers, as this will provide you with different perspectives and help you strengthen your own point. 

Consistently Revising Metalanguage

Consistently revising metalanguage is crucial for doing well in English Language. Throughout Year 12, consistently revising metalanguage will be your responsibility. It is likely that you’ll be spending a greater proportion of class time in learning content, and writing practice pieces. Therefore, it’s really important to figure out a way that works best for you in being able to frequently revise metalanguage. Flashcards are useful for revision on the go, as well as making mind maps so that you’re able to visualise how everything is set out in the study design. 

One issue students run into when it comes to learning metalanguage is that they’re able to define and give examples for metalanguage terms, however, they are unable to understand how those terms fit into the categories under each subsystem. For example, a student is able to remember what a metaphor is, but unable to recall that it fits under semantic patterning. Similarly, a student may know what a pause is, but not know if it’s part of prosodic features or discourse features. 

It’s important to know what all the categories are because the short answer questions usually ask you to identify features under a particular category (e.g. you’d be asked to talk about semantic patterning, not metaphor or pun). Therefore, spending time on just revising the definitions alone isn’t sufficient in learning metalanguage. You also need to be able to ensure that you can recall which category each term fits under. Refer to the study design (pages 17-18) , for a list of categories you need to remember; these include: 

• Prosodic features
• Vocal effects
• Phonological patterning
• Processes in connected speech
• Word classes, word formation processes
• Sentence types
• Sentence structures
• Syntactic patterning
• Features of spoken discourse
• Strategies of spoken discourse
• Semantic patterning
• Sense relations/other semantics

Using Meaningful Examples in Essays

When you talk about a certain variety of English, say for example ethnolects or teen speak, rather than just providing a lexical example or translation, try to find a contemporary example of the term being used in the media, online or by a prominent individual. For example, rather than saying:

  ‘The lexeme ‘bet’ is an example of teen speak which allows young people to establish solidarity ’,

you could say:

 ‘ Bakery owner Morgan Hipworth, who largely has a teenage following and is a young person himself, employs teenspeak in a video recipe, where he responds to the question “Can you make a 10 layer cheese toastie?” with “Bet, let’s go. ”’ 

This will provide you with a better opportunity to talk about in-groups and identity, rather than just defining and identifying an example as part of a particular variety. In doing so, you’re better able to address the roles of different linguistic examples in a contextualised and detailed manner. 

In Building Essay Evidence Banks for English Language you’ll see that a short analysis for each of your examples (the ones you are collecting throughout the year) is encouraged, but, you could take things one step further - add on an extra column and combine your analysis and example in a practice sentence. Head to the blog to learn more about building evidence banks .

From year 7-10 the traditional essays we have written have had an introduction, three body paragraphs and a conclusion. In these essays we write about characters, plot points and themes. Hence, it is understandable that upon entering English Language in year 11 or 12, it can be difficult to grasp a hold on how to write an essay without characters, plots or themes. To be precise, the requirement in an English Language essay is to ‘use key linguistic concepts and metalanguage appropriately to discuss/analyse/investigate…in an objective and systematic way” (English Language Study Design) .

What does this mean?

Essentially, in section C of the exam, you are required to present a discussion of a given idea. The word ‘discussion’ is defined as ‘a conversation or debate about a specific topic.’ In this sense, your essay is effectively a written conversation which needs to display an understanding of both sides of the topic.

In saying that, it is still important to form a contention, such as ‘indeed non-standard varieties are more acceptable in speaking than in writing in the Australian context’ however in arguing this contention, you must to explore both sides to show the examiner your understanding of language in Australian society.

The overarching idea of the essay is presented to you in the form of a prompt. For example, in the 2016 VCAA exam, a possible essay prompt given was: “In Australia today, variations from the standard tends to be more acceptable in speaking than in writing.”

In this prompt, the idea to be discussed is standard vs. non-standard Australian English. The main idea or topic forms an umbrella under which the essay is formed. This is the foundation of your essay. Each main argument will relate to this topic. In this example, standard vs non-standard Australian English is a topic from which an array of sub-topics can be extracted, the choice of which is to your discretion.

The sub-topics you choose to delve into will depend on your preferences and strengths. You may choose to discuss online-speak, ethnolects or Australian slang in relation to non-standard English, or legal and political jargon in relation to standard English.

Regardless of the choice of sub-topic, each body paragraph must explicitly link to three things; the prompt, the topic sentence and the contention. This is the criteria for your discussion. Ensuring clear links to these three will assure the examiner that you have confidence in the material you are discussing.

Your body paragraphs should be used to show the examiner how the ideas you have chosen to talk about relate to the prompt provided. Here it is necessary to use a combination of contemporary media examples, personal examples and linguist quotes as a means to prove the link between your chosen paragraph idea, your contention and the prompt. Try to find the most relevant examples which clearly demonstrate your line of thinking to the examiner. You don’t want to give them a reason to question the arguments you choose to present.

