what are research sub questions

• Researching
• 3. Sub-questions

How to develop research sub-questions

Once you have become familiar with your topic through your background research , you can begin to think about how to approach answering your Key Inquiry Question .

However, the Key Inquiry Question is usually too broad to answer at this early juncture.

Therefore, you need to break your Key Inquiry Question into smaller questions (called 'sub-questions') in order to answer it sufficiently.

Sub-questions are secondary questions that are related to a primary or main inquiry question and are used to break down and further explore a particular aspect of the main question.

They help to clarify the main question and provide more specific direction for the research.

How to create sub-questions

A good Key Inquiry Question can easily be divided into three separate parts which can be turned into sub-questions.

Based upon good background research , you should be able to identify the three divisions of your Key Inquiry Question .

For example:

If your Key Inquiry Question was:

Why did Martin Luther King believe that social problems could be fixed through non-violent means?  

The three parts that need to be answered separately can be highlighted as follows:

Why did Martin Luther King believe that social problems could be fixed through non-violent means ?  

Each of these parts can be turned into three sub-questions (with the same three elements highlighted).

What were Martin Luther King’s beliefs about society?

For what social problems did Martin Luther King want to find a solution?

How did Martin Luther King imagine that non-violent practices could help ?

The importance of good sub-questions

Spend time thinking of good sub-questions. Well thought-out sub-questions can mean the difference between an average and an excellent essay.

Good sub-questions should:

• Be 'open' questions (This means that they cannot be answered with a simple 'yes' or 'no' answer. Usually this means starting the question with:  what, why, or how)
• Incorporate terms and concepts that you learnt during your background research

In answering each of your three sub-questions through source research , you will ultimately have an answer for your Key Inquiry Question .

Watch a video explanation on the History Skills YouTube channel:

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Improving your sub-questions

Even though you are required to create sub-questions at the beginning of your research process , it does not mean that they do not change.

As you begin finding sources that help answer your original sub-questions, you will find that you will need to modify your questions.

This is usually the result of discovering further, more specific, information about your topic.

Improving your sub-questions during your source research stage will result in better topic sentences and, as a result, a better essay .

 What role did the bombings of Tokyo , Hiroshima and Nagasaki have on Japan’s decision to surrender at the end of World War Two?

An initial and simplistic set of sub-questions could be:

•   What role did the bombing of Tokyo have on Japan’s decision to surrender at the end of World War Two?
• What role did the bombing of Hiroshima have on Japan’s decision to surrender at the end of World War Two?
• What role did the bombing of Nagasaki have on Japan’s decision to surrender at the end of World War Two?

However, after conducting further research, they could be improved by including specific dates and historical information :

• What role did the March 9th incendiary bombings of Tokyo have on Japan's decision to surrender at the end of World War Two ?
• What role did the atomic bombing of Hiroshima on August 6th have on Japan's decision to surrender at the end of World War Two ?
• What role did the atomic bombing of Nagasaki August 9th have on Japan's decision to surrender at the end of World War Two ?

Finally, after finding some detailed primary and secondary sources, they could be further improved by citing the role that key people played :

• How did the March 9th incendiary bombings of Tokyo motivate emperor Hirohito to become more involved in ending the Second World War?
• Why did the Japanese government not surrender after the atomic bombing of Hiroshima on the 6th of August, 1945 ?
• Why did Hirohito finally decide to surrender after the atomic bombing of Nagasaki on August 9th, 1945 ?

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Information Literacy: 1. The research question: Main & Sub-questions

• Introduction
• Refining and Focussing
• Main & Sub-questions
• Search Terms

1. Research Question ►  |   2. Searching and finding ►  |   3. Assessing and selecting ►  |   4. Processing and evaluation ►

Main question.

The main research question is the question that your thesis is intended to answer. 

Main questions are generally broken down into sub-questions that enable you to tackle your research in a more step-by-step manner. Together your findings for these components will provide an answer to the main question.

What characterizes a good main question?

• The question is clear . The concepts in the question are also clear. With a vague question you will lose focus
• The question is specific . After all, you want to be able to search specifically. With a too general, broad, poorly defined question you will soon get lost in a slew of information
• The question is relevant . The answer to the question must therefore contribute directly to the solution of your "information problem" and the achievement of your objective.
• The question is " open ". So it is not a question to which only "yes" or "no" can be the answer
• The question is realistic . It is possible to find an answer within the time available and with sufficient resources
• If it is possible to find an answer within the available time
• If there are sufficient means to find the answer

Keep in mind:

You can only search in a focused and effective manner if it is exactly clear as to what it is you want to know. So formulate a specific question that gives direction to your search process.

Sub-questions

Once you have formulated your main research question, you should focus on identifying the sub-questions that will enable you to answer it.

Example of a main research question

What is Airbnb's influence on the hotel industry?

Examples of sub-questions

Possible sub-questions:

• What is Airbnb?
• How does the hotel market work?
• H ow does the consumer respond to the price / quality ratio of Airbnb versus hotels?

Sometimes you can further specify the sub-questions to search queries . Search queries are aspects of sub-questions. They view the subject from different angles. For example, in the sub-question "What is Airbnb?" you could think of the following search queries:

• What is the history of Airbnb?
• is there also an Airbnb for the business market?
• << Previous: Refining and Focussing
• Next: Search Terms >>
• Last Updated: Feb 23, 2023 9:02 AM
• URL: https://saxionbibliotheek.libguides.com/researchquestion

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• Knowledge Base
• Starting the research process
• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on October 26, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Table of contents

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, using sub-questions to strengthen your main research question, research questions quiz, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

• Choose your topic
• Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
• Narrow your focus to a specific niche
• Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

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Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Feasible and specific

Complex and arguable

Relevant and original

Chances are that your main research question likely can’t be answered all at once. That’s why sub-questions are important: they allow you to answer your main question in a step-by-step manner.

Good sub-questions should be:

• Less complex than the main question
• Focused only on 1 type of research
• Presented in a logical order

Here are a few examples of descriptive and framing questions:

• Descriptive: According to current government arguments, how should a European bank tax be implemented?
• Descriptive: Which countries have a bank tax/levy on financial transactions?
• Framing: How should a bank tax/levy on financial transactions look at a European level?

Keep in mind that sub-questions are by no means mandatory. They should only be asked if you need the findings to answer your main question. If your main question is simple enough to stand on its own, it’s okay to skip the sub-question part. As a rule of thumb, the more complex your subject, the more sub-questions you’ll need.

