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India’s Water Crisis – How to Solve it?

From Current Affairs Notes for UPSC » Editorials & In-depths » This topic

Water is the most valuable natural resource as it is essential for human survival and life on earth. However, the availability of freshwater for human consumption is highly under stress because of a variety of factors. This crisis of water scarcity is most visible in India as well as in other developing countries.

What is water scarcity?

• Water scarcity is the lack of freshwater resources to satisfy water demand.
• It is manifested by partial or no satisfaction of expressed demand, economic competition for water quantity or quality, disputes between users, irreversible groundwater depletion, and negative effects on the environment.
• It affects every continent and was categorised in 2019 by the World Economic Forum as one of the largest global risks with respect to its potential impact over the next decade.
• One-third of the global population (2 billion people) live under situations of severe water scarcity at least one month of the year.
• Half a billion people in the world affected by severe water scarcity all year round.
• Half of the world’s largest cities have been facing water scarcity.

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How is the water scarcity measured?

• The absolute minimum water requirement for domestic usage is 50 litres per person per day, though 100-200 litres is often recommended.
• Considering the needs of agriculture, industry and energy sectors, the recommended minimum annual per capita requirement is about 1700 cubic meters .
• If a country like India has only about 1700 cu. meters water per person per year, it will experience only occasional or local water distress .
• If the availability falls below this threshold level, the country will start to experience periodic or regular water stress .
• If the water availability declines below 1000 cu. meters, the country will suffer from chronic water scarcity . Lack of water will then start to severely affect human health and well-being as well as economic development.
• If the annual per capita supply declines below 500 cu. meters, the country will reach the stage of absolute scarcity .

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What is the status of water availability in India?

• India receives 4000 bcm (billion cubic metres) rainfall each year. Out of this, 1869 bcm remains after evaporation = The actual availability is only 1137 bcm.
• Even in that 1137 bcm of water, there is a lot of temporal as well as regional variations in the availability.
• For instance, on the one side, there are water surplus states such as Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and on the other side, there are water scarce states such as Maharashtra (Vidarbha, Beed), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat.
• Moreover, some states that are known to be water abundant such as Punjab, Haryana have their own issues.

What is the magnitude of the water crisis in India?

• Currently, the annual availability of water is 1123 bcm in India and the demand is around 750 bcm. However, by 2050 the annual demand for water will be 1180 bcm which will exceed the water availability = wide ramifications for the country.
• 70% of India’s water is contaminated.
• 75% of households do not have drinking water on its premises.
• 84% of rural households do not have access to piped water.
• 54% of the country’s groundwater is declining rapidly than it is being replenished.
• India’s water table is declining in most regions. Also, there is a presence of toxic elements like fluoride, arsenic, mercury, even uranium in our groundwater.
• Water levels in India’s major reservoirs have fallen to 21% of the average of the last decade.
• Hundreds of small and seasonal rivers are perishing permanently.
• Almost all the major perennial rivers remain stagnant.
• Cauvery and its tributaries haven’t met the ocean for decades; the upstream dams choke its flows downstream, affecting people in Tamil Nadu.
• Krishna river runs dry in her delta region for most of the year.
• According to NITI Aayog’s water quality index, India ranks 120 th among 122 countries.

What is the recent water crisis in India?

• Maharashtra is facing a water crisis of unprecedented proportions. After years of drought, the river currents have ebbed, water in dams and reservoirs have depleted and over-exploitation of groundwater has raised concerns regarding the long-term availability of water.
• Meanwhile, media reports claim IT firms in Chennai are asking employees to work from home. The reason is that they don’t have enough water to sustain their operations. It hasn’t rained for almost 200 days in the city and it may not get adequate rain to get over the water crisis for the next 3 months.
• In North India, the people of arid Thar Desert of Rajasthan are spending Rs. 2500 for getting 2500 litres of water which they share with their cattle.
• With Punjab facing the threat of desertification and the state struggling to break away from the wheat-paddy cycle, farmers in the state have been adopting a decade-old scheme to utilise underground pipeline system for irrigation.
• In light of this crisis, Central government on its part has created a Jal Shakti Ministry under a full-fledged cabinet minister to resolve the water crisis but a lot more needs to be done.

What are the reasons for this crisis?

Monsoon dependence:.

There is a huge dependence on monsoon rains to replenish most of India’s important water sources such as underground aquifers, lakes, rivers, and reservoirs . But monsoon is vulnerable to factors such as climate change, El-Nino , etc.

Uneven distribution of water and Rainfall pattern :

Certain regions have surplus amounts of water for their need while others face perennial droughts for most of the year. For instance, Drought is a recurrent phenomenon in Andhra Pradesh where no district is entirely free of droughts. Rajasthan is one of the most drought-prone areas of India.

Increasing demand :

Population growth, industrialization, rapid urbanisation, rising needs of irrigation and increase in domestic water usage have accelerated the demand for water. Since urbanization increases in India at a rapid pace = water demand will increase rapidly as city dwellers consume more water than rural people.

Urbanisation & Water scarcity:

• Currently, about 285 million or 33% of India’s total population resides in urban areas. By 2050 this figure will reach 50%.
• Rapid urbanisation is adding to the water scarcity issue in the country.
• Presence of buildings, tar, and cement roads = even if a city like Mumbai gets good rains, the rainwater is not retained in the area as the water is not allowed to percolate underground.
• Therefore, water required for cities is largely drawn from neighbouring villages and far-off rivers and lakes = threatening the availability in those areas.
• Large cities also generate large quantities of urban sewage which pollutes the freshwater sources and ocean waters. However, only about 20% of urban wastewater is currently treated globally. In India, the figure is even lower.

Overexploitation :

• In developing countries like India, groundwater fulfills nearly 80% of irrigation requirement = resulted in a fast depletion of groundwater sources.
• Free power and inefficient utilisation of water by farmers has added to the issue of groundwater depletion.
• The groundwater and sand extraction from most river beds and basins has turned unsustainable.
• Tanks and ponds are encroached upon.
• Dug-wells and borewells are carelessly built to slide deeper and deeper to suck water from greater depths.

Shift to cash-crops:

Water is being diverted from food crops to cash crops that consume an enormous quantity of water.

Inefficient cultivation practices:

• In India, around 70% of the population is still dependent on agriculture for its livelihood.
• Since the adoption of Green Revolution in the 1960s, nearly 50% of the food production comes from irrigated land.
• But inefficient cultivation practices have led to the flooding of fertile land which in turn has caused salinization, siltation of reservoirs, etc = causing groundwater reserves of major agricultural states to be depleted at an alarming rate.

Water Pollution :

• Release of industrial and domestic waste, including urban sewage, into rivers, lakes, and estuaries has polluted freshwater sources at an alarming rate in India = those fresh water sources are not fit for drinking or other activities.
• Eutrophication of surface water and coastal zones is expected to increase almost everywhere leads to nitrogen pollution .

What are the impacts of the water crisis?

Economic growth: A Niti Aayog report predicted that water demand will be twice the present supply by 2030 and India could lose up to 6% of its GDP during that time.

Power supply: Water shortages are hurting India’s capacity to generate electricity because 40% of thermal power plants are located in areas where water scarcity is high.

Agricultural crisis: Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on monsoon (not dependable) + Ineffective agricultural practices in irrigated areas = Water stress in agriculture = Poor Cultivation = Farmer suicides .

Drinking water scarcity: Not only farmers are affected by the water crisis, urban dwellers in cities and towns across India are also facing a never seen before drinking water scarcity.

Conflicts over water : In India, there are conflicts between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over sharing of Cauvery waters, between Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh over sharing of Narmada waters, between Andhra Pradesh and Telangana over sharing of Krishna waters, etc.

What are the measures taken by the government?

Across the country, states are taking the lead:.

• In Rajasthan, there is a scheme named ‘Mukhya Mantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan’. One of its objectives is to facilitate effective implementation of water conservation and water harvesting related activities in rural areas.
• Maharashtra has launched a project called ‘Jalyukt-Shivar’, which seeks to make 5000 villages free of water scarcity every year.
• accelerating the development of minor irrigation infrastructure,
• strengthening community-based irrigation management and
• adopting a comprehensive programme for restoration of tanks.

Jal Shakti Abhiyan:

• It is a collaborative initiative of various Union Ministries and State Governments, being coordinated by the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation (DDWS).
• Focus Area: is water-stressed districts (256) and blocks (1592).
• Team: Central government officers, headed by joint secretaries and additional secretaries, are assigned to these 256 districts and district administration will also select 2 members to join the team. This team of officers from the central government and district administration will visit and work on water-stressed districts and blocks to ensure water conservation initiatives.
• The campaign is centered on 5 aspects
• Water conservation and rainwater harvesting
• Renovation of traditional and other water bodies/tanks
• Reuse of water and recharging of structures like bore well
• Watershed development
• Intensive afforestation
• Significance: With this initiative, the government seeks to provide drinking water to all households on a priority and in a sustainable way. It is also expected to bring a positive mindset in people for water conservation. The campaign will assist people to work for rainwater harvesting, maintenance, and upkeep of ponds and village tanks and conservation of water.

Jal Shakti Mantralaya

• The government has created a new Ministry named ‘Jal Shakti’after merging Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation with the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation.
• Providing clean drinking water,
• International and inter-states water disputes,
• Namami Gange project aimed at cleaning Ganga and its tributaries, and sub-tributaries.
• The ministry will launch the government’s ambitious plan (‘Nal se Jal’ scheme under jal jivan plan) to provide piped drinking water supply to every household in India by 2024.
• This Move seeks to consolidate the administration and bringing water-related issues such as conservation, development, management, and abatement of pollution under a single ministry.
• National River Conservation Directorate (NRCD) is responsible for implementing the centrally sponsored national river conservation plan for all rivers across the country except river Ganga and its tributaries (as issues regarding Ganga and its tributaries are taken up by National Mission for Clean Ganga).

Jal Jeevan Mission *

Atal Bhujal Yojana *

•  It is a world bank funded central scheme that aims to improve groundwater management at the national level… Read More .

Can a new water ministry tackle the worst water crisis in Indian history?

• Experts are of the opinion that an exclusive ministry can only bring about a cosmetic but not a real change.
• Water is a state subject = Unless states make specific requests the centre cannot intervene.

What are the solutions to the water crisis in India?

Good water management practices :

• India receives adequate annual rainfall through the south-west monsoon. However, most regions of the country are still water deficient mainly because of inefficient water management practices.
• Rainwater harvesting should be encouraged on a large scale, especially, in cities where the surface runoff of rainwater is very high.
• Roof-top rainwater harvesting can also be utilised to recharge groundwater by digging percolation pits around the house and filling it with gravel.
• Indian cities need to learn from Cape Town of South Africa which when faced with the water crisis in 2018 had announced “ Day Zero “. During that day, water-taps in the city turned off = people had to use communal water-taps to conserve water. Restrictions on water use per person were also fixed.
• Since water is a state subject in India state governments should take active measures and create awareness for the minimal use of water.

Interlinking of rivers :

• Interlinking of rivers is a topic that has been discussed and debated for several years as a possible permanent solution to the water crisis in the country.
• The 3 primary advantages mentioned in favour of the scheme are (1) droughts will never occur (2) there will be no more floods in the major rivers and (3) an additional 30,000 MW of hydropower will be generated.

Coordination in aquifer usage: There is an urgent need for coordination among users for aquifers. There should be laws and contracts for sharing of aquifers. Groundwater aquifer mapping has started only recently in India which is a welcome step.

River basin authority: There should be a River Basin Authority for sharing information among states since most of the rivers in India pass through different states.

Coordinated efforts among states for management of groundwater at a localized level.

Community-level management: At the village level, there can be decentralized management of water at the community level.

Charging money for efficient use of water (like electricity). For example- Water ATMs at Marathwada provide water @25 paisa per litre a day.

Good Cultivation practices:

• Changing the cropping pattern, crop diversification and encouraging water use efficiency in agriculture by moving towards food crops from cash crops.
• Innovative farming practices like precision farming , zero budget natural farming , etc. could be employed for efficient water utilisation.

Incentive-based water conservation in rural parts of the water-stressed regions is another solution.

• For example, if a particular level of groundwater level is maintained, higher MSP can be provided to the farmers of that region.
• MSP can also be provided based on crop’s water usage = Crops that consume a high amount of water will get less MSP.

Way forward

India is not a water deficit country, but due to severe neglect and lack of monitoring of water resource development projects, many regions in the country face water stress from time to time. Therefore balancing water demand with available supply is the need of the hour for future economic growth and development as well as for the sustenance of human life.

New National Water Policy (NWP)

In November 2019, the Ministry of Jal Shakti had set up a committee to draft the new National Water Policy (NWP). This was the first time that the government asked a committee of independent experts to draft the policy.

Highlights of NWP

1) demand-side: diversification of public procurement operations.

• Irrigation utilizes 80-90% of India’s water , most of which is used by rice, wheat, and sugarcane.
• Therefore, crop diversification is the single most crucial step in addressing India’s water crisis.
• The policy recommends diversifying public procurement operations to include Nutri-cereals, pulses, and oilseeds.
• This would incentivize farmers to diversify their cropping patterns, resulting in huge savings of water.

2) Reduce-Recycle-Reuse

• Reduce-Recycle-Reuse has been suggested as the basic mantra of integrated urban water supply and wastewater management, with the treatment of sewage and eco-restoration of urban river stretches, as far as possible via decentralised wastewater management.
• All non-potable use like flushing, fire protection, vehicle washing should mandatorily shift to treated wastewater.

3) Supply-side measure: Using technology to use stored water in dams

• Within supply-side options, the NWP points to trillions of litres stored in big dams, that are still not reaching farmers.
• NWP recommends how the irrigated areas could be considerably expanded at very low cost by using pressurised closed conveyance pipelines, in addition to Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)  systems and pressurised micro-irrigation.

4) Supply of water through “nature-based solutions”

• The NWP places major importance on the supply of water via “nature-based solutions” like the rejuvenation of catchment areas, to be incentivised through compensation for ecosystem services.
• Specially curated “blue-green infrastructure” like rain gardens and bio-swales, restored rivers with wet meadows, wetlands constructed for bio-remediation, urban parks, permeable pavements, green roofs etc are suggested for urban areas.

5) Sustainable and equitable management of groundwater

• Information on  aquifer boundaries , water storage capacities and flows provided in a user-friendly manner to stakeholders, assigned as custodians of their aquifers, would allow them to create protocols for effective management of groundwater.

6) Rights of Rivers

• The NWP accords river protection and revitalisation prior and primary importance.
• Steps to restore river flows include: Re-vegetation of catchments, regulation of groundwater extraction, river-bed pumping and mining of sand and boulders.
• The NWP outlines a process to draft a  Rights of Rivers Act,  including their right to flow, to meander and to meet the sea.