It is also important to be wary of this so that your essay flows in an orderly, sequential manner. Each idea presented within a paragraph and across the essay itself should follow a pathway, one leading into another. Use the ending of each body paragraph to come back to your essay prompt and reiterate your contention. This ensures you stay on topic and the examiner can clearly visualize your understanding of your topic.

In the end, your job in your essay is to present a discussion of a given prompt; an understanding of both sides. Use examples and explanations to show your examiner that you comprehend how the prompt can be debated.

Helpful Hints:

• Writing the very first sentence of your essay can be difficult. Sometimes, to get yourself into the flow of writing, it can be helpful to integrate a linguistic quote into your first sentence. This also helps solidify your contention. For example:
• “One’s idiolect, particularly lexical choices and accent can be strongly indicative of their unique identity and the social groups to which they belong; it is the most natural badge of symbol of public and private identity (David Crystal)”
• Your topic sentence for each paragraph should contain a link to the essay prompt, to the topic of your paragraph and to your contention. A link to all three elements should be identifiable. Below is an example of a topic sentence for the given essay prompt. “The language we use is the best indicator of who we are, individually, socially and culturally. Discuss.”
• Ethnolects are a quintessential indicator of cultural identity as they are strongly identifiable by their unique phonological characteristics.
• This topic sentence shows a clear identification of the topic of the paragraph (ethnolects), a connection with the prompt, (cultural belonging) and a contention, (ethnolects are indeed indicative of cultural identity)
• Rather than introducing linguist quotes with expressions such as “in the words of…” or “as said by…” using linguist quotes discretely where they are integrated as part of the sentence will improve the flow of your essay. Consider this example.
• “The use of the interjectory ‘reh’ expresses the cultural identity individuals associate themselves with and is part of the language they use as ‘a means to an end of understanding who [they] are and what society is like (David Crystal).”
• Not all your contemporary essay examples need to come from news articles or social media. Students can often get caught up doing aimless research trying to find examples through research which really isn’t all that necessary. You should try to find examples of language use in every-day life. Perhaps consider other school subjects you study and the jargon you used within these subjects. You can quite easily discuss this use of language in your essays. Here is an example of a student using the metalanguage from VCE Accounting as an example for their essay.
• Jargon and taboo language are often used to express social identity as they are demonstrative of social groups one wishes to belong to. Jargon terms such as, ‘equity,’ ‘profit margin’, ‘cash flow statement,’ ‘debt ratio’ and ‘accrued’ belong to the financial and accounting semantic field. Their use suggests the individual is knowledgeable in business and finance and further suggests they are likely to be working in the business sector. The use of jargon in one’s vernacular can therefore provide hints of the individual’s social identity and is significant to their individual identity.

Link to David Crystal interviews to pick out quotes and ideas for your essays:

Link to Kate Burridge on TED Talk talking about Euphemisms; a good source for examples of euphemisms and how they are used in society. This can be used as foundation for a paragraph in your essays:

Let’s talk about emoji’s. There is a wide debate about whether or not these small icons we know as emoticon’s are the birth of a whole new language. What once started off as a :) at the end of an email has rapidly grown into a vast array of icons which serve multiple purposes and convey various meanings. I would not call emoji’s a new language for it lacks grammar; the very foundation which kneads a language together. Most often, emoji’s are used in conjunction with words on online platforms to enhance communication. The laughter emoji or smiling emoji is frequently used to close social distance or convey a sense of playfulness where a message may be perceived to be hostile. They can also be used to save face and reduce personal embarrassment. Frankly, emoji’s can be used to express a range of emotions and conversational tones which are difficult to achieve with words alone. In this way, they cater for the inability to use intonation and paralinguistic features such as hand gestures, facial expressions within written speech.

As emoji’s become a more prevalent part of online communication, they have begun to carry their own connotations. The eggplant and water-drop emoji’s are classic examples of this within young adolescents. However, even within smaller social groups, emoji’s can take on secondary meanings. (You probably have emoji’s within your friendship group which have connotations or act as inside jokes).

In this way, emoji’s are not replacing our language, but rather, they are an addition to comprehension of written language.

While emoji’s don’t have a complex syntactical system, they are loosely governed by grammatical rules. While this does not constitute emoji’s as a new language, one can still communicate meaning by stringing emoticons through semantic fields. Content words can be replaced with emoticons, however the relationship between emoticons must be inferred or expressed through functional words.

Hence, there can be communication difficulties when the relationship of an emoji to context is not effectively implied or explained. Julie Bishop’s use of the red faced emoji to describe Vladimir Putin on Twitter is a classic example of this notion. This emoji used on its own caused confusion as to what Julie Bishop thought of Putin, whether he was an angry man or whether she disapproved of him. Due to limited context and no words to back up Bishop’s opinion, there was controversy around her response.

Emoji’s are an addition to the written mode of language, catering for paralinguistic features which cannot be expressed through words. However, due to the lack of complex grammar binding emoji’s they cannot become a new language.