Try to limit yourself to 4 or 5 sub-questions, maximum. If you feel you need more than this, it may be indication that your main research question is not sufficiently specific. In this case, it’s is better to revisit your problem statement and try to tighten your main question up.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

• Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
• Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
• Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (“ x affects y because …”).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses . In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

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Research questions explained plus examples

Research questions: This article provides a practical explanation of the topic of research questions . The article begins with a general definition of the term “research question” and an explanation of the different types of research questions. You will also find several useful tips for developing your own research question and sub-questions, for example, for a thesis or other research project. Enjoy reading!

What is a research question?

When conducting research, the research question and sub-questions are essential. The research question reflects the main question of the research, and the sub-questions contribute to answering this main question. Therefore, it is essential to carefully consider the formulation of the questions.

A good research question is concrete, relevant, and well-defined. It should be clear what is being researched and what the purpose of the research is. The sub-questions should match this and should be specific enough to be answered within the research. The sub-questions should also contribute to answering the main question.

Example research question

An example of a research question with sub-questions could be: “How can communication between employees and managers be improved within organization X?” The sub-questions could be:

• What does the current communication structure look like within organization X?
• What are the obstacles to communication between employees and managers?
• What communication tools are currently used, and are they effective?
• What are the best practices for improving communication between employees and managers?

Creating good research questions and sub-questions is important for carrying out a clear and relevant study. By paying sufficient attention to this, the research can be carried out efficiently and effectively, and valuable results can be achieved.

Common types of research questions

Figure 1 – 4 types of Research questions

1. Descriptive research questions

These questions focus on describing a phenomenon, situation, or population. They are aimed at gathering information about what is going on and what is known about the research topic. An example of a descriptive research question is: “What percentage of students at university X have a part-time job alongside their studies?”

2. Explanatory research questions

These questions focus on finding explanations for a particular phenomenon or situation. They aim to find causal relationships between different variables. An example of an explanatory research question is: “What is the relationship between stress and sleep deprivation among healthcare workers?”

3. Predictive research questions

These questions focus on predicting future events or outcomes based on certain variables or factors. They aim to find patterns and trends that can help make predictions. An example of a predictive research question is: “How much is the sales of product X expected to increase in the coming year?”

4. Evaluative research questions

These questions focus on evaluating the effectiveness or efficiency of a particular intervention, policy, or program. They aim to assess the impact of a particular action or change. An example of an evaluative research question is: “What is the effect of introducing a new teaching method on the academic performance of students?”

It is important to choose the right type of research question that fits the purpose of the research and the research method used. By formulating a clear and specific research question, a researcher can work more effectively and achieve the desired results.

What criteria should a good research question meet?

Below you will find six criteria that a good research question should meet. These criteria are specificity, clarity, relevance, feasibility, significance, and interest.

The research question must be formulated clearly and specifically, so that it is clear what the subject of the research is.

The research question must be relevant to the field and build upon existing knowledge and insights.

The research question must be feasible within the available time, resources, and knowledge of the researcher.

The research question must be verifiable through empirical research or data analysis, so that the results can be objectively evaluated.

The research question must be original and contribute to expanding existing knowledge or developing new insights.

The research question must be challenging and inspiring, so that it motivates the researcher to work hard and perform at a high level.

How to write a good research question?

With the following steps, you can formulate a good research question that is relevant to the field in which you are conducting research.

Step 1: choose a topic

Choose a topic that is relevant to your field and contains keywords that people search for. Use a tool such as Google Keyword Planner to find keywords.

Step 2: prepare

Read literature and articles about the topic and identify gaps in knowledge or conflicting results that are worth further investigation.

Step 3: develop a preliminary research question

Formulate a general preliminary research question based on the findings from the literature. Make sure that this question is clear, concise, and relevant. Use relevant terms in your question.

Step 4: refine

Refine the general question into a specific question that can be answered through empirical research or data analysis. Use clear and simple language, and avoid jargon.

Step 5: check

Check if the question meets the characteristics of a good research question: is the question specific, relevant, feasible, verifiable, original, and inspiring?

Other tips for developing a research question for your thesis

Developing a good research question is essential for a successful thesis. Here are some tips that can help you develop a research question:

Choose a relevant topic

Choose a topic that is relevant to your field of study and that you are passionate about. This will increase your motivation and help you make a meaningful contribution to your field.

Determine the purpose of your research

Ask yourself what you want to achieve with your research. Do you want to discover a new problem, solve an existing problem , or introduce a new concept? Be specific Make sure that your research question is specific and not too broad. It should have a clear purpose and focus on a limited topic.

Use clear language

Make sure that your research question is clear and understandable to others. Avoid jargon and technical terms, unless they are necessary for the context of your research.

Make it measurable

Ensure that your research question is measurable, so that you can evaluate and analyze the results of your research.

Consider data availability

Now it’s your turn.

What do you think? Do you recognize the explanation about research questions? Have you often worked with research questions? Like during the process of writing your thesis or another type of research? Do you find the tips and recommendations in this article helpful? Do you have other tips or comments?

Share your experience and knowledge in the comments box below.

More information about Research questions

• Agee, J. (2009). Developing qualitative research questions: A reflective process . International journal of qualitative studies in education, 22(4), 431-447.
• Andrews, R. (2003). Research questions . Bloomsbury Publishing .
• Barick, R. (2021). Research Methods For Business Students . Retrieved 02/16/2024 from Udemy.
• Dillon, J. T. (1984). The classification of research questions . Review of Educational Research, 54(3), 327-361.
• White, P. (2017). Developing research questions. Bloomsbury Publishing.

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Chapter 5: Asking Research Questions

Research Sub-Questions

Often, in order to answer our main research question, we need to answer a series of smaller sub-questions.

Take a look at this image of a tree. It’s a drawing by Bruno Munari, an Italian writer and artist. According to Munari (2013), we can observe two patterns of growth for a tree with two branches:

• The branch that follows is always slenderer than the one before.
• Starting with the trunk dividing into two limbs, each limb will subsequently divide into two

Think of research questions and research sub-questions like this tree. Your main question is the trunk. Your research sub-questions are narrower, more specific questions that branch off the trunk, your main question, but are still connected to the trunk. Like the branches in this tree, your research sub-questions can even yield sub-questions of their own.

Munari, B. (2013). Drawing a Tree . Mantua, Italy: Edizioni Corraini.