7) Emphasis on water quality

• The new NWP considers water quality as the most serious un-addressed issue in India today.
• It proposes that every water ministry, at the Centre and states,  include a water quality department.
• The policy advocates adoption of state-of-the-art, low-cost, low-energy, eco-sensitive  technologies for sewage treatment.
• Widespread use of  reverse osmosis has led to huge water wastage  and adverse impact on water quality.
• The policy wants  RO units to be discouraged  if the total dissolved solids count in water is less than 500mg/L.
• It suggests a  task force on emerging water contaminants  to better understand and tackle the threats they are likely to pose.

8) Reforming governance of water

• The policy makes radical proposals for improving the governance of water, which suffers from three kinds of issues: That between irrigation and drinking water, surface and groundwater, as also water and wastewater.
• Government departments, working in silos, have generally dealt with just one side of these binaries.
• Dealing with drinking water and irrigation in silos has meant that aquifers providing assured sources of drinking water dry up because the same aquifers are used for irrigation, which consumes much more water.
• And when  water and wastewater are separated in planning,  the result is a fall in water quality.

9) Creation of National Water Commission

• The NWP also suggests the creation of a unified multi-disciplinary, multi-stakeholder National Water Commission (NWC), which would become an exemplar for states to follow.
• Governments should build enduring  partnerships with primary stakeholders of water , who must become an integral part of the NWC and its counterparts in the states.

How Gujarat transformed from Water-deficit state to surplus state?

• The Gujarat government created the state-level Bhaskaracharya Institute for Space Applications and Geoinformatics (BISAG) to aid in the supply of services and solutions for the deployment of map-based GeoSpatial Information Systems.
• Micro-level check dams.
• Macro-level projects particularly in the Saurashtra, Kutch, and North Gujarat areas.
• Gujarat launched the Kutch branch canal from the Narmada Main canal, which helps provide water to the most distant parts.
• Sujalam Sufalam Yojana: to irrigate the areas of North Gujarat.
• The SAUNI Yojana (Saurashtra Narmada Avtaran Irrigation Yojana), which means literally “reincarnation of the Narmada River in the region,” was thus introduced.
• Administrative and Governance reforms.

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Excellent essay indeed!

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Wish you could mention the references for all the statistics and facts.

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Haven’t you seen the impacts heading in this article?

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A Parched Nation: Analyzing India's Water Scarcity Challenges

Water scarcity is emerging as one of the most damaging issues of our time, conferring a slew of challenges that can no longer be ignored. Limited availability of water puts a chokehold on life as we know it, threatening the stability of fundamental fields, including, but not nearly limited to, public health, development, food security, sustainability, peace and sanitation. Detailed studies and investigations spanning the lifetime of  EPW  underscore the worsening nature of the water crisis facing India and the world, suggesting several practices in water management that bear the potential to reduce the severity of the crisis. These studies also attempt to solve the mystery of what underlies these debilitating water shortages in India, and why no government has been able to tackle it.

According to NITI Aayog’s  “Composite Water Management Index” report 2019, India is suffering from the most severe water crisis in its history, with almost 600 million people experiencing high to extreme water stress. The situation has significantly deteriorated, so much so that India ranked 120 of 122 countries in the water quality index (NITI Aayog 2019). Most recently, Bengaluru experienced “abnormally high temperatures in February and March” of this year, “creating urban heat islands that crank up the heat in cities even more,” as per  “Bengaluru’s Water Crisis” 2024, a piece written by Akshat Mehta and Nancy Saroha at the peak of Bengaluru’s strife. The unprecedented heat led to “a serious water-scarcity issue” and left Bengaluru “on the brink of facing a ‘Day Zero’ scenario,” which should serve as a wake-up call to India that we are exceptionally far from resolving or even marginally alleviating the water crisis.

This severe water stress not only disrupts the basic functions of daily life, but, “in cities like Chennai and Ranchi, it has led to violent clashes, distress, and desperation, as the lakes and reservoirs dried up and people had to fight and fend for water for their everyday needs,” as per this   2019  EPW  editorial . Given the extreme nature of the consequences of water scarcity, access to safe and clean drinking water is evidently a fundamental human right—necessary for health and well-being—as outlined by the United Nations as well. 

Without active strategies targeted at resolving poor water management, groundwater depletion, the wasteful consumption of water, degradation of waterbodies and inequalities in access, water scarcity and the multitude of problems it poses will simply intensify. 

Multidimensional Nature of Water Scarcity

Water scarcity is a multidimensional phenomenon that involves not only the physical lack of water resources but also economic limitations and sociopolitical factors affecting equitable access to water. This intricate issue has far-reaching consequences, necessitating interdisciplinary approaches to develop effective solutions.

In a paper in  EPW ,  “Contexts and Constructions of Water Scarcity ” 2003, Lyla Mehta argues that water scarcity is both “real” and “constructed.” While manufactured through political and policy processes, a combination of sociopolitical, discursive and institutional factors, water scarcity is experienced in terms of real, tangible effects. From once being considered an abundant resource, water is increasingly seen as a “scarce” resource, which needs to be managed judiciously. The statistics are well known: only 3% of water on earth is fresh and most of it is locked away in the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland or deep in underground aquifers. As a result, only 0.3% of global water is available for human consumption. Water scarcity, as it is constructed in global declarations and debates, is often presented in absolute and monolithic terms, obscuring the complex nature of scarcity and its linkages with ecological, sociopolitical, temporal and anthropogenic dimensions. 

In the same vein, Ashish Chopra and Parthasarathy Ramachandran evaluated 11 major states through 20 variables that capture the multidimensional aspects of scarcity and the water poverty index (WPI) in a 2023  EPW  article  “Mapping Water Scarcity across Major States of India.” The widely used WPI consists of five components, namely resources, access, capacity, use, and environment. The study found that Madhya Pradesh had a low value of access, showing a very poor situation of water infrastructure, whereas Haryana’s high value of access showed the state government’s focus on proper sanitation and clean water. Bihar and Uttar Pradesh had the lowest WPIs, highlighting the water sector’s ill situation, infrastructure issues related to water quality, and other socio-economic factors in these states—a few among several important findings. As such, the WPI is an efficient, comprehensive tool that disseminates detailed information about the degree of water scarcity in different states, and pinpoints the specific reasons behind the lack of water. 

Chopra and Ramachandran further urge India to manage its scarce resources sustainably. Scarcity in India is multifaceted and multidimensional, where challenges and constraints of water resource management change within states. As per the sensitivity analysis in the article, the significant components are resource, environment, and capacity, from which, we have control over only capacity and environment. Hence, the co-authors’ urgent recommendation to all states is to start working towards improving their socio-economic factors, water quality, and investment in water and sanitation for better and sustainable water sector management.

Water Conflicts

While the physical lack of water severely hinders people’s ability to carry on with their lives, water scarcity has far-reaching consequences that outstrip daily inconveniences. As a result of competing demands for limited water resources or diminishing water supply, there has been widespread conflict due to perceived unfairness in the distribution of water—for how does a system justly adjudicate on whether one person or community bears the right to more water than another?

For instance, Keoladeo National Park has seen several conflicts over water. “Every year water allocation for the park versus that for local farmers is an issue of contention. The dispute often escalates and forest fires occur in the park with unnatural regularity during the dry season. Every year the park administration has to lobby the state irrigation department for their quota of water from Ajan bund,” as per Malavika Chauhan’s   “Contending Water uses,” 2006. For farmers, water is not only a basic necessity for their own lives and health but also for their livelihoods—it is the conduit through which they can support themselves and those around them, and so, its shortage leads to intense insecurity. According to R K Patil and S N Nale in  “Equity, Access Allocation: Discrimination in an Irrigation Project” 2006, “farmers in the upper reaches of the canal started siphoning out water illegally” in the Upper Godavari project of Maharashtra, bringing these insecurities to the head in the conflict between the farmers. The alleged outcome “was that water supplied was less than the sanctioned quota while the upper reaches of PLBC in Niphad taluka and other sub-projects/canals received more." A combination of this illegal water diversion, inequitable distribution, discrepancies in measurement and allocation, and inadequate governmental response lay the foundation for a layered conflict between farmers over the possession of water—conflicts that will inevitably intensify in number and severity if the overexploitation of India’s water resources continues at this rate.

A central, and somewhat unavoidable, issue leading to these conflicts is India’s rising population, creating a typical Malthusian crisis—there are far too many people in need of water, and not nearly enough water to satisfy that need. Conflict over the Bhavani river basin, for instance, was a direct consequence of “an increase in population, unplanned expansion in the command area, as well as the growing domestic and industrial water demand.” In  “Equity, Access Allocation: Conflict in the Bhavani” , 2006, A Rajagopal and N Jayakumar further mention that “the basin is ‘closing’ and stressed” due to this unbridled competition and conflict, further steepening the “sizeable gap” that “exists between demand and supply” of water “in agriculture and domestic sectors.”

Another pressing issue that is worsening the water crisis is that of irrigation policies. In the Upper Godavari project, increasing population was not the only reason for the conflict; the overuse of groundwater for irrigation played an equally important role in exacerbating the conflict. In her  EPW  article  “Transboundary Disputes: Politics and Litigation Play Havoc,” 2006, Indira Khurana highlights how “an agricultural state which produced the green revolution,” Punjab faced a similar fate with conflict breaking out between farmers over water due to “inefficient irrigation policies and practices and increasing cultivation of water intensive crops like paddy and sugar cane.” She also adds that Punjab did not take “water conservation seriously” nor did it focus on “looking ahead and shifting to less water intensive crops that are more suitable to the ecology.” Given the severity of the situation in itself, swift and careful government response is essential—for which Punjab was not a good example—in order to regulate irrigation policies and better prepare for the needs of the increasing population. As the authors of  “'Million Revolts' in the Making” 2006, poignantly put, “unless we come together and evolve a consensual framework in India, go beyond the polarised discourse, rivers will continue to divide us, emotionally and politically, leading to a million revolts, the efforts at physical interlinking notwithstanding.”

Socio-economic Dimension of Water Scarcity

Discourses on water scarcity would be incomplete without a consideration of the socio-economic dimension—how access to water differs across communities and the economic constraints on water infrastructure. 

Water scarcity is a predicament that the entire country is experiencing, but the adversity faced by vulnerable populations without a financial safety net is incomparably greater. In a commentary from 2000,  “Rajasthan: Drought, Debt and Poverty” , Rajesh poignantly argues that, in Rajasthan, “management of water resources has been urban-centred and elitist. According to Narmada Bachao Andolan leader Medha Patkar, the scarcity is a result of a wasteful economy where a culture of wastefulness is practised by a few at the expense of the needs of many.”

The drought that Rajasthan suffered in 2012 revealed these precise fissures in society—divides that had come to determine who has access to a resource as fundamental as water. Rajesh sheds light on this very socio-economic cleavage, mentioning that “cities, and within them the areas inhabited by the more influential, have no or only a little shortage of water. Farmhouses located outside towns, or amid villages in the rural areas, continue to have lush green lawns, while the peasant in the neighbourhoods might have lost his crop due to lack of water after the tanks and wells have dried up. He does not have access to the groundwater 200 or 300 feet below unlike his wealthier neighbour who can bore his tube wells to even greater depths.” When water access is a privilege rather than a right, sustainable development seems all the more elusive.

This sentiment is echoed in  “Dropping Out for a Drop of Water” , as Kishore Jha delineates the worrying “relationship between depleting water levels and school dropout rates.” Jha posits that “depleting levels of water, water pollution and soil pollution have not only affected our access to natural resources needed for our existence, but also many other social and economic rights. They have affected children’s right to education, right to protection and right to family, as demonstrated earlier. Environmental rights, often known as the third generation rights, are affecting all basic human rights including the right to survival.” Evidently, addressing water scarcity is not just an environmental imperative but a fundamental human rights issue as well.

Water Governance and Potential Reforms

The two key reforms that might aid in mitigating this pervasive issue of water in India are a paradigm shift in agriculture, as well as water governance and management that is necessary to resolve the crisis in Indian agriculture.

Agriculture

India—an agrarian economy that highly depends on the agricultural sector—focuses many of its resources into agriculture. Part 1 of an  EPW  article by Mihir Shah, P S Vijayshankar and Francesca Harris  “Water and Agricultural Transformation in India” , 2021 “traces the roots of India’s water and farm crises to the onset of the green revolution in agriculture,” suggesting “that if the right lessons are drawn from the experience of the green revolution,” it could solve “India’s water problem.” 

Shah, Vijayshankar and Harris also add that, “while it is undeniable that the green revolution paradigm represents a powerful break from the past that provided India with comfortable food security, it is also true that over the decades that followed, it sowed the seeds of its own destruction.” That which seemed to have propelled the Indian economy, diminished the state of farmers and the water crisis alike. 

The paradigm shift advised by Shah, Vijayshankar and Harris constitutes the government diversifying “its crop procurement operations”, a shift “in cropping patterns to reflect the agroecological diversity of India”, identification of “crop growing seasons”, changing the “source of irrigation”, as well as an increase in focus on “soil conditions” and the “agronomy.”

An  EPW  commentary,  “Focus on Agriculture in the National Water Policy” , 2022 reflects this growing limelight on agriculture as a potential cure to India’s water woes. The article introduces critical insights that call attention to “water in agriculture”, mentioning that “around 90% of India’s water is used for agriculture. Without reducing water for agriculture, we can never hope to meet India’s drinking and domestic water needs.” The key recommendation put forth by this article is to revise the National Water Policy (NWP) such that “water for drinking and domestic needs” is prioritised over “water for ecology and the environment,” as opposed to the NWP 2012 that placed these water needs on the same priority level.

All in all, addressing water usage in agriculture is vital, and the NWP must prioritise drinking and domestic water needs to mitigate the acute water shortage.

Water governance and management

“It is water management, not water scarcity that is the real problem”, as aptly put by an  EPW  editorial from 2016. Underlying the water crisis is an extremely poor system that manages India’s water resources, which has enabled “the wilful overuse of groundwater resources, combined with the absence of measures to replenish these resources.” 

Part 2 of Shah, Vijayshankar and Harris’s  EPW  article  “Water and Agricultural Transformation in India” , 2021, therefore, brings attention to the need of the hour—“a paradigm shift in water management and governance,” which necessitates “a paradigm shift in our structures of thought, to be able to grasp complex adaptive systems.” Some of the reforms proposed by the article include “participatory” irrigation and groundwater “management”, “securing catchment areas”, “water-saving practices”, “conservation of rainfed areas,” and “multi-stakeholder partnerships.” Shah, Vijayshankar and Harris also suggest avant-garde measures like training “government departments” to exercise “multidisciplinary expertise covering all the disciplines relevant to the paradigm shift in water management”, and the importance of “overcoming hydro-schizophrenia” in order to bridge the “silos into which we have divided water” to improve the cohesion of water management systems.