What Is a Short Answer Question? 

The English Language exam is split into three sections - Short Answer Questions, Analytical Commentary and an Essay (see here for an explanation of what’s involved in the Essay component). The Short Answer Questions (SAQs) are at the very start of the exam and include 15 marks in total, usually consisting of 3-5 questions that are in response to a text. SAQs are designed to test your knowledge of metalanguage and your ability to elaborate on the situational and social context of the text in a concise manner. 

As SAQs only have 15 marks, you should aim to spend 20-25 mins on this section in the exam. Because there are only about 25 minutes available to allocate to this section, they are also a test of your ability to quickly identify key features in a text. 

The good thing about SAQs is that because there are specific mark allocations for each question, there’s a formula that you can apply to every question to help you obtain all the marks possible - and that’s what we’ll go through in this blog post, so you can ace every SAQ you come across :) 

Common Command Words and What They Mean 

The first thing you should do when approaching an SAQ is to recognise (and even better, highlight) the command words in each question in order to help you understand exactly what is required. 

Here is a list of commonly seen command words and what they entail:

Identify ‍ In response to this command word, you should state the example using metalanguage and line numbers.

Describe   If you are asked to ‘describe’, you should state the example with metalanguage and also give some details about it, such as how it links to the context of the text and/or its functions and social purposes. 

Analyse, comment on, explain, discuss  ‍ Now we get to the heavier words that require a lot more elaboration and analysis. For these types of words, you should state the example with metalanguage, describe the immediate impact it creates and then link it to the broader context of the text (whether that be situational or social). So, you can think of these questions as a combination of ‘identify’ and ‘describe’ questions, with a bit of further elaboration attached to them. 

Mark Allocations

SAQs usually range from 1-6 marks each and the way you should answer the question depends on how many marks are available. 

As a general rule of thumb, do as the question says. 

For example, if we look at this question:

‘Give one function of this text. Using appropriate metalanguage, identify two different language features that support this function.’ (3 marks) 

The key phrase here that would distinguish a 2/3 from a 3/3 response is ‘that support this function’. Rather than simply stating two different language features, you should explain how they support the function of the text. It doesn’t have to be long, but at least 1 sentence of elaboration would be required to get full marks.

So, the overall mark allocation for this question is: 

1/3: Stating the function  2/3: Identifying two language features  3/3: Linking the language features to the function

A question with a higher mark allocation might be:

‘Using appropriate metalanguage, analyse at least three stylistic and discourse features that contribute to the cohesion of this text. Refer to line numbers in your response.’ (5 marks)

This question has 5 marks, but only one command term (analyse). As such, in response to this question you would have to elaborate on each example - in this case, stylistic and discourse features - and link to how they contribute to the cohesion of the text. 

Each example should be followed by at least 1 sentence that explains how it contributes to the text’s cohesion. You could also link the examples to their social purpose/function if this is relevant. 

As a general rule, any sort of ‘analyse’ or ‘discuss’ question can follow this template: 

1) Identify the example using appropriate metalanguage 2) Describe the immediate effect of that example (e.g. if it creates a humorous effect, if it makes the text hard to understand) 3) Provide further elaboration such as linking to social purpose/function/identity

If you think back to what we covered in the earlier section of this blog, you’ll see that this template follows the rule that higher-order command words (like ‘analyse’ and ‘discuss’) are a combination of ‘identify’ and ‘describe’ questions, with a bit of further elaboration also required.

General Tips

Finally, here are some general tips to keep in mind when answering SAQs:

• Use precise, specific metalanguage (e.g. ‘first-person subject pronoun’ instead of just ‘pronoun’)
• Always link to the broader context for questions with more than 1 mark (whether that be situational or cultural)
• Highlight keywords and/or line numbers to help you avoid silly mistakes
• Always include line numbers when quoting examples 
• If you’re unsure as to how much you are expected to write, the amount of space given to you in the answer section is usually a good indicator. 

For more about how you can boost your marks in English Language, see this blog post about how to extend your skills further.

Have a read of our Ultimate Guide to English Language if you haven't already.

[Video Transcription]

Sometimes when using language we may want to, or need to discuss a topic that is uncomfortable to deal with directly. For these cases we often employ the technique of euphemism to make the bad things sound better. As Quentin Crisp put it, "Euphemisms are unpleasant truths wearing diplomatic cologne".

Semantic Fields and Situational Contexts

Euphemism is found in a wide range of semantic fields and situational contexts, but a few where they appear often include:

• In the domain of politics and political correctness
• In public-facing language, such as press conferences and interviews
• In discussions around uncomfortable topics such as death, termination of employment, and sex
• In the corporate world

So this begs the question of why people sometimes choose to employ euphemism, and what social effects it has on relationships and also society as a whole?

The Purpose of Euphemism

There are two sides to the euphemism coin, which are important to keep in mind when discussing and observing the use of euphemism. On the one hand, it can allow us to talk about uncomfortable topics more easily and without losing face, but on the other it can mask the truth or even be used to actively confuse others.