Media Attributions

• Drawing a tree (by Bruno Munari) © Bruno Munari is licensed under a All Rights Reserved license

Writing Place Copyright © 2022 by Lindsay Cuff is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Develop a Good Research Question? — Types & Examples

Cecilia is living through a tough situation in her research life. Figuring out where to begin, how to start her research study, and how to pose the right question for her research quest, is driving her insane. Well, questions, if not asked correctly, have a tendency to spiral us!

Image Source: https://phdcomics.com/

Questions lead everyone to answers. Research is a quest to find answers. Not the vague questions that Cecilia means to answer, but definitely more focused questions that define your research. Therefore, asking appropriate question becomes an important matter of discussion.

A well begun research process requires a strong research question. It directs the research investigation and provides a clear goal to focus on. Understanding the characteristics of comprising a good research question will generate new ideas and help you discover new methods in research.

In this article, we are aiming to help researchers understand what is a research question and how to write one with examples.

Table of Contents

What Is a Research Question?

A good research question defines your study and helps you seek an answer to your research. Moreover, a clear research question guides the research paper or thesis to define exactly what you want to find out, giving your work its objective. Learning to write a research question is the beginning to any thesis, dissertation , or research paper. Furthermore, the question addresses issues or problems which is answered through analysis and interpretation of data.

Why Is a Research Question Important?

A strong research question guides the design of a study. Moreover, it helps determine the type of research and identify specific objectives. Research questions state the specific issue you are addressing and focus on outcomes of the research for individuals to learn. Therefore, it helps break up the study into easy steps to complete the objectives and answer the initial question.

Types of Research Questions

Research questions can be categorized into different types, depending on the type of research you want to undergo. Furthermore, knowing the type of research will help a researcher determine the best type of research question to use.

1. Qualitative Research Question

Qualitative questions concern broad areas or more specific areas of research. However, unlike quantitative questions, qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional and more flexible. Qualitative research question focus on discovering, explaining, elucidating, and exploring.

i. Exploratory Questions

This form of question looks to understand something without influencing the results. The objective of exploratory questions is to learn more about a topic without attributing bias or preconceived notions to it.

Research Question Example: Asking how a chemical is used or perceptions around a certain topic.

ii. Predictive Questions

Predictive research questions are defined as survey questions that automatically predict the best possible response options based on text of the question. Moreover, these questions seek to understand the intent or future outcome surrounding a topic.

Research Question Example: Asking why a consumer behaves in a certain way or chooses a certain option over other.

iii. Interpretive Questions

This type of research question allows the study of people in the natural setting. The questions help understand how a group makes sense of shared experiences with regards to various phenomena. These studies gather feedback on a group’s behavior without affecting the outcome.

Research Question Example: How do you feel about AI assisting publishing process in your research?

2. Quantitative Research Question

Quantitative questions prove or disprove a researcher’s hypothesis through descriptions, comparisons, and relationships. These questions are beneficial when choosing a research topic or when posing follow-up questions that garner more information.

i. Descriptive Questions

It is the most basic type of quantitative research question and it seeks to explain when, where, why, or how something occurred. Moreover, they use data and statistics to describe an event or phenomenon.

Research Question Example: How many generations of genes influence a future generation?

ii. Comparative Questions

Sometimes it’s beneficial to compare one occurrence with another. Therefore, comparative questions are helpful when studying groups with dependent variables.

Example: Do men and women have comparable metabolisms?

iii. Relationship-Based Questions

This type of research question answers influence of one variable on another. Therefore, experimental studies use this type of research questions are majorly.

Example: How is drought condition affect a region’s probability for wildfires.  

How to Write a Good Research Question?

1. Select a Topic

The first step towards writing a good research question is to choose a broad topic of research. You could choose a research topic that interests you, because the complete research will progress further from the research question. Therefore, make sure to choose a topic that you are passionate about, to make your research study more enjoyable.

2. Conduct Preliminary Research

After finalizing the topic, read and know about what research studies are conducted in the field so far. Furthermore, this will help you find articles that talk about the topics that are yet to be explored. You could explore the topics that the earlier research has not studied.

3. Consider Your Audience

The most important aspect of writing a good research question is to find out if there is audience interested to know the answer to the question you are proposing. Moreover, determining your audience will assist you in refining your research question, and focus on aspects that relate to defined groups.

4. Generate Potential Questions

The best way to generate potential questions is to ask open ended questions. Questioning broader topics will allow you to narrow down to specific questions. Identifying the gaps in literature could also give you topics to write the research question. Moreover, you could also challenge the existing assumptions or use personal experiences to redefine issues in research.

5. Review Your Questions

Once you have listed few of your questions, evaluate them to find out if they are effective research questions. Moreover while reviewing, go through the finer details of the question and its probable outcome, and find out if the question meets the research question criteria.

6. Construct Your Research Question

There are two frameworks to construct your research question. The first one being PICOT framework , which stands for:

• Population or problem
• Intervention or indicator being studied
• Comparison group
• Outcome of interest
• Time frame of the study.

The second framework is PEO , which stands for:

• Population being studied
• Exposure to preexisting conditions
• Outcome of interest.

Research Question Examples

• How might the discovery of a genetic basis for alcoholism impact triage processes in medical facilities?
• How do ecological systems respond to chronic anthropological disturbance?
• What are demographic consequences of ecological interactions?
• What roles do fungi play in wildfire recovery?
• How do feedbacks reinforce patterns of genetic divergence on the landscape?
• What educational strategies help encourage safe driving in young adults?
• What makes a grocery store easy for shoppers to navigate?
• What genetic factors predict if someone will develop hypothyroidism?
• Does contemporary evolution along the gradients of global change alter ecosystems function?

How did you write your first research question ? What were the steps you followed to create a strong research question? Do write to us or comment below.

Frequently Asked Questions

Research questions guide the focus and direction of a research study. Here are common types of research questions: 1. Qualitative research question: Qualitative questions concern broad areas or more specific areas of research. However, unlike quantitative questions, qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional and more flexible. Different types of qualitative research questions are: i. Exploratory questions ii. Predictive questions iii. Interpretive questions 2. Quantitative Research Question: Quantitative questions prove or disprove a researcher’s hypothesis through descriptions, comparisons, and relationships. These questions are beneficial when choosing a research topic or when posing follow-up questions that garner more information. Different types of quantitative research questions are: i. Descriptive questions ii. Comparative questions iii. Relationship-based questions

Qualitative research questions aim to explore the richness and depth of participants' experiences and perspectives. They should guide your research and allow for in-depth exploration of the phenomenon under investigation. After identifying the research topic and the purpose of your research: • Begin with Broad Inquiry: Start with a general research question that captures the main focus of your study. This question should be open-ended and allow for exploration. • Break Down the Main Question: Identify specific aspects or dimensions related to the main research question that you want to investigate. • Formulate Sub-questions: Create sub-questions that delve deeper into each specific aspect or dimension identified in the previous step. • Ensure Open-endedness: Make sure your research questions are open-ended and allow for varied responses and perspectives. Avoid questions that can be answered with a simple "yes" or "no." Encourage participants to share their experiences, opinions, and perceptions in their own words. • Refine and Review: Review your research questions to ensure they align with your research purpose, topic, and objectives. Seek feedback from your research advisor or peers to refine and improve your research questions.