In his piece from 2016,  “All Is Not Lost, But Water Sector Reforms Must Go Ahead” , P S Vijayshankar, by highlighting the detriments and nescience of rapid infrastructure development, once again conveys the urgent need for a “fundamental and far-reaching change” in water management and governance in India. Vijayshankar stresses the importance of re-engineering “the current mode of thinking and the institutional framework” to suit a new paradigm that centres an “ecosystem perspective to our water management and governance.” “This alternative framework sees water in its natural state as essentially in the common pool, to be shared equitably by all”, thereby making institutions more mindful of  “over-extraction and pollution” that can result from “human interventions.” Despite the damage done, Vijayshankar is optimistic that a paradigm shift in water governance, along with concerted and collaborative efforts could still rectify the situation, aligning policies with sustainable water management practices. 

Not only is the system ineffective, but it also holds limited authority. “The Government of India released a National Water Policy in 2013, urging states to take appropriate measures on water issues”, however, states “completely ignored” this policy, as detailed by Sucha Singh Gill in  “Water Crisis in Punjab and Haryana” , 2016. If states do not prioritise an agenda that is geared towards conserving water in the long run, the all-pervasive issue of water scarcity will be impossible to reverse, and will simply worsen. 

A policy, or rather a philosophy, that seems to take into account the various causes, dimensions and effects of water scarcity is Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM)—“a process which promotes coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximise the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems” (Global Water Partnership 2000). In  “Is India Ripe for Integrated Water Resources Management?” 2006, Barbara van Koppen and Tushaar Shah arrive at the conclusion that “developing countries like India are confronted with a policy dilemma of whether to pursue an unachievable ideal – such as the IWRM – or to work with what they have.” To tackle a multidimensional problem with facets that are entirely unique to India would necessitate a solution designed to address these specific issues, keeping in mind India’s resource base. Shah and van Koppen suggest that “the IWRM paradigm must not be allowed to obfuscate India’s key priorities for years to come, which is making good, sensible investments in improving water infrastructure and services; and making these investments work.” They do, however, argue that the “direct demand management of the IWRM variety is the ideal framework for managing” the emerging “formal segments of our water economy”. 

Ultimately, generalised policies are futile in the absence of context-specific strategies that carefully adapt and personalise the broad brushstrokes of international policy recommendations to the intricate and multifaceted reality of the water crisis unfolding in India. As extrapolated from  “ Is Water Access a Privilege or a Fundamental Right?” 2021, an  EPW  article that evaluates the Chilean water crisis—yet is also glaringly relevant to the Indian situation—water is deserving of the status of a fundamental human right that “cannot be treated only through its economic value and it must also incorporate socio-cultural perspective for a more holistic consideration.”

Political Ecology of Drought and Water Scarcity | Jayanta Bandyopadhyay, 1987

Panchayats and Water Scarcity | B Venkatesh Kumar, 2001

Focus on Sustainable Groundwater Management | Rajiv Sinha and Alexander L Densmore, 2016

When There Is No Water | EPW Editorial, 2018

Towards More Inclusive Water Management | Neha Khandekar, Tanvi Agrawal, Rashmi Kulranjan and Siddhartha Krishnan, 2020

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India's water crisis causes and cures.

Water touches every aspect of life, and in India uncertainty over access to and the availability of this basic resource may be reaching crisis levels. As India continues to undergo dramatic shifts caused by a growing economy and population, competing demands for this limited resource coming from households, industry, and agriculture have wide-ranging implications for the country’s future. Should no action be taken, there could be dire consequences. The World Health Organization estimates that 97 million Indians lack access to safe water today, second only to China. As a result, the World Bank estimates that 21% of communicable diseases in India are related to unsafe water. Without change, the problem may get worse as India is projected to grow significantly in the coming decades and overtake China by 2028 to become the world’s most populous country. For insights into what has led to India’s water crisis and what should be done to help alleviate it, NBR spoke with Kirit S. Parikh, chairman of Integrated Research and Action for Development (IRADe) and a former member of the Government of India’s Planning Commission in charge of water and energy issues. Dr. Parikh argues that the country’s water crisis has been caused by a combination of factors, including population growth, dwindling groundwater supplies from over-extraction by farmers, and insufficient investment in treatment facilities at the federal, state, and local levels. He highlights the roles of the central and state governments in addressing this issue and explains why tools like dams—although often opposed—are critical for ensuring the water storage and distribution needed to sustain India’s growth trajectory.

What are the root causes of India’s water crisis?

India’s water crisis is rooted in three causes. The first is insufficient water per person as a result of population growth. The total amount of usable water has been estimated to be between 700 to 1,200 billion cubic meters (bcm). With a population of 1.2 billion according to the 2011 census, India has only 1,000 cubic meters of water per person, even using the higher estimate. A country is considered water-stressed if it has less than 1,700 cubic meters per person per year. For comparison, India had between 3,000 and 4,000 cubic meters per person in 1951, whereas the United States has nearly 8,000 cubic meters per person today.

The second cause is poor water quality resulting from insufficient and delayed investment in urban water-treatment facilities. Water in most rivers in India is largely not fit for drinking, and in many stretches not even fit for bathing. Despite the Ganga Action Plan, which was launched in 1984 to clean up the Ganges River in 25 years, much of the river remains polluted with a high coliform count at many places. The facilities created are also not properly maintained because adequate fees are not charged for the service. Moreover, industrial effluent standards are not enforced because the state pollution control boards have inadequate technical and human resources.

The third problem is dwindling groundwater supplies due to over-extraction by farmers. This is because groundwater is an open-access resource and anyone can pump water from under his or her own land. Given how highly fragmented land ownership is in India, with millions of farmers and an average farm size of less than two hectares, the tragedy of the commons is inevitable. India extracted 251 bcm of groundwater in 2010, whereas the United States extracted only 112 bcm. Further, India’s rate of extraction has been steadily growing from a base of 90 bcm in 1980, while this rate in the United States has remained at more or less the same level since 1980.

What are the critical areas of concern stemming from India’s water shortages?

Of the many critical areas, the main concerns are the pressing need to increase irrigation and the difficulty of creating water-storage facilities. Of the 140 million hectares (mh) of net cultivated area in India, only around 60 mh are irrigated. In order for Indian agriculture to grow at its targeted rate of 4% per year, it needs to increase the area irrigated, introduce new high-yield technology, or expand cultivable land. There is no scope to expand the cultivated area, which has remained around 140 mh for the last two decades. Since rain is concentrated in a few months and unevenly distributed across the country, it is imperative for India to develop the capacity to store and transport water. Although water can be stored either above or below ground, there are limits to how much can be stored through groundwater recharge and water harvesting. The first step is to increase local storage and recharge through watershed development. However, in the long run, dams are inevitable. Even with full groundwater recharge, water harvesting, and recycling, there will still be a need to store water in reservoirs; otherwise, this water will drain into the sea during monsoon floods. The storage capacity in India was 258 cubic meters per person in 1997, compared with 2,043 cubic meters per person in the United States in 2002. Even on a per hectare of cultivable land basis, storage capacities were 1,474 and 3,287 cubic meters in India and the United States, respectively.

Many national and international environmentalists oppose dam construction. Storage dams, in particular, are controversial because they often submerge forests and reduce biodiversity by disturbing habitats. With India’s high population density, dams would also displace many people, often poor tribal communities. Even when these people are resettled and compensated properly, which frequently is not the case, their lifestyles, social support system, and culture are disrupted. Despite these objections, there remains a critical need for storage dams because climate change will increase the availability of water while greatly altering its distribution.

India’s future economic growth is also a concern. If the country cannot expand irrigation or increase agricultural productivity by other means, economic growth will be restricted. Given its size and humiliating experience of “ship to mouth” grain imports from the United States in the 1960s, India is likely to limit its dependence on imports. As stated earlier, agriculture needs to grow by at least 4% per year if India is to sustain its targeted economic growth rate (above 8%). With 8% growth, demand for agricultural products will increase. Limited land and restrictions on imports will limit the supply of agricultural products unless the expansion of irrigation makes it possible to double-crop more land or technical progress increases per-hectare output.

What steps are India’s central, state, and local governments taking to address these issues? Could you share examples of successful programs at the state or community level that can be replicated elsewhere?

There is emphasis throughout the country on watershed development. This involves leveling land and tapping rainwater in small ponds created by building small dams in the streams (called check dams). This water increases soil moisture, recharges groundwater, and permits a second crop to be planted. India’s eleventh five-year plan (2007–12) covered some 15 mh with watershed development, and many NGO-led efforts have shown the program’s success. For example, Anna Hazare has transformed the village of Ralegan Siddhi in Maharashtra into a model sustainable village through water harvesting and cooperation. Another example is Rajendra Singh, whose NGO Tarun Bharat Sangh has transformed the Alwar District of Rajasthan through community-based efforts in water harvesting and water management. Singh is known as the “waterman of India” and was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award in 2001. Similarly, with the support of the government, NGOs, community groups, and other civil society organizations, the state of Gujarat has built over 100,000 check dams. Some economists have attributed Gujarat’s 8%-plus growth rate of agricultural GDP to these efforts.

The problem of urban water supply is due to poor and leaky distribution networks leading to large amounts of “unaccounted water.” Even though New Delhi’s per-capita availability of water is greater than that of Paris, the city does not provide reliable water. Inadequate pricing is one problem. Some cities have used private firms to help streamline distribution in order to provide reliable water and reduce waste. The city of Dharwad in Karnataka, for example, now has a constant water supply with the help of private consultants.

What are your recommendations to tackle the water crisis in India?

India’s twelfth five-year plan (2012–17) has focused attention on all of these issues discussed. The plan puts great emphasis on aquifer mapping, watershed development, involvement of NGOs, and efficiency in developing irrigation capacity. Because water is a state subject in the federal constitution, state governments are expected to play a large role in these efforts. At the same time, many active NGOs are now able to enforce compliance with environmental obligations through the right to information act, active and competitive media, and growing awareness on water issues.

The following recommendations address the most important issues in India’s water crisis. First, the central and state governments should empower local groups with knowledge, understanding, and real-time information on the status of groundwater so as to manage extraction in a cooperative way. Since groundwater is an open resource, farmers extract as much as they can. But when everyone does this, it leads to extraction above a sustainable level. This problem can only be managed by a cooperative agreement among the users of the aquifer, who should know how much can be extracted without depleting the resource. The state can monitor and provide this information. Mexico’s efforts at cooperative management of groundwater suggest that this practice can work.

Second, India needs to promote watershed development. The example of the state of Guajarat, as well as the efforts of Rajendra Singh and Anna Hazare, have shown that this approach is effective and profitable. Moreover, it can be undertaken at the local level all over the country and can be accomplished in a relatively short time.

Third, India must educate people about the need for dams to store water. The environmentalists and other groups who oppose dams should be engaged in a dialogue to work out alternatives and build a consensus.

Fourth, the government should strengthen state pollution control boards to enforce effluent standards. The technical and human resources currently available to the boards are inadequate to effectively monitor activities, enforce regulations, and convict violators. In addition, adequate sewage treatment facilities must be constructed. Many cities treat only a part, and some no more than half, of the effluent. Cities need to charge a proper price for water so that local sewage work operators have the income and resources to sufficiently maintain treatment plants. If necessary, India should work with private firms to modernize urban water-distribution systems.

Should India adopt these recommendations at all levels—federal, state, and local—it will be a great step toward addressing the most critical issues causing the country’s water crisis.

Kirit S. Parikh is Chairman of Integrated Research and Action for Development (IRADe). He received a ScD in Civil Engineering and an SM in Economics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and has been a Professor of Economics since 1967. Dr. Parikh is widely recognized as the architect of India’s Integrated Energy Policy Committee.

This interview was conducted by Sonia Luthra, Assistant Director for Outreach, and Amrita Kundu, a former Intern at NBR.

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The Water Crisis In India: Everything You Need To Know

With the planets second largest population at 1.3 billion, and expectant growth to 1.7 billion by 2050, India finds itself unable to serve the vast majority of that populace with safe, clean water.

Supporting 16% of the world’s inhabitants is daunting enough, but it is even more so when recognizing that population is crammed into an area one-third the size of the United States. Then consider that India only possesses 4% of the world’s fresh water and the crisis can be more fully realized.

India may not be the only nation in this predicament, but theirs is at a stage more critical than most. Severe lack of regulation, over privatization, general neglect and rampant government corruption have led to multiple generations thirsting for more than just a few drops of hazard free water.

The situation has grown to the point that regional disputes have risen over access to rivers in the country’s interior. Those disputes take on a global scale in conflicts with Pakistan over the River Indus and River Sutley in the west and north and with China to the east with the River Brahmaputra.

Surface water isn’t the only source reaching a breaking point.

Tracing back several generations, the critical situation in India can be linked to a myriad of causes. In modern times though, the concern has moved from the surface to the ground. And it’s there where India’s freshwater is under the greatest stress.

Causes: Groundwater and A History of Indifference

Over the past 50 years, policies have allowed what amounts to a free-for-all in groundwater development and as the crisis has grown it has been met with continued neglect, mismanagement and overall indifference.

Estimates put India’s groundwater use at roughly one-quarter of the global usage with total usage surpassing that of China and the United States combined. With farmers provided electricity subsidies to help power the groundwater pumping, the water table has seen a drop of up to 4 meters in some parts of the country. This unfettered draining of groundwater sources has accelerated over the past two decades.

With the aggressive pumping, particularly in rural areas, where agriculture provides the livelihood for upwards of 600 million Indians, Mother Nature is often the difference in a good year and a devastating one. Relying on monsoon rains without proper irrigation or water management techniques has been a recipe for disaster.

Mismanagement and corruption often draw the largest headlines, but many of India’s leaders have also been slow or unwilling to adapt to newer technologies or cohesive plans to address the issues.

The response can at best be described as irresponsible. Consider China, a country with roughly 50 million more people, uses a quarter less freshwater.

Growing Demand, Declining Health

Not only is India the world’s second most populated country, but it has a fast growing middle class that is raising the demands on clean, safe water. Then consider close to half of the country practises open defecation and you have a dichotomy of two very different populations desperately pulling at the same limited resource.

One group wanting to grow and flourish and the other wanting to survive.

A few numbers from the World Bank highlight the plight the country is facing:

• 163 Million Indians lack access to safe drinking water
• 210 Million Indians lack access to improved sanitation
• 21% of communicable diseases are linked to unsafe water
• 500 children under the age of five die from diarrhea each day in India

More than half of the rivers in India are highly polluted with numerous others at levels considered unsafe by modern standards. The waters of the Yamuna, Ganga and Sabarmati flow the dirtiest with a deadly mix of pollutants both hazardous and organic.