Many would argue that the primary purpose of euphemism is to maintain positive face, and it can often be very effective in doing so. Let’s consider the example of an employer navigating the social taboo topic of dismissing one of their employees. No matter how they go about broaching this topic, some of the face needs of the employee will not be met. According to a variety of online human resources sites, some of the euphemisms that employers or hiring managers are encouraged to use, include:

• "Exit strategy”
• “Career change opportunity”
• “Freeing for availability to the industry”
• “Making a team move”

These terms are widely favoured over the bluntness of something like “you’re fired”. By using such euphemisms, employers seek to put the focus onto the minor upsides of being laid off, rather than directly dealing with what will often feel like a personal attack for the employee. In this way, they try to, although not necessarily effectively, meet the face needs of both their employee and themselves in navigating this socially taboo topic.

The euphemisms that we use can also reflect and reveal our shifting social mores as the euphemisms that we use change over time. For example, if we consider the words we use surrounding the semantic domain of animal slaughter, we are seeing more and more euphemisms being employed today, as the topic becomes taboo and unpalatable. Instead of “killing” animals, today people are describing animals as being “depopulated” or “harvested”. We can even see this shift in how we describe the deaths of household pets, who are “put down”, rather than “euthanised”. Such euphemisms reflect our society’s shifting values and attitudes, namely that we now value animal life far more than we have in the past. We now wish to avoid the negative connotation surrounding the traditional lexemes of this semantic field, in order to maintain social harmony and positive face.

However, euphemism is also often used to hide or conceal the truth, and can mislead both those who hear it, and even those who use it. Clear communication is sometimes sacrificed for the sake of maintaining one’s positive face. When euphemism is used to obfuscate the truth, it is often classed as “doublespeak”, a term stemming from the neologisms “doublethink” and “newspeak” in Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty Four . For example, local councils may describe a “pot-hole” as a “pavement deficiency” to save face in being unwilling or unable to repair roads. This term is deliberately ambiguous as to the nature of the specific damage, and has been chosen over the far clearer and more familiar term “pot-hole” in an effort to obscure the truth. According to linguist Kate Burridge, euphemisms such as these “tell us how it isn’t”.

Even something as commonplace as life-insurance policies are in reality euphemistic terms for something that really insures one’s death. But insurance agencies and carriers don’t want their product being associated with the social taboo of death, and instead they choose to use the more positively-connoted term “life” to create positive brand recognition. All sorts of euphemisms surround us constantly, and we are often so used to them being used, that we don’t even notice.

Linguist Stephen Pinker describes a “euphemism treadmill”, which is a good metaphor for the way that the connotations of euphemisms can often change over time, as they are used and over-used. The classic example of this process is in the terms used by Nazi officials in the late 1930s and '40s to describe the Holocaust. Initially, the term “Sonderbehandlung” or “special treatment” was used to refer to the summary execution of so-called “unfavourable people”. However, this term quickly became as negatively connoted as the term it was designed to replace among the German people, and so the phrase “die Endlösung der Judenfrage”, “the final solution to the Jewish Question” was formulated - a phrase which again became infamously associated with the atrocities of the Holocaust during the Nuremburg trials. In fact, we’ve observed the overwhelmingly negative connotation of this former euphemism recently in Australia, with Fraser Anning being met with widespread criticism after using this term in the senate. In this example, we can see how over time euphemisms can lose their ameliorating effect as they become more associated with that which they are trying to mask.

Whether you believe that euphemisms are a valuable and useful part of our language, or that they are ambiguous and misleading, their prevalence in our contemporary Australian society make them an important part of a discussion of the evolving semantics of Australian English and of language as a whole.

• What Is English Language?
• VCE English Language Study Design
• What's Involved in the Exam?
• How To Study for English Language
• Metalanguage List
• Sample Essay
• Year 12 Essay Topic Categories

1. What Is English Language?

Study design stuff.

English Language is 1 of the 4 different English subjects that are offered as part of the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE). In this subject, you’ll explore how individuals and groups of various identities use different varieties of English, and how this ties in with reflecting their values and beliefs. English Language will provide you with a substantial understanding of the impact language has on societies, what it communicates about ourselves and the groups that we identify with, and how societies in turn can also influence language.

If you’re feeling uncertain about what exactly this subject entails, don’t worry! Let’s go through what’s involved in each unit, and what you’re expected to do in each.

2. VCE English Language Study Design 

Note: The study design contains a metalanguage list for Units 1 & 2 and for Units 3 & 4. They’re pretty similar, except the Units 3 & 4 list includes several new features, such as the addition of patterning (phonological, syntactic, and semantic), as well as a significant addition to the discourse subsystem (coherence, cohesion, features of spoken discourse, and strategies of spoken discourse). ‍

Area of Study (AoS1) 

AoS1 is called ‘the nature and function of language’. You’ll learn about the functions of different types of texts, the differences between spoken and written texts, how situational and contextual factors can influence texts, and most importantly, you’ll learn about metalanguage as per the Units 1 & 2 metalanguage list. 