Developing research questions requires careful consideration of the research topic, objectives, and the type of study you intend to conduct. Here are the steps to help you develop effective research questions: 1. Select a Topic 2. Conduct Preliminary Research 3. Consider Your Audience 4. Generate Potential Questions 5. Review Your Questions 6. Construct Your Research Question Based on PICOT or PEO Framework

There are two frameworks to construct your research question. The first one being PICOT framework, which stands for: • Population or problem • Intervention or indicator being studied • Comparison group • Outcome of interest • Time frame of the study The second framework is PEO, which stands for: • Population being studied • Exposure to preexisting conditions • Outcome of interest

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Had trouble coming up with a good research question for my MSc proposal. This is very much helpful.

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At the heart of every research endeavor lies a fundamental driving force: the research question. It not only defines the scope and direction of inquiry, it also inspires people to seek knowledge. In the complex journey of the research process , key questions act as guiding stars. In this article, we’ll cover everything you need to know about research questions and provide various examples.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Research questions in a nutshell
• 2 Definition: Research questions
• 3 Characteristics of a research question
• 4 How to create research questions
• 5 Types of research questions
• 6 Example questions
• 7 Research frameworks
• 8 Dos & donts
• 9 Sub-questions
• 10 Tips for good research questions

Research questions in a nutshell

A research question is a clear and concise inquiry around which you center a research study. It helps to define the scope of the study and provides a basis for gathering and analyzing a variety of data.

Definition: Research questions

A research question is a concise inquiry that guides the direction of a research study or investigation. It articulates the specific type of subject that the researcher aims to explore, often framed in a way that suggests investigation or analysis . It serves as a fundamental element in the research process, guiding the selection of appropriate methodologies, the collection of evidence, and the interpretation of results. In essence, a research question serves as the starting point for scholarly inquiry, driving the pursuit of knowledge and understanding within a particular field.

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Characteristics of a research question

The characteristics of a research question play a pivotal role in shaping the direction and success of a research study. The inquiry not only guides the research process, but also ensures its effectiveness in addressing key issues within the field of study.

It should serve three key purposes:

• Interesting : It should stimulate curiosity and appeal from both the researcher and the audience, motivating researchers to explore the topic further. It also increases the likelihood of commitment from both sides, fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation of the research topic.
• Well-defined : A well-defined research question provides clarity and focus, ensuring that the research study addresses a specific aspect of the topic. This helps avoid ambiguity and ensures that the research process is coherent and purposeful.
• Tractable : By ensuring tractability, researchers can conduct the study effectively, maximizing the likelihood of achieving meaningful results. Tractable research questions are also more likely to lead to successful completion of the study, avoiding setbacks due to unattainable goals.

Furthermore, a good research topic should answer three questions:

• Why is this question significant within the context of the field?
• How does your research build upon and enhance the current body of literature?
• What tangible outcomes can be expected if the question is thoroughly investigated and answered?

By answering these questions and ensuring that your research question is interesting, well-defined, and tractable, you can establish the relevance and significance of your research within the field.

How to create research questions

Formulating an impactful research inquiry can be quite difficult. Nevertheless, by employing a comprehensive multistep approach, this task may turn out to be more manageable for you.

1. Identify a broad topic

Begin by identifying a broad area of interest within your field of study and generate questions based on curiosity and knowledge gaps. This could be based on current trends in the field or gaps in existing literature.

2. Conduct background research

Explore existing literature related to your topic to understand what has already been studied and what questions remain unanswered. This will help you identify potential gaps or areas for further exploration, and narrow your focus . Consider the characteristics mentioned earlier.

3. Consider your audience

Reflect on who your specific target audience is — whether it’s academic researchers or the general public. Tailor your research question to be relevant and accessible for your primary audience, considering their interests and level of expertise.

4. Narrow down the focus

Gradually narrow down your topic to a specific research question or a couple of questions based on the gaps found in existing research.

5. Define your questions

Now that you have found your niche, consider all the steps above and start asking open-ended “how” and “why” questions about your topic. A framework such as SMART Goals , PICOT , or FINER , which we will elaborate on in a later section more thoroughly, might be helpful when generating your key questions.

6. Evaluate your question

Now that you have written down your questions, evaluate them to establish if they are effective or if they need further refinement . For this step, look at the characteristics above again, and determine if they answer all the questions and check all the boxes. Is the research question well-defined and interesting to you and your audience? Think about the possible paths your research could take, which is  the question, that effectively captures the essence of your research and aligns with your overarching objectives? It shouldn’t be too broad and also not easily answerable with quick searches.

Types of research questions

Research questions can be classified into various types, depending on the types of studies to be undertaken. Below, we will discuss each one of them, and their specifics.

Qualitative

Quantitative, mixed-methods.

A qualitative question is concerned with comprehending a phenomenon , and focuses on finding , explaining , and exploring . Qualitative research is primarily used in social sciences and uses open-ended research questions, and seeks to uncover rich and descriptive data .

The most common types of qualitative questions include:

• Exploratory questions , which seek to understand without influencing the results. The objective is to investigate an issue that has limited existing knowledge, and is typically conducted at the preliminary stages of a research process without research bias .
• Predictive questions , which seek to understand the intent or future outcome around a topic. The objective here it to use past information to predict reactions to hypothetical events.
• Interpretive questions , which aim to understand people’s behavior in a natural setting. The objective is to gather feedback on a group’s behavior without affecting the outcome.

A quantitative question is used to prove or disprove a researcher’s hypothesis through descriptions , comparisons , and relationships . It typically involves the population to be studied, identifying independent vs. dependent variables , and the research design. Quantitative questions are created to express the causality between variables and whether this relationship is relevant.