Aside from commonplace industrial pollution and waste, India’s rivers are open use across much of the country. From dumping human waste as previously noted to bathing to washing clothes, the human element contributes to the epidemic of health related concerns.

Adding to the human toll is the reliance on seasonal rains, which are often sporadic in some years and over abundant in others. Rain totals can vary greatly and do not always arrive in the places they are needed most. The drought and flooding that results from this inconsistent cycle often leads to crop failures and farmer suicides.

Much of the above affects rural citizens where poverty is rampant, but even more developed urban areas face their own challenges.

Even with a robustly growing middle class, when combining rural and urban populations, over half of India still lives at or below the poverty level. Furthermore, no city in India can provide clean, consumable tap water full-time.

Should the crisis continue unabated, the scarcity of water will have a negative impact on the industrial health of the country.

Recent drops in manufacturing jobs can be tied to companies being unable to access clean water. Along with the inability to properly cultivate agriculture areas and the water crisis quickly becomes an economic one.

Look to the Future

It may seem a foregone conclusion that the water will soon enough dry up and along with it India as a whole. That need not be the case.

There are even bright spots in the current environment. The Rivers Narmada and Chamabal run clean with water fit for consumption. Several projects are currently underway that aim to move water to areas that need it the most.

But it will take a long-term commitment of the Indian government not previously shown and the heavy assistance of outside resources.

Common sense practices and training will also aid in reducing the damage done to groundwater sources. Teaching farmers updated irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation, and utilizing more rainwater harvesting are small, effective steps in stemming the loss of freshwater sources.

Much of India will also need modern sanitation policies that both conserve and wisely utilize water sources. Recognizing physical and economic growth directly ties to the amount of safe, usable water is another step in right direction.

Yes, all of these changes take the long view, but a crisis of this magnitude will not be solved with lip service and short sided solutions.

However daunting, the goals are not unattainable. India is still a developing society, and there is time to reverse the crisis that has been decades in the making.

Given the right commitment and dedication, India can soon enough have safe, clean water. https://businessconnectworld.com/2018/01/11/water-crisis-in-india/

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Water Crisis in India

Syllabus: GS1/ Geography 

The comprehensive Editorial Analysis on the “Water Crisis in India” , covers its current status, underlying causes, government initiatives, effective measures and more.

• The water crisis has affected more than 7,000 villages, 1,100 wards, and 220 talukas thus far in Karnataka . 

Water Scarcity in India

• High Water Stress: India has about 18 percent of the world’s population but only 4 percent of the world’s water resources (NITI Aayog Report, 2017), making it among the most water stressed in the world. 

• Low Per capita water availability: It is around 1,100 cubic meters (m 3 ), well below the internationally recognized threshold of water stress of 1,700 m 3 per person, and dangerously close to the threshold for water scarcity of 1,000 m 3 per person.

• Uneven Distribution: Monsoon rains are crucial, and erratic rainfall patterns worsen water stress in many regions.

• Strained Access: Millions lack access to safe drinking water, relying on polluted sources or struggling to afford clean water.
• Widening gap between water demand and availability: Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation are taking a heavy toll on the overall water demand scenario. 

Reasons for Scarcity of Water

• Rising Demand: Population growth and rapid urbanization put immense pressure on water resources.

• Overexploitation: Excessive groundwater extraction for agriculture and industry depletes aquifers faster than they can be replenished.
• Pollution: Industrial waste and agricultural runoff contaminate surface water sources, making them unfit for consumption.
• Poor Infrastructure: Leakages in pipes and canals waste precious water, further straining supplies.
• Climate Change: Unpredictable weather patterns disrupt monsoons and exacerbate water scarcity.

Measure to Overcome the Water Scarcity 

• A circular water economy:  To maximize the utility of every litre of water and reduce the city’s dependence on external sources.
• Water Saving Techniques: Drip irrigation and other efficient methods are being introduced in agriculture.
• Public Awareness Campaigns: Educating people about water conservation and sanitation practices is crucial.
• Infrastructure Improvements: Upgrading water treatment plants and distribution networks is essential.
• Sustainable Water Management: Integrated water resource management that considers all stakeholders is needed.
• Public-Private Partnerships: Collaboration between government, businesses, and NGOs can accelerate progress.
• Community Participation: Empowering local communities to manage water resources effectively is vital.
• Technological Solutions: Exploring desalination, wastewater treatment, and rainwater harvesting technologies can provide new water sources.

Major Government Initiatives

• National Water Mission; The main objective of the NWM is ‘Conservation of water, minimising wastage, and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within States through integrated water resources development and management’.
• The mission addresses SDG target 6.1 which focuses on achieving universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all by 2030.
• Ministry of Jal Shakti: The Government has created the Ministry of Jal Shakti in May 2019 to consolidate interrelated functions pertaining to water management.
• Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABY):   The aim of the scheme is to improve the management of groundwater resources in such areas, which accounts for about 37 percent of such blocks in the country.
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) : It is a centrally sponsored scheme (core scheme) launched in 2015. The centre- state share will be 75:25 per cent. In the case of the north-eastern region and hilly states, it will be 90:10. Its objectives are-
• Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) – It aims to provide Central Loan Assistance (CLA) to major and medium irrigation projects that were in an advanced stage of completion to achieve the targeted potential, ultimately resulting in saving water and improving efficiency. 
• National Aquifer Mapping and Management Programme (NAQUIM): Under NAQUIM, groundwater aquifers have been mapped and management plans have been made for 80 percent of the country.
• Bureau of Water Use Efficiency (BWUE) : It will be a facilitator for the promotion of improving water use efficiency across various sectors namely irrigation, drinking water supply, power generation, industries, etc., in the country.
• In Narmada Bachao Andolan v Union of India (2000), the Court concluded that water is part of the right to life enshrined in Article 21 of the Constitution. Hence, it is our collective responsibility to ensure this basic human right is fulfilled.
• The water crisis demands immediate and collective action. By adopting sustainable practices, promoting water conservation, and investing in infrastructure , India can mitigate the crisis and ensure a water-secure future.
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The great indian thirst: the story of india's water crisis, solutions to tackle it, the country is staring at a grave water crisis unless we get our act together, and fast..

More than 2,500 years ago, when the Indus Valley Civi­lisation had reached its zenith, it mysteriously lost its effulgence and disappeared suddenly. Many archaeologi­sts believe it was due to a catastrophic water scarcity caused either by shifting rivers or by drastic climate change that forced people to abandon city settlements. The civilisation all but vanished except for the ruins it left behind, which were discovered only in the 20th century.

Water Crisis in India – Explained Pointwise

ForumIAS announcing GS Foundation Program for UPSC CSE 2025-26 from 10th August. Click Here for more information.

The recent Bengaluru water crisis has put the spotlight again on the looming water crisis in India. Water starved Bengaluru is facing the looming threat of Day Zero (when government will shut down water connections for homes and businesses). A BBC report , based on UN-projections, had listed Bengaluru in the second position after Brazil’s São Paulo among the 11 global cities that are likely to run out of drinking water.

What is Water Crisis? What is the situation in India?

Water Crisis- Water crisis refers to the situation where the available potable, safe water in a region is less than its demand. The World Bank refers to water scarcity as a condition when the annual per-capita availability is less than 1000 cubic metres .

Water Crisis Situation in India

What are the reasons for the Water Crisis in India?

1. Rising water demand- According to NITI Aayog, India’s water demand is increasing at a rapid rate. India’s water demand will be twice the available supply by 2030 . Also, the rate of depletion of groundwater in India during 2041-2080 will be thrice the current rate.

2. Groundwater use for agriculture – There is high groundwater usage in agriculture  due to faulty cropping patterns. For ex- Water-intensive paddy cultivation in the states of Punjab and Haryana .

3. Encroachment of Natural Water Bodies- There has been destruction of lakes and small ponds to meet the infrastructure needs of burgeoning populations. For ex- Encroachment of lakes in Bengaluru .

4. Climate Change- Climate Change has led to erratic monsoon and reduced water levels in many rivers. This has induced water crisis in India.

5. Discharge of Pollutants-  There has been contamination of groundwater resources by the discharge of industrial chemicals , sewers and improper mining activities .

6. Lack of proactive management policies- Water management policies in India have failed to keep pace with changing demands of time. For ex- The Easement Act of 1882 granting groundwater ownership rights to the landowner leading to indiscriminate use of water resources.

7. Governance issues- a. Water governance in India has been fragmented . The centre and the states have their respective departments for governing various issues related to water. b. There have been separate departments for surface water and groundwater. Central Water Commission ( for surface water ) and Central Ground Water Board ( for groundwater ). c. Politicization of inter-state disputes by the political parties have hindered the quick resolution of disputes.

8. Detached Citizens- Since water is a free resource, it is not valued by the citizens. Citizens are completely detached from the water issues.

What are the impacts of Water Crisis in India?

1. Economic Impact- a. As per World Bank, India’s GDP could decline by as much as 6% by 2050 due to water scarcity. b. Water scarcity will result in decline of food production . This will hamper India’s food security and have serious impacts on the livelihood of farmers and farm labourers. c. Decline in industrial production as Industrial sectors such as textiles, thermal power plants,etc. may suffer due to water shortage

2. Ecological Impact a. Water scarcity may lead to extinction of flora and fauna . b. Heavy metal contamination (Arsenic, cadmium, nickel etc.) and oil spills in rivers and oceans respectively may threaten the marine biodiversity .

3. Social Impact a.  Deterioration of health of children due to intake of contaminated water . It leads to a reduction in human capital. b. The increased out-of-pocket expenditure on medical expenses adversely impacts the poorest and the most vulnerable sections. c. Increased hardships for women like school dropout,’ water wives ‘ to fetch water in drought prone regions .

4. Federal Relations- a. Amplification of the existing inter-state water disputes like Kaveri, Krishna, Godavari. There will be emergence of new disputes in the future. b. There will be a rise in parochial mindset and regionalism among states and may hinder growth of national unity.

5. International Relations- Water scarcity can lead to conflict among nations to get control over the water bodies. For ex- Impact on India-China relations due to Chinese building of dams over Brahmaputra river .

What are the government initiatives?

What should be the Way Forward?

1. Promotion of Water Conservation- Encouraging rainwater harvesting to capture monsoon run-off. Also, traditional water conservation practices like Kudimaramath practice (Tamil Nadu), Ahar Pynes (Bihar), Bamboo Drip irrigation System(North-East) must be revived .

2. Demand-side Management- States can adopt a participatory approach with the involvement of local communities. For ex- The Swajal model adopted by Uttarakhand focussing on community-based management of water resources. Revival of Johads in Rajasthan desert by Rajendra Singh (Waterman of India).

3. Nature-Based Solutions- Nature-based solutions refer to the solutions that mimic natural processes to provide human , ecological and societal benefits . For ex- Artificial Floodplains to increase water retention , Forest management to reduce sediment loadings.

4. River Basin Management- River basin management must be done through hydrological-basin approach rather than administrative boundaries . Also, steps must be taken to promote interlinking of rivers , while addressing its environmental concerns.

5. Evidence-based policy-making- We must create robust water data systems with real-time monitoring capabilities. For ex- Andhra Pradesh’s online water dashboard for mapping of hydrological resources for better policymaking.

6. Implementing the Mihir Shah Committee Report- The Mihir Shah Committee recommendations must be implemented for restructuring the water governance in India: a. Establishing National Water Commission by merging Central Water Commission(CWC) and Central Groundwater Board(CGWB). It would ensure that the surface and the groundwater are taken as a single entity. b. Focussing on management and maintenance of dams rather than construction of dams. c. Adopting a participatory approach to water management.

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India's water and sanitation crisis

Out of its population of 1.4 billion people, 35 million people lack access to safe water and 678 million people lack access to a safe toilet. Current challenges include extreme water stress, contaminated surface water and lack of access to piped water supply. The effects from climate change like droughts and rising sea levels also affect access to safe water and sanitation for families in India.

These factors, combined with the current initiative by the Government of India to provide tap water connections to every household by 2024, have created unprecedented urgency to implement effective solutions to increase access to safe water and sanitation.

Our impact in India

Since 2004, Water.org has played a significant role in India’s progress toward improved water and sanitation, empowering more than 28 million people with access to safe water or sanitation through our WaterCredit solution, a model we originally piloted in India.

By partnering with different types of organizations, including microfinance institutions, self-help group federations, state rural livelihoods missions, commercial banks, payment banks, social enterprises, and the Government of India, we mobilize resources and share knowledge to increase affordable access to safe water and sanitation for families living in poverty. And it’s working.

A vision for future impact in India

Water.org is heavily invested in India and strategically positioned to support the national push to end the country's water crisis. Our plan will leverage the large, unmet demand for water and sanitation financing among people living in poverty, India’s strong microfinance infrastructure and increasingly digitized lending environment, and the significant support from the Government of India to continue to remove the barriers between people in need and safe water and sanitation at home.

In addition to our household-level work through WaterCredit, we will also continue playing a catalytic role in developing financial solutions at the community level, including programs that help water enterprises, infrastructure, and utility services expand their services for people in need. And we will continue to partner closely with key multilateral development finance institutions and government partners in India, such as the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation's Swachh Bharat Mission and Jal Jeevan Mission, UNICEF, the World Bank, WaterAid, and local organizations. Through these partnerships, we are working to influence public policy and practice changes that make more funds available for water and sanitation solutions across the country.

Sunita has safe water at home

Watch to hear from Sunita how affordable, lasting access to safe water at home has changed her life in south India.

Kantabai gave her family safe water and a bright future

In the countries where we work, like India, women and children often bear the primary responsibility for water collection. After decades of collecting water from distant sources outdoors, Kantabai is thankful she could finally give her sons, daughter-in-laws, and grandchildren safe water at home.

Safe water for Savita's family

Among the many benefits of having affordable, lasting access to safe water at home is health. Savita notes improved health as an important change her family has experienced. See how access to safe water at home improved her family's health and changed their lives.

Investing in water is an investment in women

Investing in water is investing in potential. With access to safe water at home, Sunita and her family spend less time collecting water and can spend more time pursuing income generating activities like raising her cattle.

India impact statistics

The number of people who now have access to safe water or sanitation and the health and opportunity they bring.

Our partners mobilize funds from capital markets to provide water and sanitation loans.

Our local partners make loans to people in need for life-changing safe water and sanitation solutions.

We work with financial institutions, service providers, international agencies, and governments to make an impact.

Every repaid loan means another family in need can get affordable access to safe water at home.