Area of Study (AoS2) 

AoS2 is called ‘language acquisition.’ Here, you’ll learn about theories various linguistics and sociologists have proposed regarding how children acquire languages. Furthermore, you’ll also cover how second languages are acquired. One of the most important skills you’ll pick up in this AoS is how to apply metalanguage in discussions and essays.

English Across Time’, will provide you with a historical context for how we have achieved the form of English that we use today. You’ll learn about the processes which led to the development of Modern English from Old English, the changes this had on all the subsystems ( learn about the syntax subsystem here ), and the various attitudes that are held towards linguistic change.

‘Englishes in contact’, you will learn about the processes which have led to the global spread of English, the intersections between culture and language, and the distinctive features of pidgins, creoles and English as a lingua franca. 

‘Informal language’, will give you an understanding of the roles of informal language in the contemporary Australian context. You’ll learn about what makes texts informal, how this differs for spoken and written texts, and what social purposes can be achieved through informal language - such as maintaining or threatening face needs, building intimacy or solidarity, creating an in-group, or supporting linguistic innovation. 

‘Formal language,’ will provide you with a detailed insight of what makes texts formal, distinguishing features for spoken and written texts, and what social purposes can be achieved through formal language - such as reinforcing authority, establishing expertise, clarifying, obfuscating, or maintaining and challenging positive and negative face needs. 

In both of these AoS, you’ll be applying the Units 3 & 4 Metalanguage in your short answer responses and analytical commentaries. The additional metalanguage is typically taught in Term 1 of year 12, while you learn the content for Unit 3.

‘Language variation in Australian society,’ is a detailed study on how both standard and non-standard Australian English are used within contemporary society. You’ll learn about how identity is constructed through language, how varieties of English vary by culture (such as ethnolects or Australian Aboriginal English), and the attitudes that are held towards different varieties by different groups. 

In ‘Individual and group identities’, you’ll look at how language varies by different factors, such as age, gender, occupation, interests, aspirations, or education, and how these factors all contribute to our identities. You’ll learn more about in-groups and out-groups, and how they can be created and maintained through language. Furthermore, you’ll learn about the relationship between social attitudes with language, and how language can be shaped by, but also influence, social attitudes and community expectations. 

For more information, have a look at the study design . 

3. What's Involved in the Exam?

The Year 12 Exam involves 2 hours of writing time and 15 minutes of reading time. It has three sections:

• Section A: 15 marks (It is recommended that you spend approximately 20-25 mins in this section)
• Section B: 30 marks (It is recommended that you spend approximately 40-45 mins, and write 600-700 words)
• Section C: 30 marks (It is recommended that you spend approximately 45-50 mins, and write 700-800 words)

Make sure you have a read through of the assessment criteria for each section.

Section A is 15 marks of short answer questions. You are given a text, and you’re required to respond to questions about the stylistic and discourse features used in the text, while ensuring that you’re demonstrating a detailed knowledge of metalanguage through carefully selecting relevant examples from the text. 

A strong understanding of the metalanguage is really important, both in terms of knowing the meanings of each metalinguistic term, and also in knowing which category each term fits under (For example, knowing that inference is part of coherence and not cohesion). Therefore, it is important that you learn your metalanguage in terms of what each terminology means, and also in terms of which category each term fits into.

As a general guide:

• 1 mark – one idea or one example or one explanation
• 2 marks – one idea plus one or two examples with explanations
• 3 marks – two ideas plus one or two examples of each with explanations
• 4 marks – two or three ideas plus one or two examples of each with explanations
• 5 marks – three ideas plus one or two examples of each with explanations

One of the biggest mistakes students make here is not reading the questions properly. Students sometimes miss how many examples the questions specifies to identify (this information is often given as ‘identify 2 examples’ or ‘identify the purposes’ as plural), forget to check how many marks a question is, or mix up certain metalanguage terms, such as confusing sentence types with sentence structures. So, be very careful in answering these questions.

Here are some examples of short answer questions that have come up in past VCAA exams:

[Question 2, 2017 VCAA] - Identify and comment on the use of two different prosodic features. (4 marks).

‍ Here, you would identify 2 different prosodic features (pitch, stress, volume, intonation, or tempo), and discuss what effect they have on the text, taking contextual factors into consideration. For example, stress could be used to draw emphasis, or intonation could influence the emotion conveyed. 

[Question 1, 2015 VCAA] - What sentence types are used in lines 15 to 36? How do they reinforce the purposes of this text? (3 marks)

‍ Here, you would identify the relevant sentence types (declaratives, imperatives, interrogatives, and exclamatives), and explain their role in the text. You would also want to ensure that your explanations are specific to the context of the text.