The most common types of quantitative questions include:

• Descriptive questions , which aim to explain when, where, why, or how something occurred, are the most basic type of quantitative research. They use numerical data and statistical analysis to describe a phenomenon, and their objective is to provide a clear and detailed description of a particular phenomenon.
• Comparative questions are used to compare groups or dependent variables to identify similarities, differences, or relationships between them. Their objective is to uncover the “how” or “why” of a topic by examining variations or relationships.
• Relationship-based questions , such as causal and correlational questions, try to answer whether one variable influences another. These types of questions are used in experimental or in quasi-experimental design studies, to focus on understanding how they are connected or influence each other.

Mixed methods research involves the integration of both qualitative and quantitative approaches within a single study, and for this reason, it’s a popular research method for researching nowadays. Mixed methods research combines both quantitative and qualitative data to explore a research question more thoroughly, and is often used in the behavioral, health, and social sciences.

Mixed methods research questions can help you achieve a more comprehensive picture than a standalone quantitative or qualitative question. However, they can be difficult to implement and come with the same risk of research bias as standalone studies.

Example questions

In this section, we will provide you with numerous research question examples for each type of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method question.

Exploratory question

• What are the factors influencing employee satisfaction in a new startup company?

Predictive question

• How much can high schoolers’ GPA and grades predict their academic college performance?

Interpretive question

• How do cultural beliefs shape peoples view of mental health and help-seeking behaviors?

Descriptive question

• What are the demographics of students enrolled in online courses at a university?

Comparative question

• How does lecture-style teaching compare to interactive learning in math comprehension?

Relationship-based question

• What’s the correlation between social media use and young adults’ feelings of loneliness?

Mixed-methods questions

• How does the implementation of a new online learning platform (quantitative) impact student engagement and satisfaction (qualitative) in undergraduate courses?
• How do the perceptions of teachers (qualitative) and the academic performance of students (quantitative) vary across different teaching methodologies?
• How do cultural beliefs and values (qualitative) influence consumer purchasing behavior (quantitative) in the cosmetics industry?

Sample format

Crafting effective research inquiries is most important for guiding your study and achieving your research goals. Below, you’ll find various question formats, designed to inspire and guide your inquiry. Refer to the accompanying picture for a comprehensive range of question formats suitable for a variety of research purposes and contexts.

Research frameworks

There are three types of frameworks you can use as foundational elements to ensure that your research question is succinct.

• The  PICO framework, which stands for P opulation, I ntervention, C omparison, and O utcome, is commonly used in healthcare research to structure clinical questions. It helps researchers define the key elements of a research question, including the population of interest, the intervention, or exposure being studied, the comparison group, and the outcome of interest.
• The  SMART framework, which stands for S pecific, M easurable, A chievable, R elevant, and T ime-bound, is widely used and helps ensure that the question is clear, quantifiable, feasible, aligned with the research objectives, and has a defined time frame for completion.
• The  FINER framework, which stands for F easible, I nteresting, N ovel, E thical, and R elevant, provides criteria for evaluating the quality and appropriateness of research questions. It ensures that the question is feasible to address, interesting and relevant to the field, innovative, ethically sound, and directly related tot the research objectives.

Below, we have illustrated each framework with appropriate questions you can ask yourself in order to find out if your research question can be improved.

Dos & donts

Below you’ll find an illustration depicting what you should do and what you should not do when it comes to research questions.

Below you’ll find a table with numerous good and bad examples of research questions together with explanations for each of them.

Sub-questions

Sub-questions can be essential in research for clarifying complex topics and providing depth to the analysis when your main research question can’t be answered all at once. They are optional and should be used only if necessary to address the main question. If the main question is straightforward, sub-questions can be omitted. Let’s say that the main research question is “How has the transition to online schooling during COVID-19 pandemic affected sophomore and junior students’ academic performance and engagement?”. Some potential sub-questions could be:

• What impact has online schooling had on grades and test scores during the pandemic?
• How has student participation in classes changed with online schooling?
• How effectively have teachers adapted their instruction methods for online teaching?

Tips for good research questions

Crafting a good research inquiry is a critical step in conducting a successful research project, as we have learned. The selection of successful research topics is crucial for guiding the direction of a study and ensuring that the research addresses relevant issues within the field. Here are some general tips to help you develop a strong research question.

• Be specific and clear : A good question should allow for focused study and straightforward answers. Avoid being broad or vague since this could lead to a sprawling investigation.
• Make it measurable : Your research question should be framed in a way that allows for gathering and analyzing data. It should be possible to measure the aspects of the question through available methods.
• Ensure relevance : The question should be relevant to current issues or contribute to a field of study that interests you. It should address a gap in knowledge or add a new perspective to existing studies.
• Test your question : Before finalizing your research question, test it. Discuss it with peers, mentors, or through preliminary literature reviews to ensure it is focused and engaging.

The most important thing is that whatever subject you focus on, it should be interesting to you and your field. Because that way, the writing and analyzing process will be much more enjoyable and rewarding.

Note : Do not figure out your research question after you have finished your research paper .

What are 5 good research questions?

• What impact does incorporating technology into classroom instruction have on student engagement and academic performance in elementary schools?
• How does mindfulness-based stress reduction therapy compare to cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression among young adults?
• What are the long-term effects of microplastic pollution on marine biodiversity in coastal ecosystems, and how can we mitigate these effects?
• To what extent do socioeconomic factors influence access to healthcare services among marginalized communities, and what policy interventions could address these disparities?
• How do leadership styles and organizational culture impact employee job satisfaction rates in remote work settings?

What is a research question?

A well-developed research question identifies the main issue that the researchers want to investigate and provides a framework for gathering data to address that issue and also proposes a conclusive solution depending on the research type. It serves as a foundation for the writing process and guides the research project.

What types of research questions are there?

Research questions can be classified into three types:

• Descriptive research questions
• Quantitative research questions
• Mixed-methods research questions

What are 6 research questions?

• Descriptive questions
• Comparative questions
• Relationship-based questions
• Exploratory questions
• Predictive questions
• Interpretive questions

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How to Write a Research Question: Types and Examples 

The first step in any research project is framing the research question. It can be considered the core of any systematic investigation as the research outcomes are tied to asking the right questions. Thus, this primary interrogation point sets the pace for your research as it helps collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately influences your work.   

Typically, the research question guides the stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. Depending on the use of quantifiable or quantitative data, research questions are broadly categorized into quantitative or qualitative research questions. Both types of research questions can be used independently or together, considering the overall focus and objectives of your research.  

What is a research question?