Small loans can help make a big difference by providing long-term solutions for families in need around the world.

Women are primarily responsible for household water collection and are solving the water crisis for their families.

We are committed to helping people living in poverty get access to safe water and sanitation solutions at home.

To help end the water crisis in India, donate today.

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Water Scarcity - Water Stress in India & Prevention of Water Scarcity [UPSC Notes]

Water scarcity is insufficient freshwater resources to meet the human and environmental demands of a given area. This article will talk about the topic ‘Water Scarcity’ which is important in the IAS Exam from the perspective of UPSC General Studies I & III, and essay papers of the Mains Exam.

Table of Contents:

Types of Water Scarcity

Adequate access to safe drinking water is a priority for global development. However, given the challenges of population growth, profligate use, growing population, and changes in weather patterns due to global warming, many countries, both wealthy and poor are facing water scarcity in the 21st century.

There are two types of water scarcity:

• Physical water scarcity
• Economic water scarcity

Physical Water scarcity

Physical or absolute water scarcity is the result of regions demand outpacing the limited water resources found in that location. As per the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations, around 1.2 Billion people live in areas of physical scarcity; many of these people live in arid or semi-arid regions. People impacted by this kind of water scarcity are expected to grow as populations increase and as weather patterns become more unpredictable due to climate change.

Economic Water scarcity

This kind of water scarcity primarily arises due to the lack of water infrastructure in general or due to the poor management of water resources where the infrastructure is in place. As per FAO estimates more than 1.6 Billion people face economic water shortage. Economic water scarcity can also arise due to unregulated water use for agriculture and industry at the expense of the general population.

What is the Water Footprint?

Everything that we consume in our daily life, whatever we eat, sell, buy, wear requires water to make them. Water footprint measures the amount of water used to produce each of the goods and services we use . It can be measured for any process, like growing crops, for producing clothes, for the fuel we use in our travels, or for a multinational company.

A nation’s water footprint is defined as the total amount of water needed for the production of goods and services calculated by adding all the water consumed plus the water inherent in products imported, then subtracted by water in exports.

India’s water footprint is 980 cubic metres per capita, ranks below the global average of 1243 cubic metres. India contributes roughly 12 % of the world’s total water footprint.

Effects of Water Scarcity Across the Globe

The problem of water scarcity has gained a lot of importance due to the potential damage it can inflict. As per some reports, 1.1 billion people worldwide lack access to water, and a total of 2.7 Billion people find water scarce for at least one month of the year.

• As per 2017 Global Risks Report of the World Economic Forum , in terms of impact on humanity, the water crisis is ranked as the 3rd most important global risk.
• Governments will be forced to choose between agricultural, industrial, municipal or environmental interests and some groups would win at the expense of others.
• Water scarcity can result in forced migration. It may lead to domestic or regional conflicts, in geopolitically fragile areas.
• As per the UN report, over 2 Billion people live in countries experiencing high water stress. As per UNESCO 24 Million and 700 Million people will be displaced in some Arid and Semi-arid regions by 2030.
• Inadequate sanitation is also a problem for 2.4 Billion people. They are exposed to diseases, such as Cholera and Typhoid fever, and other water-borne illnesses. 2 million people, mostly children, die each year from diarrheal diseases alone.

Water Scarcity in India

India has 4 % of the world’s freshwater which has to cater to 17 % of the world’s population.

As per NITI Aayog report released in June 2019, India is facing the worst-ever water crisis in history. Approximately 600 million people or roughly around 45 % of the population in India is facing high to severe water stress. As per the report, 21 Indian cities will run out of their main source of water i.e. groundwater by 2020. The report goes on to say that nearly 40 % of the population will have absolutely no access to drinking water by 2030 and 6 % of India’s GDP will be lost by 2050 due to the water crisis.

Main causes of Water Scarcity in India

As per World Bank data, India accounts for 25 % of global demand for groundwater. More than 90 % of groundwater in India is used for irrigated agriculture. The remaining 24 Billion m 3 supplies 85 % of the country’s drinking water. Approximately 80 % of India’s 1.35 Billion population depends on groundwater for both drinking and irrigation.

The table shows India has a smaller area equipped for irrigation compared to China, yet India consumes almost double the amount of water for agriculture purpose. This shows inefficiency in water usage which is unsustainable.

India is a major exporter of rice which implies India is exporting millions of litres of water annually.

The most important crops of India are rice, wheat and sugarcane. They are the most water-consuming crops. Rice, which is a major crop export, consumed about 3,500 litres of water for a kilogram of grain produced. Punjab which is the 3rd largest producer of rice in India, is completely dependent on groundwater for production of rice, though Punjab fares well from a land productivity perspective, they are lagging behind states like West Bengal, Bihar in terms of water productivity as they consume two to three times more water than Bihar and West Bengal to produce a kilogram of rice. For detailed information on Major Crops of India , visit the link provided here.

Check out other links related to crops of India –

Sugarcane is another water-guzzling crop in India, which is a very popular crop among farmers in Maharashtra because they are assured of marketing by sugar mills. The primary source of water for growing this crop is groundwater, whereas states like Bihar which is more suitable for the production of sugarcane produce only 4 % of the country’s total sugar cane output. Know in detail about Agriculture in India on the given link.

Water storage in India is about 209 m 3 per person far below the minimum threshold of 1,000 m 3 per person for identifying water scarcity in a country. In addition, the per capita availability of water has reduced from 2,209 m 3 per year in 1991 to 1545 m 3 per year in 2011.

Though the Minimum Support Price (MSP) announced by the Government was usually for around 22 crops, the MSP incentive was skewed in favour of rice and wheat. Hence even states which are dry, where weather conditions were not in favour, farmers still preferred to grow rice and wheat resulting in excessive extraction of groundwater to grow the rice and wheat.

Given below are a few important links related to agriculture –

Effects of Water Scarcity in India

Social and Political Effects of Water Scarcity in India

Effects of Water Scarcity on Food Security

• 74 % of the area under wheat cultivation and 63 % of the area under rice cultivation faces extreme levels of water scarcity.
• Expected demand-supply gap of up to 570 Billion m 3 by 2030 in the agriculture sector.
• Virtual water export adds to the problem, the export of approximately 37 lakh tonnes of Basmati rice alone cost India 10 Trillion litres of water in 2014-15.

8 Ways to Prevent Risks on Food Security due to Water Scarcity

• States should start using a water lens while developing agricultural policies and incentives.
• India needs to manage its international export of virtual water.
• Ensure that crop production patterns within the country, across different states, are aligned to regional water availability.
• Agriculture policies that limit the export of water-intensive crops or reduce Minimum Support Price (MSP) and subsidies for water-intensive crops (particularly sugarcane, cotton and rice) in regions with declining water tables.
• Emphasise on the adoption of water-efficient technologies, management systems, farmer education, and advisory services.
• Consider developing an agricultural water export index to track virtual water, to track the amount of virtual water exported by India through trade commodities to other countries. This can enable better policy and incentives that support water sustainability.
• The water footprint network has developed an interactive tool to calculate and map the water footprint by different users, assess its sustainability, and identify strategic interventions for improving water use.
• Invest in scaling up Micro-irrigation. It is a vital solution to make India’s agriculture more water-efficient, the adoption rate is still small due to problems in the sustained adoption of micro-irrigation across seasons due to maintenance challenges and cost pressures. A programme that takes care of financial support, operational support, and technical support is essential. The Government of India’s ‘Per Drop More Crop’ component under the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana promotes the use of drip and sprinkler irrigation by farmers.
• Effects of Water Scarcity on the Carrying Capacity of Urban Hubs
• 5 of the world’s largest cities under water stress present in India.
• No Indian city is able to provide 24 hours 7 days a week water supply to its entire urban population.
• Expected water demand-supply gap of approximately 50 Billion m 3 for the domestic sector by 2030, as future demand doubles present use.

3 Ways to Prevent Water Scarcity in Urban Areas

• An integrated approach to land-use planning and zoning where water will be the crux of the planning is the sole way to ensure sustainable urban development in which the needs of the city’s water needs are met.
• While creating city plans and providing permits for new establishments, state and city governments should consider water resource availability in the region, and resist developmental activities that are not sustainable from the perspective of water management.
• The government can take a leaf out of the book from the American Planning Association (APA) in the United States which has introduced water-related policy guidelines, which treats water as a critical component of infrastructure planning.

Economic Risks of Water Scarcity in India

• Effects of Water Scarcity on sustainable industrial activity
• Industries expected to draw 3 times water compared to their actual consumption by 2030.
• Shutdowns possible as states prioritize irrigation and household needs, and fail to provide water to industries.
• Water intensive industries such as Food & Beverages, Textiles, Paper & Paper products are likely to be worst affected.

4 Ways to Prevent Risks for Industrial Activity due to Water Scarcity

• Water usage can be optimized by giving permits that put caps on water consumption by each user.
• Industrial zoning can restrict water-intensive industries from setting up in water-scarce regions, this will promote water efficiency amongst small and large industries.
• We could take an example of Australia’s Murray-Darling Basin which supports water trading worth AUD 2 Billion annually. It is a system where water entitlements and allocations are provided to industrial units annually, and they are allowed to trade i.e. buy and sell their water quotas amongst different users, to maximize their outputs and income by optimizing water use.
• ESG compliance checks by banks can act as an effective tool for adopting water conservation activities by organisations that seek external funding. The risks posed to organisations due to water shortages and scarcity will affect the performance of banks. An Indian bank checks and raises a red flag if the availability of water in the region is insufficient to support the business operations of an organisation. Another bank conducts portfolio analysis and covers water as a key non-financial risk.

Effects of Water Scarcity on Energy Production in India

• 40 % of India’s thermal power plants presently located in water-scarce regions
• 70 % of India’s thermal power plants are expected to face high water stress by 2030.

Read about Thermal Power Plants in India from the linked article.

4 Ways to Prevent Risks on Energy Production due to Water Scarcity

• Diversifying to renewable energy sources like Solar and Wind energy, that are not reliant on water to generate energy. Government has already set targets of 175 GW of energy by 2022, this will considerably help in diverting the crisis.
• Make sure that new Thermal power plants are only established in regions where there is no scarcity of water availability.
• Promote the adoption of water-efficient technologies for operation of power plants and the production of energy.
• National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) is exploring solutions such as desalination plants which can create additional water for human use, and floating Solar PV can reduce the natural rate of evaporation and support conservation of water.

Environmental Risks of Water Scarcity in India

• Effects of Water Scarcity on Biodiversity of India
• Human intervention impacts 35 species on average in biodiversity hotspots in India .
• The Western Ghats , the Himalayas and North East are amongst hotspots with threatened species category.
• Dam construction on the Kali river contributed to the Western Ghats decline in forest cover of 30 percentage points in approximately 40 years.

3 Ways to Prevent Biodiversity Destruction in India

• Economic policy needs to incorporate economic value of biodiversity, impact on the environment needs to be evaluated when new development activities, such as building dams or reservoirs are planned.
• Explore the possibility of smaller projects in multiple locations instead of one large project in one geographical location, since the cumulative environmental footprint of such smaller projects might be lower compared to one large project.
• Undertake large scale tree plantation to re-establish habitats and support resuscitation of bird population and wildlife in the region.

Effects of Water Scarcity on Desertification

• Approximately 30 % of Indian land is degraded or faces desertification
• Water erosion is the largest cause of desertification and is responsible for approximately 11 % of total desertification.
• Cost of land degradation estimated at approximately 2.1 % of India’s 2014-15 GDP.

Read more about Desertification from the linked article.

4 Ways to Prevent Risks of Desertification

• Afforestation is a very effective method, but it must be done strategically and scientifically so that the right mix of flora is propagated i.e. local species, drought-tolerant variety of trees etc.
• Adopt agroforestry, in this method trees and shrubs, are grown next to crops and pasturelands. It can reduce erosion and even increase biodiversity in areas currently covered with mono-cropping and without cover crops and natural barriers.
• By increasing the green cover it will help in groundwater rejuvenation as water absorption and retention capacity of soil increases. It is important to tap into local and grassroots knowledge to select the right trees for the appropriate geography.
• China’s ‘great wall’ initiative is a phenomenal example of China making large scale investments in tackling desertification. The country has planted 66 Billion trees in the arid Northern territory and they claim to have reduced sandstorms by 20 % and desertification by nearly 5,000 miles in recent years.

Measures for Preventing Water Scarcity in India (Central Government)

Ministry of Jal Shakti

The Government of India established the Ministry of Jal Shakti to consolidate interrelated functions pertaining to water management. The Ministry launched Jal Shakti Abhiyan – a campaign for water conservation and water security. Get detailed information on Jal Shakti Ministry on the page linked here.

Jal Shakti Abhiyan Campaign

Jal Shakti Abhiyan launched in

• 1592 water-stressed blocks
• 256 districts

The major focus areas of Jal Shakti Abhiyan is given below

• Water conservation and rainwater harvesting
• Renovation of traditional and other water bodies/tanks
• Borewell recharge structures
• Watershed development
• Intensive afforestation
• Block and District water conservation plans
• Promotion of efficient water use for irrigation
• Better choice of crops for Krishi Vigyan Kendras

Jal Abhiyan is a time-bound, mission-mode water conservation campaign. Hence to make sure that efforts are going in the right direction, The National Institute for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog has developed a comprehensive water management metrics named Composite Water Management Index (CWMI).

The Government of India has announced an ambitious target of providing piped clean drinking water to all villages by 2024.

Read more about Jal Shakti Abhiyan from the linked article.

Atal Bhujal Yojana 

In order to acknowledge and contain the ever-growing problem of groundwater depletion, the Indian Government introduced the Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABY) in December 2019 after getting financial approval from the World Bank in 2018. It was launched under Jal Jeevan Mission. It is related to groundwater usage and conservation in India.

The objective of the program was to lay emphasis on the recharge of groundwater resources and improve the exploitation of the groundwater resources, with the involvement of people at the local level. Further details on Atal Bhujal Yojana can be read on the linked page.

Adoption of Composite Water Management Index (CWMI)

The National Institute for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog has developed the Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) to enable effective water management in Indian states. The first edition was published in 2018 and became a very well-received publication inside and outside the country.

Mandate of CWMI

• Establish a benchmark for state-level performance on key water indicators.
• Identify the high performing states and low performing states thereby inculcating a culture of constructive competition among states
• Identify areas for deeper engagement and investment on the part of the states.

Measures for Preventing Water Scarcity (State Government)

Rajasthan – Mukhya Mantri Jal Swalambhan Abhiyan (MJSA)

The objective is to make villages self-sufficient in water through participatory water management approach.

• Launched in 2016
• A unique feature is the usage of Drones to identify water bodies for restoration
• Gram Sabha in villages is responsible for budgeting of water resources for different uses, providing greater power to the community members in decision-making.