[Question 9, 2010 VCAA] - Discuss the function of two different non-fluency features between lines 70 and 96. (4 marks)

‍ Here, you would identify two non fluency features (such as pauses, false starts, repairs, repetition) and give a 1 sentence explanation of its role or what it indicates.

[Question 1, 2012 VCAA] - Identify the register of the text. (1 mark)

‍ This question is quite straightforward, and you could use terms such as formal, informal, predominantly formal/informal in your response.

[Question 4, 2012 VCAA] - How does the verb tense in lines 9–34 support the purpose of this section of the text? (2 marks)

‍ Here you would identify whether the verb tense is in past, present, or future tense, and explain why it has been used in that way based on the contextual factors.

[Question 3, 2017 VCAA] - Using appropriate metalanguage, identify and explain two specific language features that reflect the speaker’s identity.(4 marks)

‍ Here, you can pick examples from any subsystem that relate to the speaker’s identity, such as jargon, colloquialisms, semantics of certain jokes, expletives, or pejoratives.

Note: The exams prior to 2012 have 2 sets of short answer questions, because analytical commentaries weren’t a part of the exam back then. This leaves you with lots of practice questions! However, do keep in mind that the metalanguage lists differed and certain features were categorised in different ways. For example, Question 2 from the VCAA 2013 exam asks you to talk about prosodic features, however, in the examiner’s report, pauses are suggested as an option. We know that in the present study design, pauses are classified as features of spoken discourse, under the discourse subsystem, whereas prosodic features are classified under the subsystem of phonetics and phonology.

Check out How To Respond to Short Answer Questions in VCE English Language if you need more help tackling Section A of the exam.

Section B is an analytical commentary (AC) worth 30 marks. The introduction for an AC is an explanation of the contextual factors, the social purpose, and the register, of the text. In the body paragraphs (generally three), you group your examples from the text by themes, and explain their roles. 

There are two main approaches for body paragraphs; the sub-system approach, and the holistic approach. In the sub-system approach, you would organise your examples so that each paragraph is addressing a specific subsystem. For example, your AC could be composed of the introduction, and then a paragraph on lexicology, one on syntax, and one on discourse. This approach is easier for when you’re starting out with ACs, but one of the issues with it is that you end up limiting yourself to just one portion of the text for the one paragraph. In the holistic approach, you would typically do a paragraph on social purpose, register, and discourse. In this approach, you are able to group examples from multiple subsystems and talk about how they work together in achieving specific roles in the texts. 

Make sure you’re attempting a range of different types of texts, such as, opinion pieces, recipes, oaths, editorials, advertisements, eulogies, social media posts, public notices, television transcripts, radio transcripts, letters, speeches, legal contracts, conversations, narratives, and more.

For more information, have a look at this video:

Section C is an essay worth 30 marks. There are a range of topics that can potentially come up in the exam, and it is really important that you practice writing a variety of essays. 

In essays, it is really important to ensure that you set out a clear contention in your introduction. This will basically tell the assessor what point you’re making in your essay, and it’ll also help you remember which direction to take your essay. After your contention, you need to signpost your ideas. This means that you need to summarise what 3 points you are stating in your body paragraphs. 

Here’s an exercise which is really helpful in refining introductions - When you’re writing your contention, write “In this essay, I will argue that [Insert contention]. I will do this by stating the following points [Insert signposting].” When you’re happy with your introduction, you can remove the underlined parts. This will help you really understand how the roles for contentions and signposting differ. You’ll also thoroughly understand what position you’re taking in the essay.

The body paragraphs follow TEEL structure. You begin with your topic sentence, state your evidence, explain it, and then link it back to your contention. You have three options for the type of evidence that you’ll use (stimulus material, contemporary examples, and linguist quotes), and it's important to use a combination of them. According to the exam rubric, you have to be using at least 1 piece of stimulus material. Contemporary examples should ideally be from the current year and the previous. Linguist quotes don’t have time restrictions but it’s a good idea to try and find recent ones.

One of the most important things in body paragraphs is to make sure that you’re able to link your example back to your contention. If you’re unable to do this, it means that your examples aren't relevant to the points that you’re trying to make. 

In your conclusion, you need to ensure that you don’t introduce any new examples or points. The role of the conclusion is to summarise and reinforce your points and your overall contention. 

If you would like further clarification, have a look at this post on English Language Essays.

4. How To Study for English Language

Time management and organisation.

Having a study timetable will make studying much less stressful than it needs to be. In your timetable, make sure you are allocating enough time for all of your subjects, as well as time for rest, extra-curricular activities, work, and socialising. A realistic time-table will also mean that you’re less likely to waste time trying to decide which subjects to study for. For example, every Sunday, you could spend 15 minutes planning out your week based on which assessments you have, and which subjects you would like to give time to. This becomes especially useful in SWOTVAC, where you’ll be responsible for ensuring you’re spending enough time on each subject whilst also balancing everything else outside of school. 