A research question is a clear, focused, concise, and arguable question on which your research and writing are centered. 1 It states various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the problem the study addresses. These questions also set the boundaries of the study, ensuring cohesion. 

Designing the research question is a dynamic process where the researcher can change or refine the research question as they review related literature and develop a framework for the study. Depending on the scale of your research, the study can include single or multiple research questions. 

A good research question has the following features: 

• It is relevant to the chosen field of study. 
• The question posed is arguable and open for debate, requiring synthesizing and analysis of ideas. 
• It is focused and concisely framed. 
• A feasible solution is possible within the given practical constraint and timeframe. 

A poorly formulated research question poses several risks. 1   

• Researchers can adopt an erroneous design. 
• It can create confusion and hinder the thought process, including developing a clear protocol.  
• It can jeopardize publication efforts.  
• It causes difficulty in determining the relevance of the study findings.  
• It causes difficulty in whether the study fulfils the inclusion criteria for systematic review and meta-analysis. This creates challenges in determining whether additional studies or data collection is needed to answer the question.  
• Readers may fail to understand the objective of the study. This reduces the likelihood of the study being cited by others. 

Now that you know “What is a research question?”, let’s look at the different types of research questions. 

Types of research questions

Depending on the type of research to be done, research questions can be classified broadly into quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods studies. Knowing the type of research helps determine the best type of research question that reflects the direction and epistemological underpinnings of your research. 

The structure and wording of quantitative 2 and qualitative research 3 questions differ significantly. The quantitative study looks at causal relationships, whereas the qualitative study aims at exploring a phenomenon. 

• Quantitative research questions:  
• Seeks to investigate social, familial, or educational experiences or processes in a particular context and/or location.  
• Answers ‘how,’ ‘what,’ or ‘why’ questions. 
• Investigates connections, relations, or comparisons between independent and dependent variables. 

Quantitative research questions can be further categorized into descriptive, comparative, and relationship, as explained in the Table below. 

• Qualitative research questions  

Qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional, and more flexible. It concerns broad areas of research or more specific areas of study to discover, explain, or explore a phenomenon. These are further classified as follows: 

• Mixed-methods studies  

Mixed-methods studies use both quantitative and qualitative research questions to answer your research question. Mixed methods provide a complete picture than standalone quantitative or qualitative research, as it integrates the benefits of both methods. Mixed methods research is often used in multidisciplinary settings and complex situational or societal research, especially in the behavioral, health, and social science fields. 

What makes a good research question

A good research question should be clear and focused to guide your research. It should synthesize multiple sources to present your unique argument, and should ideally be something that you are interested in. But avoid questions that can be answered in a few factual statements. The following are the main attributes of a good research question. 

• Specific: The research question should not be a fishing expedition performed in the hopes that some new information will be found that will benefit the researcher. The central research question should work with your research problem to keep your work focused. If using multiple questions, they should all tie back to the central aim. 
• Measurable: The research question must be answerable using quantitative and/or qualitative data or from scholarly sources to develop your research question. If such data is impossible to access, it is better to rethink your question. 
• Attainable: Ensure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific. 
• You have the expertise 
• You have the equipment and resources 
• Realistic: Developing your research question should be based on initial reading about your topic. It should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing knowledge in your field or discipline. 
• Based on some sort of rational physics 
• Can be done in a reasonable time frame 
• Timely: The research question should contribute to an existing and current debate in your field or in society at large. It should produce knowledge that future researchers or practitioners can later build on. 
• Novel 
• Based on current technologies. 
• Important to answer current problems or concerns. 
• Lead to new directions. 
• Important: Your question should have some aspect of originality. Incremental research is as important as exploring disruptive technologies. For example, you can focus on a specific location or explore a new angle. 
• Meaningful whether the answer is “Yes” or “No.” Closed-ended, yes/no questions are too simple to work as good research questions. Such questions do not provide enough scope for robust investigation and discussion. A good research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources, and original interpretation and argumentation before providing an answer. 

Steps for developing a good research question

The importance of research questions cannot be understated. When drafting a research question, use the following frameworks to guide the components of your question to ease the process. 4  

• Determine the requirements: Before constructing a good research question, set your research requirements. What is the purpose? Is it descriptive, comparative, or explorative research? Determining the research aim will help you choose the most appropriate topic and word your question appropriately. 
• Select a broad research topic: Identify a broader subject area of interest that requires investigation. Techniques such as brainstorming or concept mapping can help identify relevant connections and themes within a broad research topic. For example, how to learn and help students learn. 
• Perform preliminary investigation: Preliminary research is needed to obtain up-to-date and relevant knowledge on your topic. It also helps identify issues currently being discussed from which information gaps can be identified. 
• Narrow your focus: Narrow the scope and focus of your research to a specific niche. This involves focusing on gaps in existing knowledge or recent literature or extending or complementing the findings of existing literature. Another approach involves constructing strong research questions that challenge your views or knowledge of the area of study (Example: Is learning consistent with the existing learning theory and research). 
• Identify the research problem: Once the research question has been framed, one should evaluate it. This is to realize the importance of the research questions and if there is a need for more revising (Example: How do your beliefs on learning theory and research impact your instructional practices). 

How to write a research question

Those struggling to understand how to write a research question, these simple steps can help you simplify the process of writing a research question. 

Sample Research Questions

The following are some bad and good research question examples 

• Example 1 

• Example 2 

References:  

• Thabane, L., Thomas, T., Ye, C., & Paul, J. (2009). Posing the research question: not so simple.  Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d’anesthésie ,  56 (1), 71-79. 
• Rutberg, S., & Bouikidis, C. D. (2018). Focusing on the fundamentals: A simplistic differentiation between qualitative and quantitative research.  Nephrology Nursing Journal ,  45 (2), 209-213. 
• Kyngäs, H. (2020). Qualitative research and content analysis.  The application of content analysis in nursing science research , 3-11. 
• Mattick, K., Johnston, J., & de la Croix, A. (2018). How to… write a good research question.  The clinical teacher ,  15 (2), 104-108. 
• Fandino, W. (2019). Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls.  Indian Journal of Anaesthesia ,  63 (8), 611. 
• Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-built clinical question: a key to evidence-based decisions.  ACP journal club ,  123 (3), A12-A13 

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• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on 30 October 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 12 December 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Table of contents

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, research questions quiz, frequently asked questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

• Choose your topic
• Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
• Narrow your focus to a specific niche
• Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Feasible and specific

Complex and arguable

Relevant and original

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis – a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

• Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
• Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
• Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

An essay isn’t just a loose collection of facts and ideas. Instead, it should be centered on an overarching argument (summarised in your thesis statement ) that every part of the essay relates to.