6 Accomplishments of the MJSA program

• In the 1st 2 phases of the program, 7742 villages in Rajasthan benefited by 2.3 Lakh water conservation activities.
• In the 2nd phase, 1.35 Lakh water conservation structures were created in 4213 villages.
• Benefited more than 88 lakh people, 93 lakh heads of livestock, covering an area of 33.50 Lakh hectares.
• After the 1st phase, there was a 56 % reduction of water supply through tankers and the average rise in the groundwater table by 4.6 feet in 21 non-desert districts of the states.
• 50,000 hectares of additional land had been made fit for cultivation in the districts
• 64 % of the handheld pumps had been rejuvenated.

Andhra Pradesh – Neeru Chettu Programme

The objective is to make Andhra Pradesh drought-proof and reduce economic inequalities through better water conservation and management practices. Highlights of the program are given below.

• Repaired about 7,000 farm ponds
• Repaired 22,000 check dams
• 102 lift irrigation schemes have been commissioned or revived.
• This program has enabled irrigation access to approximately 2,10,000 acres of land in the state.

Maharashtra – Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan

Launched in 2015 – 16, with the aim of making 5000 villages water scarcity free, every year. This program entails the following

• Deepening and widening of streams
• Construction of cement and earthen stop dams
• Works on nullahs and digging of farm ponds.
• Geo-tagging of water bodies and use of a mobile application to enable web-based monitoring

3 Accomplishments of the Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan program

• Increase in groundwater levels of 1.5 to 2 metres.
• 11,000 villages have been declared drought-free
• Agricultural productivity has increased by 30 % – 50 %

Telangana – Mission Kakatiya Program

• Launched in 2014
• Aims to restore 46,000 tanks across the state and bring over 20 lakh acres land under cultivation.
• Enhancing the development of minor irrigation structures
• Promoting community-based irrigation management.
• Restoration of tanks to enable effective utilization of the 255 TMC water allocated for minor irrigation under Godavari and Krishna river basins.

4 Accomplishments of the Mission Kakatiya Program

• Over 22,500 tanks had been restored till March 2018
• The program Boosted water storage capacity of water bodies
• Enhanced on-farm moisture retention capacity in the region.
• Increase in the gross area irrigated under tank ayacut by 51.5 % compared to the base year.

Gujarat – Sujalam Sufalam Yojana

It is a water conservation scheme by the Gujarat Government launched in May 2018; it focuses on

• Deepening of water bodies before monsoons
• Desilting of water bodies
• Target to increase water storage capacity by 11,000 lakh cubic feet through deepening of 13,000 lakes, check dams, and reservoirs. The program was a success as per media reports.
• 2nd edition was launched in 2019 in which the state increased its financial contribution to 60 % for programme activities, requiring private entities to pay only remaining 40 %

Madhya Pradesh – Kapil Dhara Yojana

• Develop irrigation facilities on private land of small and marginal farmers, through the construction of dug wells, farm ponds, check dams etc.
• Focuses on providing financial support to landholders without access to irrigation facilities and prioritizes marginalized communities to maximize impact.
• The program has contributed to improved productivity, intensity, and diversity of crop production in the region and generates livelihood sources.

Punjab – Pani Bachao Paise Kamao

The program launched to break water-energy nexus.

• It is an innovative program, where farmers are provided with fixed electricity quota and receiving Rs 4 per KWh (Kilowatt-hour) for every unit of electricity saved through Direct Benefits Transfer (DBT).
• The scheme launched by the Department of Power on a pilot basis in the districts of Jalandhar and Hoshiarpur; allows farmers to join on a voluntary basis.
• A unique solution to the widespread problem of electricity and water wastage by farmers by encouraging them to use the resources efficiently by incentivising them monetarily for being water efficient.

Uttar Pradesh – Jakhni Village, Bundelkhand

Jakhni village of Banda district in the Bundelkhand region was one of the most water-scarce regions in India. There was heavy migration from the village in search of water and for better livelihood, but the villagers drastically changed the situation through rigorous water conservation techniques as given below.

• Construction of farm ponds
• Restoration/rejuvenation of water bodies
• Collection and utilization of greywater
• Raising of farm bunds
• Intensive plantation of trees

The uniqueness of this success is farmers of Jakhni undertook the entire work without any

external funding, machinery or resources.

Accomplishments

• It has become a water self-sufficient village, it was earlier drought-prone
• Improved agricultural production – now produces 23,000 quintals of Basmati rice, production of other crops has also increased by manifolds

Water contamination in India

As per the NITI Aayog report, 70 % of all of the country’s fresh water in the ground or on the surface is polluted. As per the report, 600 Million Indians are facing a high or extreme water crisis. 2,00,000 Indians die every year since they are drinking, washing, and bathing in contaminated water.

Relevant links to cover up the topic on water and its scarcity comprehensively for the upcoming UPSC exam are given below-

4 Ways Adopted to Prevent Water Scarcity Across the Globe

We need to use a multi-pronged approach to address the matter. 1. Aquifer Recharging

An aquifer is a body of permeable soil or rock that contains or transmits groundwater. They are usually refilled from rain or melting snow. As per UN reports groundwater withdrawal has tripled in the past 50 years; areas with highest groundwater withdrawals include parts of China, India and the United States. Around 67% is used for agricultural purposes, 22% for domestic use, 11% for industrial use. Aquifer recharge involves injecting excess surface water into underground aquifers. Water can be treated before injection. Use native plant species in wetland areas to boost aquifers natural recharge capabilities.

2. Water reuse and Zero-Liquid Discharge Technology

This method can alleviate water scarcity for municipalities and industries. Zero Liquid Discharge technologies use, treat, and reuse water in a closed-loop system without release or discharge.

3. Coastal Reservoir Projects

Singapore, Hong Kong, Japan have Coastal reservoir projects that have been effectively functioning and supplying people with drinking water.

4. Desalination Plants

This is a process of treating saline or brackish water. This process can be used to treat seawater or groundwater containing salt concentrations that make it unfit for drinking. Highly saline water contains salt in the concentrations ranging between 10,000 ppm and 35,000 ppm. Freshwater is defined as water with less than 1,000 ppm of salt.

Due to growing demands, many nations are investing in this technology. There are an estimated 16,000 desalination plants in operation around the world. The largest desalination plants are in Saudi Arabia, UAE and Israel. Unfortunately, desalination plants are energy guzzlers. It requires 10 times more energy than that consumed by pumping well water.

As the trend suggests, the number of questions being asked from the environment segments is increasing. Candidates can get the complete trend analysis in our GS 3 strategy, Structure and Syllabus page.

The above details would be of help to candidates preparing for UPSC 2022  exams from the perspective of mains examination.

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Hydropolitics News and Intelligence

Water Security: Issues and challenges for India

By neeraj singh manhas, director of research in the indo-pacific consortium at raisina house, new delhi.

22 Feb 2023 by The Water Diplomat

Water security in India refers to the availability of adequate and clean water resources to meet the country's growing water demand, while ensuring the sustainability of the water ecosystems. This is in line with the definition of water security provided by UN Water, which is a United Nations inter-agency coordination mechanism on all freshwater-related issues. It involves ensuring access to safe drinking water, managing water resources effectively, and reducing the risk of water-borne diseases. In India, water security is a major challenge due to over-extraction of groundwater, water pollution, and unequal distribution of water resources. Addressing water security is critical for the country's economic and social development, as well as the health and well-being of its citizens.

Concept of Traditional and Non-Traditional Threat

Water security has been recognized as a critical issue within government policy circles and among various stakeholders such as civil society organizations, academics, and researchers. The growing recognition of water as a finite and valuable resource, coupled with the increasing risks and impacts of water-related issues, has led to water security being perceived as a threat to India's development and sustainability. Therefore, various measures have been taken to address the challenges related to water security in India, including the implementation of policies, programs, and initiatives aimed at improving water management, conservation, and governance.

Traditionally, water security was seen as a technical issue of water supply and management, with a focus on meeting water demand through infrastructure development. However, it has now expanded to encompass a broader range of social, economic, and environmental factors, including water quality, water allocation, and water governance.

In India, water security has been recognized as a non-traditional threat due to the interlinkages between water and other critical sectors such as agriculture, energy, health, and the environment. The country faces a range of water-related challenges, including water scarcity, water pollution, floods, and droughts, which have significant impacts on various aspects of society and the economy.

The concept of non-traditional threat recognises water security as a complex and interconnected issue that requires a holistic and integrated approach, involving multiple stakeholders and a range of policies and practices. This approach recognises the need for better water governance, enhanced water management practices, and increased investment in water infrastructure and technology.

Source: Next IAS

Issues and Challenges

Water security in India faces several issues and challenges that threaten the sustainability and development of the country. These include over-extraction of groundwater, water pollution, inadequate distribution, lack of proper water management, climate change, and conflicts over water. India relies heavily on groundwater, which is being depleted at an alarming rate due to over-extraction for irrigation, industrial, and domestic use. The increasing industrialization and urbanization has led to widespread water pollution, contaminating rivers and groundwater, and making it unsafe for consumption. There is unequal distribution of water resources across the country, with some regions facing severe water scarcity while others have surplus water. India lacks proper water management systems, with inefficient irrigation systems, leaky water supply networks, and insufficient wastewater treatment facilities. Climate change has resulted in irregular monsoon patterns and increased frequency of natural disasters, causing further strain on India's water resources. With increasing water scarcity, there are growing conflicts between different states, communities, and sectors over the distribution and use of water. Addressing these challenges is crucial for ensuring water security in India and sustainable development of the country.

Way Forward

Improving India's water security will require a combination of policy, technology, and behavioral solutions. One essential strategy is to enhance water governance systems, with clear policies, laws, and institutions to manage and allocate water resources effectively and equitably. Efficient water management practices like rainwater harvesting, conservation, and recharge should be adopted to reduce water waste and increase availability.

The country needs to invest in water infrastructure such as dams, reservoirs, and canals, to improve water storage capacity, distribution, and mitigate the impacts of water-related disasters. Promoting the adoption of water-saving technologies like drip irrigation, micro-irrigation, and water-efficient appliances can significantly reduce water consumption and improve productivity. Additionally, the government should implement and enforce regulations to prevent water pollution and ensure access to safe drinking water, especially in rural and urban areas. Changing behavior is also critical, such as reducing water usage, avoiding water waste, and improving water hygiene practices. Collaboration and active engagement of various stakeholders including the government, civil society, private sector, and communities are essential to addressing these challenges.

Addressing these challenges requires a collaborative and multi-stakeholder approach, with the active engagement of government, civil society, private sector, and communities. Investing in water security will not only improve water availability and quality, but will also contribute to the overall economic and social development of India.

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Navigating India’s water woes: a pricey matter

As india’s water availability declines, a holistic approach to water pricing will be needed to avoid conflicts..

India is confronting the harsh reality of water scarcity.

The annual decline in per capita water availability from 1486 m3 in 2021 to 1367 m3 by 2031 sets an alarming trajectory, falling below the current global average of approximately 5500 m3 and signalling a severe water scarcity challenge for the nation.   

The growing population exacerbates the demand for water, affecting food, sanitation, and development needs. Worsening water pollution, climate change-induced droughts, and inadequate water resource management further strain water supply, particularly groundwater resources.

India’s reliance on monsoons for agriculture intensifies the pressure on water resources, with droughts increasing in frequency and projecting a  worsening trend  until 2049.  

 The agricultural sector, which employs 70 per cent of the population, is the primary water consumer but faces low water-use efficiency. Inefficient irrigation systems and overexploitation of groundwater aggravate the water stress.

India’s irrigation sector, consuming 80 per cent of total water, relies heavily on unsustainable groundwater extraction, driven by perverse subsidies and suboptimal water pricing.  

Groundwater depletion at a rate of  0.3 metres annually  poses a severe threat to the country’s water security. Recognising the urgency, the  Ministry of Jal Shakti  was established in 2019, implementing programs to enhance irrigation efficiency and promote optimal water resource utilisation.  

However, with declining real prices, the existing water pricing system has led to inter-state conflicts — emphasising the need for a holistic approach to water pricing, considering the comprehensive values and ecosystem service losses associated with water diversion. 

Ecosystem services and water valuation    

Water allocation challenges arise from spatiotemporal differences in availability, requiring efficient management to allocate scarce resources among competing needs. Hence, a robust and inclusive water valuation technique is needed to  enhance water governance processes.  

Valuing water serves as an objective tool for decision-making, providing a quantified basis for ranking and prioritising projects in water-related infrastructure. Equitable and inclusive valuation aids the allocation of scarce resources, balancing efficiency, equity, and sustainability considerations for social optimality in consumption and production.   

Water plays a pivotal role in providing ecosystem services, benefiting both people and the environment in various ways.

“ India faces a severe water crisis driven by significant demand-supply gaps, inefficient water resource management, and climate change. Predictions indicate critical water shortages by 2050, highlighting the urgency for practical solutions.

Ecosystems like rivers, wetlands, and marine ecosystems offer goods such as clean water and fish, along with services like water purification and flood mitigation. Environmental flows, which allocate water to sustain ecosystems, are crucial for the well-being of these environments and the communities dependent on them.   

Despite water’s importance in sustaining diverse ecosystems, there is a lack of  detailed quantitative knowledge  regarding the impacts of environmental changes on ecosystem structure and functions.

Examples include changes in biodiversity, water quality parameters, hydrological flow data, and the economic valuation of ecosystem services. Such data helps understand and manage the trade-offs between human activities and ecosystem health​. However, recognising water’s contribution to ecosystem services remains an emerging research area.   

The importance of integrating environmental sciences and economics for collaborative research efforts cannot be understated, and the need for a balance between equity and efficiency in water pricing must be emphasised.

Efficiency aims to optimise water allocation for maximum net benefit, while equity ensures fairness among economically diverse groups.  

Differential pricing (higher for industrial use than domestic), market-based pricing, and output pricing (charging based on crop production) are possible strategies to achieve equity and efficiency in water allocation, recognising the challenges in objectively measuring fairness. 

Pricing water in India    

India faces a severe water crisis driven by significant demand-supply gaps, inefficient water resource management, and climate change. Predictions indicate critical water shortages by 2050, highlighting the urgency for practical solutions.  

There is a disparity in irrigation water pricing across states, leading to low revenue collection. This is mainly attributed to low water taxes, infrequent charge revisions, and flaws in the revenue collection mechanism.

However, the regulatory body’s effectiveness is contingent on the establishment of a robust pricing mechanism.  

A uniform and rigid water pricing system across India is highly required to accurately value and sustainably utilise the depleting resource. Currently, water pricing in India varies significantly across states, with many states setting nil to low water taxes and rarely revising charges.