Here are some extra resources to help you with time management:

SWOTVAC: Planning Your Life

10 Hacks For Time Management

How to survive VCE - motivation and approach

Revising Metalanguage

Consistently revising metalanguage is one of the most important study methods for English Language. 

The basics of metalanguage are covered in Unit 1. Make sure you keep a clear set of notes for this content so that you’re able to look back on it to revise throughout the year. Before the year 12 year begins, you want to make sure that everything in the year 11 metalanguage list makes sense to you. Spending the summer holidays before year 12 begins in reinforcing the basics will help you throughout year 12, as you’ll be able to pick up on the new metalanguage much faster. One of the first things you'll cover is coherence and cohesion, so if you would like to get a head start, have a look at this post.

Throughout year 12, consistently revising metalanguage will be your responsibility. It is likely that you’ll be spending a greater proportion of class time in learning content, and writing short answer responses, analytical commentaries, or essays. Therefore, it’s really important to figure out a way that works best for you in being able to frequently revise metalanguage. Flashcards are pretty useful for revision, as well as making mind maps so that you’re able to visualise how everything is set out in the study design.

One issue students run into is that they’re able to define and give examples for metalanguage terms, however, they are unable to understand how it fits in in terms of the categories under each subsystem. For example, a student is able to remember what a metaphor is, but unable to recall that it fits under semantic patterning. Similarly, a student may know what a pause is, but not know if it’s part of prosodic features or discourse features. It’s important to know what all the categories are, because the short answer questions usually ask for you to identify features under a particular category. Therefore, spending time on just revising the definitions alone isn’t sufficient in learning metalanguage. You also need to be able to ensure that you can recall which category each term fits under.

Reading the News

For the essay, you’re required to use contemporary media examples as evidence (alongside stimulus material and linguist quotes). It’s really important for you to begin this process early so that you’re able to start using examples in essays as early as possible. For tips on how to find, analyse and store your examples, see our post on Building Essay Evidence Banks for English Language .

Having an awareness of Australia’s historical, political, and social context, will provide you with a more comprehensive perspective of the contemporary examples. So, if you don’t already do this, try to develop a habit of reading the news (The Conversation or The Guardian are a good place to start). Television programs like Q and A, The Drum, and Media Watch, will help you understand the Australian context, and often these programs will also discuss the roles of language, which directly links with what you're looking for as essay examples. It’s especially important to start early, and to build these skills over time, so that you are able to develop a holistic foundation. 

Extra Practice Pieces and Seeking Feedback

Doing extra practice pieces is a really effective way to develop and refine your analytical skills. Make sure you receive feedback for all your work from your teacher or tutor, as it’s the only way you'll know if you’re going in the right direction.

If you’re short on time, even writing up AC or essay plans, or just doing 1 paragraph, is an effective way to revise.

Learning Quotes and Examples

Memorising several pages full of linguist quotes and contemporary examples may seem daunting at first, but once you begin using them in essays, they’ll become much easier to remember. Right from the beginning of yr12, make sure you set up a document to compile your linguist quotes and examples into subheadings. For example subheadings such as ‘cultural identity,’ ‘jargon,’ ‘hate speech,’ ‘free speech,’ or ‘Australian values’ will make it easier for you to navigate your notes when you're planning your essays.

If you start early, you’ll be able to remember everything bit by bit as you progress through the year, which is definitely easier than trying to remember the evidence the night before the assessment. Additionally, you’ll be ready with quotes and examples as soon as you begin essays in class, so you’ll be able to use your examples earlier, hence learn them earlier, and therefore be able to memorise your quotes and examples in advance. If you’re in year 12 and you’re nearing the end of the year and still struggling to memorise your examples and quotes, try using flashcards to remember your evidence.  Make sure you’re doing a range of essays on different topics so that you’re able to apply and analyse your evidence. 

Learning From Your Mistakes

It can be pretty disheartening to make the same mistakes repeatedly and continue to lose marks. So, compiling the mistakes that you make throughout the year in a separate notebook or document is a fantastic way to keep track of the key things you need to remember. You’ll also be less likely to repeat those mistakes.

Group Studies

Studying in groups for English Language is a highly effective way to refine your understanding of the content, and see different perspectives in the way certain ideas can be applied. Revising metalanguage and testing your friends on their knowledge can be a light and engaging way to ensure you and your friends are on the right track. Sharing the ways you and your group have approached a specific AC is also an effective way to learn about different approaches. Discussing essay topics is a useful way in refining your arguments, as you’ll be exposed to different opinions and be able to work on ensuring that your arguments are relevant and strong.

See How To Extend Yourself in VCE English Language for more tips!

5. Metalanguage List

Please refer to pages 9-10 for the Year 11 list, and 17-18 for the Year 12 list !

6. Sample Essay

Language is fundamental to identity and consequently we draw on our linguistic repertoire to project different aspects of our identity according to context. Discuss this statement in the contemporary Australian context with reference to at least two subsystems in your response.