The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument coherently. A well-structured essay helps your reader follow the logic of your ideas and understand your overall point.

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (‘ x affects y because …’).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses. In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

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Dissertations & projects: Research questions

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“The central question that you ask or hypothesis you frame drives your research: it defines your purpose.” Bryan Greetham, How to Write Your Undergraduate Dissertation

This page gives some help and guidance in developing a realistic research question. It also considers the role of sub-questions and how these can influence your methodological choices. 

Choosing your research topic

You may have been provided with a list of potential topics or even specific questions to choose from. It is more common for you to have to come up with your own ideas and then refine them with the help of your tutor. This is a crucial decision as you will be immersing yourself in it for a long time.

Some students struggle to find a topic that is sufficiently significant and yet researchable within the limitations of an undergraduate project. You may feel overwhelmed by the freedom to choose your own topic but you could get ideas by considering the following:

Choose a topic that you find interesting . This may seem obvious but a lot of students go for what they think will be easy over what they think will be interesting - and regret it when they realise nothing is particularly easy and they are bored by the work. Think back over your lectures or talks from visiting speakers - was there anything you really enjoyed? Was there anything that left you with questions?

Choose something distinct . Whilst at undergraduate level you do not have to find something completely unique, if you find something a bit different you have more opportunity to come to some interesting conclusions. Have you some unique experiences that you can bring: personal biography, placements, study abroad etc?

Don't make your topic too wide . If your topic is too wide, it will be harder to develop research questions that you can actually answer in the context of a small research project.

Don't make your work too narrow . If your topic is too narrow, you will not be able to expand on the ideas sufficiently and make useful conclusions. You may also struggle to find enough literature to support it.

Scope out the field before deciding your topic . This is especially important if you have a few different options and are not sure which to pick. Spend a little time researching each one to get a feel for the amount of literature that exists and any particular avenues that could be worth exploring.

Think about your future . Some topics may fit better than others with your future plans, be they for further study or employment. Becoming more expert in something that you may have to be interviewed about is never a bad thing!

Once you have an idea (or even a few), speak to your tutor. They will advise on whether it is the right sort of topic for a dissertation or independent study. They have a lot of experience and will know if it is too much to take on, has enough material to build on etc.

Developing a research question or hypothesis

Research question vs hypothesis.

First, it may be useful to explain the difference between a research question and a hypothesis. A research question is simply a question that your research will address and hopefully answer (or give an explanation of why you couldn't answer it). A hypothesis is a statement that suggests how you expect something to function or behave (and which you would test to see if it actually happens or not).

Research question examples

• How significant is league table position when students choose their university?
• What impact can a diagnosis of depression have on physical health?

Note that these are open questions - i.e. they cannot be answered with a simple 'yes' or 'no'. This is the best form of question.

Hypotheses examples

• Students primarily choose their university based on league table position.
• A diagnosis of depression can impact physical health.

Note that these are things that you can test to see if they are true or false. This makes them more definite then research questions - but you can still answer them more fully than 'no they don't' or 'yes it does'. For example, in the above examples you would look to see how relevant other factors were when choosing universities and in what ways physical health may be impacted.

For more examples of the same topic formulated as hypotheses, research questions and paper titles see those given at the bottom of this document from Oakland University: Formulation of Research Hypothesis

Which do you need?

Generally, research questions are more common in the humanities, social sciences and business, whereas hypotheses are more common in the sciences. This is not a hard rule though, talk things through with your supervisor to see which they are expecting or which they think fits best with your topic.

What makes a good research question or hypothesis?

Unless you are undertaking a systematic review as your research method, you will develop your research question  as a result of reviewing the literature on your broader topic. After all, it is only by seeing what research has already been done (or not) that you can justify the need for your question or your approach to answering it. At the end of that process, you should be able to come up with a question or hypothesis that is:

• Clear (easily understandable)
• Focused (specific not vague or huge)
• Answerable (the data is available and analysable in the time frame)
• Relevant (to your area of study)
• Significant (it is worth answering)

You can try a few out, using a table like this (yours would all be in the same discipline):

A similar, though different table is available from the University of California: What makes a good research topic?   The completed table has some supervisor comments which may also be helpful.

Ultimately, your final research question will be mutually agreed between yourself and your supervisor - but you should always bring your own ideas to the conversation.

The role of sub-questions

Your main research question will probably still be too big to answer easily. This is where sub-questions come in. They are specific, narrower questions that you can answer directly from your data.

So, looking at the question " How much do online users know and care about how their self-images can be used by Apple, Google, Microsoft and Facebook? " from the table above, the sub-questions could be:

• What rights do the terms and conditions of signing up for Apple, Google, Microsoft and Facebook accounts give those companies regarding the use of self-images?
• What proportion of users read the terms and conditions when creating accounts with these companies?
• How aware are users of the rights they are giving away regarding their self-images when creating accounts with these companies?
• How comfortable are users with giving away these rights?

Together, the answers to your sub-questions should enable you to answer the overarching research question.

How do you answer your sub-questions?

Depending on the type of dissertation/project your are undertaking, some (or all) the questions may be answered with information collected from the literature and some (or none) may be answered by analysing data directly collected as part of your primary empirical research .

In the above example, the first question would be answered by documentary analysis of the relevant terms and conditions, the second by a mixture of reviewing the literature and analysing survey responses from participants and the last two also by analysing survey responses. Different projects will require different approaches.

Some sub-questions could be answered by reviewing the literature and others from empirical study.

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Research Aims, Objectives & Questions

By: David Phair (PhD) and Alexandra Shaeffer (PhD) | June 2022

T he research aims , objectives and research questions (collectively called the “golden thread”) are arguably the most important thing you need to get right when you’re crafting a research proposal , dissertation or thesis . We receive questions almost every day about this “holy trinity” of research and there’s certainly a lot of confusion out there, so we’ve crafted this post to help you navigate your way through the fog.

Overview: The Golden Thread

• What is the golden thread
• What are research aims ( examples )
• What are research objectives ( examples )
• What are research questions ( examples )
• The importance of alignment in the golden thread

What is the “golden thread”?

The golden thread simply refers to the collective research aims , research objectives , and research questions for any given project (i.e., a dissertation, thesis, or research paper ). These three elements are bundled together because it’s extremely important that they align with each other, and that the entire research project aligns with them.