This results in flawed revenue collection mechanisms and low revenue generation in the irrigation sector. Again, over utilisation of groundwater resources due to a focus on supply-side measures exacerbates the crisis, necessitating the immediate implementation of a stringent water tariff system nationwide.  

The multifaceted water tariff design approach must balance revenue generation, efficiency, demand management, economic development, and public welfare.

The tariff-setting process should be transparent, ensuring equity, sustainability, and resource conservation. Forward-looking rates should consider environmental costs, align with government policies, and adapt to varying water supply characteristics.  

The overarching goal is to address India’s water crisis through an integrated approach involving effective regulation, pricing mechanisms, and sustainable resource management.

This story was published with permission from Thomson Reuters Foundation , the charitable arm of Thomson Reuters, that covers humanitarian news, climate change, resilience, women’s rights, trafficking and property rights. Visit https://www.context.news/ .

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• Water Scarcity Essay

Essay on Water Scarcity

Water is the basic necessity of every human being, but water scarcity is a major issue that is rising very rapidly in India nowadays. The problem has become so severe that in many states the groundwater has almost dried up and people have to depend on water supply from other sources. In addition, water is one of the most misused natural resources that we still waste. It is the central point of our lives but unfortunately, not our priority concern. 

Earlier, people understood the value of water and planned their lives around it. Moreover, many civilizations were born and lost around water, but today, in spite of having knowledge, we still fail to understand the value of water in our lives. 

Reasons for Water Scarcity

Mismanagement of water and the growing population in our country are the two main reasons for water scarcity. There are also a number of other man made disturbances that continue to rise. Besides this, some of the reasons for water scarcity are:  

Wasteful Use of Water for Agriculture  

India, an agricultural country, produces a huge quantity of food to feed its population. The surplus that is left, gets exported outside. 

It is not unknown that producing this much food requires a lot of water too. The traditional method of irrigation wastes a lot of water due to evaporation, water conveyance, drainage, percolation, and the overuse of groundwater. Besides, most of the areas in India use traditional irrigation techniques that stress the availability of water.

However, the technique of irrigation has changed during modern times and we provide water to plants using a sprinkler or drip irrigation.

Reduction in Water Recharges Systems  

Rapid construction that uses concrete and marbles may not let the rainwater get absorbed in the soil, but still, we install some mechanism in our houses so that we can hold the rainwater. Then we can recharge the groundwater.

Lack of Water Management and Distribution

There is a need for an efficient system to manage and distribute the water in urban areas. The Indian government also needs to enhance its technology and investment in water treatment. Besides, we should ensure optimization at the planning level.

Solutions to Overcome this Problem

Close the running tap.

 During dishwashing and hand washing people often let the tap run. These running taps waste thousands of liters of water per year. Therefore, closing the tap will reduce this problem.

Replace Dripping Taps  

In India, it is commonly seen that most of the houses have taps or faucets that go on dripping water even when they are closed. This running tap wastes up to 30,000 liters of water that nobody bothers to change. So, we should replace these taps immediately.

Brief on Water Scarcity  

Water is a basic necessity for every living being.  Life without water is impossible, not just for us humans, but for all plants and animals too. Water scarcity is an issue of grave concern these days as water scarcity has become very common. Water is one of the most wasted natural resources and corrective measures should be taken before the water scarcity situation becomes worse. In spite of being aware of the implications, not much is being done today. 

In India, and across the world, it has been recorded that about half a billion people face a shortage of water for about six months annually. Many well-known cities around the world are facing acute scarcity of water. Many facts and figures are available to know about the water scarcity problem, but what are the reasons for this scarcity? 

With the growing population, the use of water has increased manifold. The lack of more freshwater sources and the increase in population is a major reason for this scarcity. The lack of proper Water management systems and proper drainage systems in India, especially in the urban areas is a major cause too. Kitchen wastewater should be able to be recycled but due to a poor drainage system, this is not possible. An efficient water management system is required in order to distribute water in urban areas.

Another major issue is Deforestation. Areas with more greenery and plants are known to have good rainfall.  Industrialisation and urbanization are two major factors here. Due to Deforestation, and cutting down of trees, rainfall has become an issue too.

Rivers are a major source of fresh water in India. Today we see a lot of industries that have come up and all of them are mostly near the rivers and these rivers become highly polluted as a result of all the industrial waste.

Effect of Global Warming and Climate Change

Global Warming and Climate Change are also responsible for the scarcity of water. The melting of icebergs into the sea due to the rise in temperatures is a reason as to how salty water is increasing day by day instead of freshwater. The percentage of rainfall has decreased drastically these days. Climate change along with the decrease in rainfall percentage has greatly affected freshwater bodies. 

Water scarcity has become a major problem and an alarming issue these days, and we must consciously strive to work together to find some solution to this issue of water scarcity. The Indian government today has formulated and come up with many plans on how to tackle and solve this problem.

To conclude, water scarcity has become an alarming issue day by day. If we do not take the problem of water scarcity seriously now, our future generations are going to suffer severely and may even have to buy this necessity at a high cost.

FAQs on Water Scarcity Essay

1.  What are the reasons for Water Scarcity?

The lack of proper Water Management and proper Drainage system plays a major role. Many other factors and reasons can be held responsible for the scarcity of water. Some of the major reasons are Global Warming and Climate Change; Pollution of the rivers due to industrialization; Deforestation and the cutting down of trees is another reason; Reduced percentage of rainfall due to the climate change pattern; Increase in the population which leads to increase in the use of water.  Learn more about water scarcity on Vedantu website helpful for long-term.

2. What is meant by the scarcity of water?

The scarcity of water means a shortage of water and not being able to manage the demand and supply of water. Water scarcity refers to the lack of freshwater bodies to meet the standard quantity and demand of water. Unequal distribution of water due to factors like Climate Change and Global Warming. Water Scarcity is also due to pollution and lack of rainfall. Water scarcity means a scarcity due to some physical scarcity or scarcity due to the lack of regular supply.

3. What are the two types of water scarcity?

Physical water scarcity is the result of regions' demand outpacing the limited water resources found in that location. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, about 1.2 billion people live in areas of physical scarcity and many of these people live in arid or semi-arid regions. People who are affected by this Physical kind of water scarcity are expected to grow as the population increases and as the weather patterns keep changing as a result of climate change.

Economic water scarcity is due to the lack of proper water infrastructure and a proper water management system or also because of poor management of water resources. The FAO estimates that more than 1.6 billion people face economic water shortages today. Economic water scarcity can also take place because of the unregulated use of water for agriculture and industry.

4.  How can we solve the problem?

Conscious awareness is required to deal with and understand the problem of water scarcity. We can start off by consciously saving water in our homes and surroundings.  Small easy steps like taking care when washing hands, or when working in the kitchen, have to be taken. The running water taps are a major reason for losing hundreds of liters of water on a daily basis. And we should be careful not to waste this water. Conscious decision to save and the need to understand the problem of water scarcity is of utmost importance.

5. How do we waste water?

Water is wasted in ways we do not even realize, in our homes and in our workplaces. When we brush our teeth, when we shave or when we wash the dishes, one of the most common things we do is to keep the water running, especially when running water is available. As soon as we begin cleaning or washing, we do not think of the water that is being wasted. While washing hands, we leave the water tap on, which results in wasting water too. Small things like these should be kept in mind and this could be our small step towards preserving water.

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Water Resources In India Essay | Essay on Water Resources In India for Students and Children in English

February 14, 2024 by Prasanna

Water Resources In India Essay:  Water is the most important and valuable natural resource on Earth. It sustains all life and life itself originated in water. Before the discovery of traces of water on Mars, Earth was the only planet in the solar system to contain water. About 71% of Earth’s surface is covered with water, but only 3% of the available water is freshwater. About two-thirds of the freshwater lies frozen in the form of glaciers and ice caps. The rest of the small portion is available in the form of groundwater and surface water.

You can read more  Essay Writing  about articles, events, people, sports, technology many more.

Long and Short Essays on Water Resources In India for Kids and Students in English

Given below are two essays in English for students and children about the topic of ‘Water Resources In India’ in both long and short form. The first essay is a long essay on Water Resources In India of 400-500 words. This long essay about Water Resources In India is suitable for students of class 7, 8, 9 and 10, and also for competitive exam aspirants. The second essay is a short essay on Water Resources In India of 150-200 words. These are suitable for students and children in class 6 and below.

Long Essay on Water Resources In India 500 Words in English

Below we have given a long essay on Water Resources In India of 500 words is helpful for classes 7, 8, 9 and 10 and Competitive Exam Aspirants. This long essay on the topic is suitable for students of class 7 to class 10, and also for competitive exam aspirants.

Water is used in the agriculture for irrigation of crops. In industries, water is used as a coolant, solvent and in manufacturing processes. Hydroelectricity is electricity generated with the help of water. Water is also used for navigation and transport of goods. India covers 2.45% of the world area and possesses 4% of world’s water resources. Precipitation contributes about 4000 cu km of water to the country. India has a large number of surface water resources, in the form of rivers, lakes, ponds, tanks and other small bodies. The three main rivers of North India are Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra, which carry 60% of the total surface water in India. The flow of India’s rivers constitutes 6% of discharge of all the rivers of the world.

Being an agriculture-centric country, India has developed a number of irrigation schemes. Jrrigation projects of Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarjuna Sagar and Indira Gandhi Canal have featured prominently in Five Year Plan.

The land area between Punjab and Brahmaputra Valley has abundant groundwater resources. The technology for identification of more aquifers can be developed further, as has been done in Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. India also has more than 600 km long coastline. Lagoons exist in the states of Kerala, Odisha and West Bengal, where the coastline is indented. This water, known as brackish water, is used for the cultivation of paddy, coconut etc., and for fishing.

Unmindful use of groundwater has led to the lowering of the water table. Excessive quantity of water used in irrigation increases soil salinity, affecting the crops. Disputes also have arisen where water bodies are shared between two states and distribution of water is in question. For example, in the absence of Cauvery Agreement, Karnataka developed some irrigation schemes, which affected Tamil Nadu’s rice delta.

“Water, water, everywhere, not a drop to drink.” The Rime of the Ancient Mariner -By ST Coleridge

Hydroelectricity can solve a part of India’s energy crisis, triggered by hike in oil prices. It is generated by the use of gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy, with production in 150 countries. India has one of the greatest hydroelectric power potentials in the world. Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB) has installed a hydel power grid in North India. Hydroelectricity is cost-effective. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, no waste is produced and carbon-dioxide emission is also less as compared to fossil fuel powered plants.

Water of the rivers and other natural sources is getting polluted due to industrial chemicals, pesticides, oil slicks and household wastes. Around 75% of surface water in India is polluted. Rajasthan and Maharashtra have high fluoride content in water, while arsenic has been found in water of West Bengal and Bihar. There are 14 river basins found to be most affected by dumping of sewage. For example, leather factories in Kanpur pump around 5.8 litre of waste water into Ganga everyday. Yamuna is also known as ‘Open Drain’.

Short Essay on Water Resources In India 200 Words in English

Below we have given a short essay on Water Resources In India is for Classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. This short essay on the topic is suitable for students of class 6 and below.

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) along with the State Boards monitor water quality at 507 stations. Some of the legislations passed by government include water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, Water Cess Act, 1977, Environment Protection Act, 1986 and National Water Policy, 2002. Ganga Manthan dialogue was initiated recently, to discuss measures to check pollution of Ganga water. Placing portable toilets and small scale water treatment plants along the river can go a long way in halting pollution.

Other than these, efforts of NGOs and citizens have also counted in the cleaning of lakes such as Puttenahalli lake, Dal lake, Agara lake, Rankala lake etc. Maintenance of water quality and water conservation are the needs of the hour. Villages’can collaborate to form watersheds, so that wells and other water reservoirs can be recharged with water. Ralegan Siddhi is a village in Maharashtra which successfully implemented this approach. Rainwater harvesting has been made mandatory in Tamil Nadu.

India’s water resources are in ample amount, but what is available freely, shouldn’t be wasted. Let us be more responsible and emulate successful models like that of Ralegan Siddhi in every part of India.

Water Resources In India Essay Word Meanings for Simple Understanding

• Coolant – a substance, usually a liquid or gas, used to reduce the temperature of a system below a specified value by conducting away the heat produced in the operation of the system
• Solvent – a substance that dissolves another to form a solution
• Lagoon – an area of shallow water separated from the sea by low sandy dunes
• Coastline – the outline or contour of a coast, shoreline
• Indented – to form deep recesses in
• Salinity – containing, or resembling common table salt, salty or saltlike
• Eenewable energy – any naturally occurring, theoretically inexhaustible source of energy, as biomass, solar, wind, tidal, wave, and hydroelectric power, that is not derived from fossil or nuclear fuel
• Aluoride – a salt of hydrofluoric acid consisting of two elements, one of which is fluorine, as sodium fluoride, NaF
• Arsemc – a grayish white element having a metallic luster, vaporising when heated, and forming poisonous compounds
• Watershed – the dividing line between two adjacent river systems, such as a ridge
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Bengaluru's Water Crisis: A Wake-Up Call for India

• 08 Mar 2024
• 13 min read
• GS Paper - 3
• Environmental Pollution & Degradation
• GS Paper - 1
• Water Resources

This editorial is based on the article “Bengaluru's worst water crisis leaves country's IT capital high and dry” which was published in the Times of India on 07/03/2024. The article talks about the severe water crisis in Bengaluru and assesses the government’s efforts to alleviate the situation.

For Prelims: Water Crisis , Cauvery River , Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) , MGNREGA for water conservation , National Water Mission , Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY) , Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) , National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) , One Water Approach.

For Mains: State of the groundwater crisis in India, Steps to Address the Water Crisis in India.

Bengaluru is facing a worsening water crisis , leading to significant shortages in various areas. According to the reports, 223 of the 236 talukas in Karnataka are affected by drought, including Mandya and Mysuru districts, the sources of Bengaluru’s water.

As summer intensifies, about 7,082 villages across Karnataka are at risk of witnessing a drinking water crisis in the coming months.

What are the Reasons Behind Bengaluru's Severe Water Scarcity?