(This essay topic relates to Unit 4 - AoS1, ‘Language variation in Australian society.’) 

Introduction

Language plays a pivotal role in establishing and communicating various facets of identity. As such, individuals can alter their linguistic repertoire to establish in-group membership. Teenspeak is an effective mechanism in expressing teenage identity, but can also be used by the older generation to appeal to young people. Code switching between ethnolects and standard Australian English further illustrates how individuals can manipulate their linguistic choices to suit their environment, whilst simultaneously reflecting ethnic identity . Furthermore, jargon plays a critical role in establishing professional identity and signifying expertise or authority. Consequently, linguistic choices are capable of expressing diverse and multifaceted identities.

Body Paragraph

Teenspeak is capable of expressing identity and establishing in group membership amongst teenages, however it can also be used by those in the out-group to appeal to teenagers. Professor Pam Peters asserts that “Teenagers use language as a kind of identity badge that has the effect of excluding adults." Consequently, teenagers are able to establish exclusivity and in-group membership. Bakery owner Morgan Hipworth, who largely has a teenage following and is a teenager himself, employs teenspeak in a video recipe, where he responds to the question ‘Can you make a 10 layer cheese toastie?’ with ‘Bet, let’s go.’ Through using the teenspeak term ‘bet,’ Hipworth is able to relate and connect with his young audience while further asserting his identity as a teenager. This demonstrates how teenspeak can be effective in both establishing in-group membership, and expressing identity. Similarly, Youtuber Ashley Mescia’s extensive use of teenspeak initialisms in Instagram captions, such as ‘ootd’ for ‘outfit of the day,’ ‘grwm’ for ‘get ready with me,’ and ‘ngl’ for ‘not gonna lie,’ allows her to connect with her predominantly teenage following, thus allowing her to establish solidarity and in-group membership. This further indicates that teenspeak is an effective mechanism in expressing identity and building in-group membership. In contrast, teenspeak can also be used by older people in an effort to appeal to teenages. For example, in 2019, ABC’s Q and A host Tony Jones ended a promotional video for an opportunity for high-school students to appear on the panel with ‘It’s gonna be lit fam.’ This was done in an effort to appeal to younger people by exploiting the notion that it is often seen as cringeworthy when older people use teenspeak. Linguist Kate Burridge asserts that “older people using contemporary teen slang often sounds insincere and phoney,” and Jones was aware of this, however his purpose was to appeal to this to be able to further promote the video. Therefore, teenspeak is effective in both establishing in-group membership and expressing identity, and also appealing to the in-group and a member of the out-group.  

7. Year 12 Essay Topic Categories

1: australian english.

• Australian English differs from other national varieties – this theme looks at what makes Australian English unique and the factors that have contributed to its development over time. You can learn more by checking out our blog post on Australian Cultural Values
• What makes this variety unique as a national variety
• Broad, General, Cultivated accents
• Aboriginal English
• Attitudes towards Australian language varieties
• Standard Australian English and its prestige value
• Non-standard varieties operating in Australia
• Regional variation within Australia
• The role of language in constructing national identity
• Face needs (read blog)

2: Individual and Group Identity

• Social and personal variation (age, gender, occupation, interests, education, background, aspiration)
• Individual identity and group membership
• Standard and non-standard English and prestige varieties
• In-groups and exclusion
• Social attitudes to non-standard accents and dialects

3: Register

• Relationships between speaker/writer and interlocutors/audience
• Physical setting, situational and cultural contexts
• Subject matter/topic/domain/field
• Mode (spoken, written, electronic)
• Purpose/function of the interaction
• Social attitudes and beliefs of participants

4: Social Purpose of Language

• Inclusion and exclusion; in-groups and out-groups; social distance and intimacy
• How language can be used to uphold or threaten positive or negative face needs (read blog)
• Prestige forms of language
• Political correctness (read blog)
• Discrimination and hatespeech
• Euphemism and dysphemism (watch video)
• Taboo, pejoratives, and swearing
• Jargon, and how language establishes expertise
• Slang and colloquialisms
• Manipulation of language (obfuscation, doublespeak, gobbledegook)
• Politeness strategies and social harmony
• Language in the public domain; public language
• Linguistic innovation
• How language represents or shapes social and cultural, values, beliefs, attitudes
• How language can express identity 
• Other functions of language, such as recording, clarifying, entertaining, promoting, persuading, commemorating, celebrating, instructing, informing

5: Attitudes to the Varieties

6: Language Change

Although language change features more heavily in Units 1 & 2, it is still important to be aware of how language is changing in everyday lives to reflect social needs, attitudes and values. Consider the following:

• Australian English and its development and evolution over time
• Taboo, swearing and dysphemism and the role of changing social values
• Political correctness , non-discriminatory language and changing social values
• Linguistic innovation and informal language
• Technological advances and their impact on language - this includes emojis and text speak
• Global contact and other social changes and their impact on contemporary Australian English
• Migrant ethnolects and Aboriginal English

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