• The city has witnessed insufficient rainfall in the past couple of monsoons. This has significantly impacted the Cauvery River, a primary source of water for the city. Lower river levels mean less water for drinking and agriculture.
• Karnataka received a 38% deficit in north-east Monsoon showers from October to December. The State received a 25% deficit in southwest monsoon rain from June to September.
• As per information from the Karnataka State Natural Disaster Management Centre (KSNDMC), the water levels in Cauvery Basin reservoirs like Harangi, Hemavathi, and Kabini are at 39% of their total capacity as of 2024.
• Bengaluru's explosive growth has resulted in the concretisation of natural landscapes that used to absorb rainwater. This reduces groundwater recharge and increases surface runoff, leading to less water percolation.
• Residents rely on borewells to supplement the water supply. However, with falling rain and excessive extraction, groundwater levels are rapidly declining, causing many borewells to dry up.
• The city's infrastructure, including water supply systems and sewage networks, has not kept pace with its rapid growth. This inadequacy exacerbates the challenges of distributing water efficiently to meet the demands of the expanding population.
• The anticipated completion of Phase-5 of the Cauvery project, designed to provide 110 litres of drinking water daily to 12 lakh people, is expected by May 2024.
• Changing weather patterns, including erratic rainfall and prolonged droughts, attributed to climate change, have reduced the availability of water in Bengaluru's reservoirs and natural water bodies.
• The Indian Meteorological Department attributes the region's poor rainfall to the El Niño phenomenon.
• Pollution from industrial discharge, untreated sewage, and solid waste dumping has contaminated water sources, rendering them unfit for consumption and further reducing the available water supply.
• A study conducted by the Environmental Management & Policy Research Institute (EMPRI) states that about 85% of Bengaluru’s water bodies are polluted by industrial effluents, sewage, and solid waste dumping.
• Inefficient water management practices, including wastage, leakage, and unequal distribution of water resources, contribute to the severity of the water scarcity crisis, with some areas receiving inadequate or irregular water supply.
• Disputes over water sharing between Karnataka and neighbouring states, particularly with regard to rivers like the Cauvery, further complicate efforts to manage and secure water resources for Bengaluru's residents.
• There is an ongoing tussle between the central and state governments concerning the distribution and allocation of funds aimed at addressing the drought situation in Karnataka.

What is the Current State of the Groundwater Crisis in India?

• Despite supporting 17% of the world's population, India possesses only 4% of the world's freshwater resources, making it challenging to meet the water needs of its vast populace.
• A report titled “Composite Water Management Index (CWMI)”, published by NITI Aayog in June 2018, mentioned that India was undergoing the worst water crisis in its history; that nearly 600 million people were facing high to extreme water stress ; and about 200,000 people were dying every year due to inadequate access to safe water.
• India is the largest groundwater user in the world , with an estimated usage of around 251 bcm per year, more than a quarter of the global total.
• With more than 60% of irrigated agriculture and 85% of drinking water supplies dependent on it, and growing industrial/urban usage, groundwater is a vital resource.
• It is projected that the per capita water availability will dip to around 1400 m3 in 2025, and further down to 1250 m3 by 2050.
• Groundwater contamination is the presence of pollutants such as bacteria, phosphates, and heavy metals from human activities including domestic sewage.
• The NITI Aayog report mentioned that India was placed at the rank of 120 amongst 122 countries in the water quality index, with nearly 70% of water being contaminated.
• In parts of India, high levels of arsenic, fluoride, nitrate, and iron are also naturally occurring in groundwater, with concentrations likely to rise as water tables fall.
• The water crisis in India is compounded by a growing demand for clean water, particularly from a fast-growing middle class, and widespread practices of open defecation, leading to health-related concerns.
• 163 Million Indians lack access to safe drinking water.
• 210 Million Indians lack access to improved sanitation.
• 21% of communicable diseases are linked to unsafe water.
• 500 children under the age of five die from diarrhoea each day in India.
• The NITI Aayog report projected the country’s water demand to be twice the available supply by 2030, implying severe scarcity for hundreds of millions of people and an eventual loss in the country’s GDP.
• The rate of depletion of groundwater in India during 2041-2080 will be thrice the current rate with global warming, according to a new report.
• Across climate change scenarios, the researchers found that their estimate of Groundwater Level (GWL) declines from 2041 to 2080 is 3.26 times current depletion rates on average (from 1.62-4.45 times) depending on the Climate model and Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenario.

What are the Key Government Schemes To Tackle The Groundwater Crisis in India?

• MGNREGA for water conservation
• Jal Kranti Abhiyan
• National Water Mission
• Atal Bhujal Yojana (ABHY)
• Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)
• National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG)

What Steps Should Be Taken to Address the Water Crisis in India?

• The national interlinking of rivers (ILR) is the idea that rivers should be inter-connected, so that water from the surplus rivers and regions could be transferred to deficient regions and rivers to address the issue of water scarcity.
• Implementing water conservation measures at individual, community, and national levels is crucial.
• This includes promoting rainwater harvesting, efficient irrigation techniques, and minimising water wastage in domestic, industrial, and agricultural sectors.
• Allocate adequate financial resources for water infrastructure development, maintenance, and rehabilitation.
• Explore innovative financing mechanisms such as public-private partnerships, water tariffs, and user fees to mobilise funding for water projects.
• Encourage farmers to adopt water-efficient farming practices such as drip irrigation, precision agriculture, crop rotation, and agroforestry.
• Providing incentives and subsidies for implementing water-saving technologies can facilitate this transition.
• As per the MS Swaminathan committee report on ‘More Crop and Income Per Drop of Water’ (2006) , drip and sprinkler irrigation can save around 50% of water in crop cultivation and increase the yield of crops by 40-60%.
• Combat water pollution by enforcing strict regulations on industrial discharge, sewage treatment, and agricultural runoff.
• Implementing wastewater treatment plants and adopting eco-friendly practices can help reduce pollution levels in rivers, lakes, and groundwater sources.
• Strengthen water governance frameworks by enacting and enforcing water-related legislation, policies, and regulatory mechanisms.
• Establishing local, regional, and national water management authorities can facilitate coordinated decision-making and implementation of water management strategies.
• Introducing minimum support policies for less water-intensive crops can reduce the pressure on agricultural water use.
• Strengthening community participation and rights in groundwater governance can improve groundwater management.
• World Bank projects for groundwater governance in peninsular India were successful on several fronts by implementing the Participatory Groundwater Management approach (PGM).
• One Water Approach , also referred to as Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), is the recognition that all water has value, regardless of its source.
• It includes managing that source in an integrated, inclusive and sustainable manner by including the community, business leaders, industries, farmers, conservationists, policymakers, academics and others for ecological and economic benefits.

By fostering inclusive participation from all stakeholders, and implementing sound policies that prioritise long-term sustainability over short-term gains, India can pave the way towards a future where every Indian has access to safe and reliable groundwater.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Q. What are the benefits of implementing the ‘Integrated Watershed Development Programme’? (2014)

• Prevention of soil runoff
• Linking the country’s perennial rivers with seasonal rivers
• Rainwater harvesting and recharge of groundwater table
• Regeneration of natural vegetation

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only  (b) 2, 3 and 4 only  (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Q. What is water stress? How and why does it differ regionally in India? (2019)

Water Scarcity Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on water scarcity essay.

Water is the basic necessity of every human being. But, water scarcity is a major issue that is rising very rapidly in modern-day India. The problem has become so severe that in many states the groundwater has almost dried up and people have to depend on water supply from other sources. In addition, water is one of the most misused commodities that we still waste. It is the central point of our lives but not the central point of our focus.

In the past, people understand the value of water and plan their lives around it. Moreover, many civilizations bloom and lost on account of water. But, today we have knowledge but we still fail to understand the value of water.

Reason for Water Scarcity in India

Water scarcity is the cause of mismanagement and excess population growth of the water resources. Also, it is a man-made issue that continues to rise. Besides, some of the reasons for water scarcity are:

Wasteful use of water for Agriculture- India is one of the major food growers in the world. That produces tons of quantity of food to feed its population and export the surplus that is left.

In addition, producing this much food requires a lot of water too. The traditional method of irrigation wastes a lot of water due to evaporation, water conveyance, drainage, percolation, and the overuse of groundwater. Besides, most of the areas in India use traditional irrigation techniques that stress the availability of water.

But, the solution to this problem lies in the extensive irrigation techniques such as micro-irrigation in which we provide water to plants and crops using a sprinkler or drip irrigation.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Reduction in water recharge systems- Due to rapid construction that uses concrete and marbles do not let the rainwater to get absorbed in the soil. But, if we install some mechanism in our houses that can hold the rainwater then we can recharge the groundwater .

Lack of water management and distribution- There is a need for an efficient system that can manage and distribute the water in urban areas. Also, the government needs to enhance its technology and investment in water treatment. Besides, we should ensure optimization at the planning level.

Solutions to Overcome this Problem

Water-free urinal- Urinal waste around 6 liters of water per flush that add up to 25 thousand liters per year. If a male member of the house stops using the flush then they can save lots of water.

Close the running tap- During dishwashing and hand washing people often let the tap running. These running taps waste thousands of liters of water per year. Besides, closing the tap will reduce this problem.

Replace dripping taps- In India it is commonly seen that most of the houses have one or two taps that drop water even when they are close. This running tap wastes up to 30,000 liters of water that nobody bothers to change. So, we should replace these taps immediately.

To conclude, water scarcity has become a more dangerous problem day by day. Also, due to our leniency that we haven’t taken the problem water scarcity seriously. But, now the authorities and people are working to resolve this problem so that our future generations do not have to buy this necessity.

FAQs about Water Scarcity Essay

Q.1 What is the effect of water scarcity? A.1 In a broad way, the problem of water scarcity can be categorized into four areas- health, education, hunger, and poverty.

Q.2 Name three major causes of water scarcity? A.2 The three major causes of water scarcity are Increase in demand, government interference, and a decrease in supply.

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BJP MP Claims 58% of Delhi Water Supply Stolen or Lost Amidst AAP Government

BJP South Delhi MP Ramvir Singh Bidhuri on Tuesday alleged that 58 per cent of the water supplied by the Delhi Jal Board (DJB) was being stolen. He accused the AAP government of mismanagement and corruption. In response, the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) stated that it is unfortunate for a sitting BJP MP to spread falsehoods about an essential service like water.

The AAP clarified that there is no wastage of water in Delhi. The party explained that 58 per cent of the water is accounted for as non-revenue water because they believe water is a free essential service for citizens. "There is no wastage of water in Delhi and the 58 per cent of it is accounted for as non-revenue water as the AAP government believes that water is a free essential service which must be provided to citizens," said the party in a statement.

Water Supply and Demand

Bidhuri highlighted that Delhi's demand for water has reached 1,400 million gallons per day (MGD). According to DJB data, only 995 MGD of water is being produced daily. "The demand for water in Delhi has reached 1,400 MGD million gallons per day, and according to DJB data, 995 MGD of water is being produced daily," he said.

He further claimed that bills are issued only for 421.64 MGD of water, leaving a significant amount unaccounted for. "But bills are sent only for 421.64 MGD of water," he added, suggesting that 58.28 per cent of the DJB's water supply is stolen daily.

Financial Losses and Corruption Allegations

Bidhuri also alleged that the DJB was incurring losses amounting to Rs 75,000 crore. He demanded that the Arvind Kejriwal government release a white paper on this issue. "Bidhuri also claimed that the DJB was running into losses of Rs 75,000 crore and demanded that the Arvind Kejriwal government issue a white paper on the matter," he stated.

He accused the AAP government of turning the DJB into a hub of corruption since coming to power in Delhi. "After the AAP came to power in Delhi, the DJB has become the biggest hub of corruption," Bidhuri alleged.

Bidhuri mentioned that in 2013, the DJB made a profit of Rs 600 crore, but now it faces losses exceeding Rs 75,000 crore. "He claimed the DJB made a profit of Rs 600 crore in 2013 and now the loss has increased to more than Rs 75,000 crore," he said.

The AAP's rebuttal emphasised their commitment to providing free essential services like water to all citizens. They dismissed Bidhuri's claims as misinformation aimed at discrediting their governance.

The ongoing debate highlights significant concerns over water management and financial accountability within Delhi's administration. Both parties continue to present contrasting views on how best to address these issues.

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Delhi jal board to collaborate with odisha's watco to peg loss of drinking water.

Delhi Jal Board is collaborating with Water Corporation of Odisha to combat the high loss of drinking water during transmission in Delhi, where 58 per cent of water is wasted. WATCO has effectively reduced similar losses in Odisha. The proposal focuses on 24x7 tap water supply and real-time water management, pending approval from the urban development department.

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Road section near Little India closed for repair after pipe leak

SINGAPORE – A section of a road near Little India will be closed for repair, after a pipe leak there resulted in a water supply disruption to more than 100 Housing Board units nearby on Sept 1.

A 50m section of Tessensohn Road near the Civil Service Club, towards the direction of Little India, will remain closed for repair works till further notice, national water agency PUB said on Facebook on Sept 2. The carriageway on Tessensohn Road towards Balestier Road has been reopened and will be used temporarily for two-way traffic.

PUB has put up signages of the lane closure and will deploy marshals to help direct traffic, it added.

In a Facebook post on Sept 1, PUB said it was alerted to the pipe leak near 65 Tessensohn Road at 4.30am.

Service crew were immediately deployed to isolate the leak and water supply to affected blocks was restored at 9.15am, it said.

In the interim, water wagons were deployed to Block 47 Owen Road, Block 49 Dorset Road and Block 9 Gloucester Road to provide temporary water supply to affected residents.

PUB was alerted to a pipe leak near 65 Tessensohn Road, towards Rangoon Road, at 4.30am on 1 September 2024. A service... Posted by PUB, Singapore's National Water Agency on  Saturday, August 31, 2024

PUB added that it is working with the Land Transport Authority to assess the road’s condition.

Mr Alvin Tan, MP for Tanjong Pagar GRC and grassroots adviser to the Moulmein-Cairnhill (Moca) constituency, said in a Facebook post that the Moca team was actively involved in managing the emergency.

“They coordinated with the PUB team, alerting them to specific blocks where water supply was affected, going door to door to check in on seniors who may need help, and helping residents carry water buckets up to their flats.”

The Tanjong Pagar Town Council team was also on the ground, opening common taps in the void deck to “avail access to the reserve water tanks”, he added.

Our MoCa Team were “not just the facilitators only” this morning, as this resident claimed. In fact, our team was... Posted by Alvin Tan 陈圣辉 on  Saturday, August 31, 2024

In a video posted by Mr Tan, he thanked young resident Sanjay, who noticed the disruption at around 4am and spread the word in the community.

He wrote: “Our community is active. During crises like Covid-19 and in mini incidents like this, they are active on the ground, not just facilitating, but actively solving issues for our residents. I would not trivialise their efforts.”

PUB is investigating the cause of the leak.

Water Supply Has Resumed Water supply is resuming. My sincere thanks to PUB, Singapore's National Water Agency, Our Tanjong Pagar Town Council, MOCA C2E and all our MoCa grassroots volunteers on the ground for the swift and decisive actions this early Sunday morning. Posted by Alvin Tan 陈圣辉 on Saturday, August 31, 2024

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