Importantly, the golden thread needs to weave its way through the entirety of any research project , from start to end. In other words, it needs to be very clearly defined right at the beginning of the project (the topic ideation and proposal stage) and it needs to inform almost every decision throughout the rest of the project. For example, your research design and methodology will be heavily influenced by the golden thread (we’ll explain this in more detail later), as well as your literature review.

The research aims, objectives and research questions (the golden thread) define the focus and scope ( the delimitations ) of your research project. In other words, they help ringfence your dissertation or thesis to a relatively narrow domain, so that you can “go deep” and really dig into a specific problem or opportunity. They also help keep you on track , as they act as a litmus test for relevance. In other words, if you’re ever unsure whether to include something in your document, simply ask yourself the question, “does this contribute toward my research aims, objectives or questions?”. If it doesn’t, chances are you can drop it.

Alright, enough of the fluffy, conceptual stuff. Let’s get down to business and look at what exactly the research aims, objectives and questions are and outline a few examples to bring these concepts to life.

Research Aims: What are they?

Simply put, the research aim(s) is a statement that reflects the broad overarching goal (s) of the research project. Research aims are fairly high-level (low resolution) as they outline the general direction of the research and what it’s trying to achieve .

Research Aims: Examples

True to the name, research aims usually start with the wording “this research aims to…”, “this research seeks to…”, and so on. For example:

“This research aims to explore employee experiences of digital transformation in retail HR.”   “This study sets out to assess the interaction between student support and self-care on well-being in engineering graduate students”  

As you can see, these research aims provide a high-level description of what the study is about and what it seeks to achieve. They’re not hyper-specific or action-oriented, but they’re clear about what the study’s focus is and what is being investigated.

Need a helping hand?

Research Objectives: What are they?

The research objectives take the research aims and make them more practical and actionable . In other words, the research objectives showcase the steps that the researcher will take to achieve the research aims.

The research objectives need to be far more specific (higher resolution) and actionable than the research aims. In fact, it’s always a good idea to craft your research objectives using the “SMART” criteria. In other words, they should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound”.

Research Objectives: Examples

Let’s look at two examples of research objectives. We’ll stick with the topic and research aims we mentioned previously.  

For the digital transformation topic:

To observe the retail HR employees throughout the digital transformation. To assess employee perceptions of digital transformation in retail HR. To identify the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR.

And for the student wellness topic:

To determine whether student self-care predicts the well-being score of engineering graduate students. To determine whether student support predicts the well-being score of engineering students. To assess the interaction between student self-care and student support when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students.

  As you can see, these research objectives clearly align with the previously mentioned research aims and effectively translate the low-resolution aims into (comparatively) higher-resolution objectives and action points . They give the research project a clear focus and present something that resembles a research-based “to-do” list.

Research Questions: What are they?

Finally, we arrive at the all-important research questions. The research questions are, as the name suggests, the key questions that your study will seek to answer . Simply put, they are the core purpose of your dissertation, thesis, or research project. You’ll present them at the beginning of your document (either in the introduction chapter or literature review chapter) and you’ll answer them at the end of your document (typically in the discussion and conclusion chapters).

The research questions will be the driving force throughout the research process. For example, in the literature review chapter, you’ll assess the relevance of any given resource based on whether it helps you move towards answering your research questions. Similarly, your methodology and research design will be heavily influenced by the nature of your research questions. For instance, research questions that are exploratory in nature will usually make use of a qualitative approach, whereas questions that relate to measurement or relationship testing will make use of a quantitative approach.  

Let’s look at some examples of research questions to make this more tangible.

Research Questions: Examples

Again, we’ll stick with the research aims and research objectives we mentioned previously.  

For the digital transformation topic (which would be qualitative in nature):

How do employees perceive digital transformation in retail HR? What are the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR?  

And for the student wellness topic (which would be quantitative in nature):

Does student self-care predict the well-being scores of engineering graduate students? Does student support predict the well-being scores of engineering students? Do student self-care and student support interact when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students?  

You’ll probably notice that there’s quite a formulaic approach to this. In other words, the research questions are basically the research objectives “converted” into question format. While that is true most of the time, it’s not always the case. For example, the first research objective for the digital transformation topic was more or less a step on the path toward the other objectives, and as such, it didn’t warrant its own research question.

So, don’t rush your research questions and sloppily reword your objectives as questions. Carefully think about what exactly you’re trying to achieve (i.e. your research aim) and the objectives you’ve set out, then craft a set of well-aligned research questions . Also, keep in mind that this can be a somewhat iterative process , where you go back and tweak research objectives and aims to ensure tight alignment throughout the golden thread.

The importance of strong alignment

Alignment is the keyword here and we have to stress its importance . Simply put, you need to make sure that there is a very tight alignment between all three pieces of the golden thread. If your research aims and research questions don’t align, for example, your project will be pulling in different directions and will lack focus . This is a common problem students face and can cause many headaches (and tears), so be warned.

Take the time to carefully craft your research aims, objectives and research questions before you run off down the research path. Ideally, get your research supervisor/advisor to review and comment on your golden thread before you invest significant time into your project, and certainly before you start collecting data .  

Recap: The golden thread

In this post, we unpacked the golden thread of research, consisting of the research aims , research objectives and research questions . You can jump back to any section using the links below.

As always, feel free to leave a comment below – we always love to hear from you. Also, if you’re interested in 1-on-1 support, take a look at our private coaching service here.

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41 Comments

Thank you very much for your great effort put. As an Undergraduate taking Demographic Research & Methodology, I’ve been trying so hard to understand clearly what is a Research Question, Research Aim and the Objectives in a research and the relationship between them etc. But as for now I’m thankful that you’ve solved my problem.

Well appreciated. This has helped me greatly in doing my dissertation.

An so delighted with this wonderful information thank you a lot.

so impressive i have benefited a lot looking forward to learn more on research.

I am very happy to have carefully gone through this well researched article.

Infact,I used to be phobia about anything research, because of my poor understanding of the concepts.

Now,I get to know that my research question is the same as my research objective(s) rephrased in question format.

I please I would need a follow up on the subject,as I intends to join the team of researchers. Thanks once again.

Thanks so much. This was really helpful.

I know you pepole have tried to break things into more understandable and easy format. And God bless you. Keep it up

i found this document so useful towards my study in research methods. thanks so much.

This is my 2nd read topic in your course and I should commend the simplified explanations of each part. I’m beginning to understand and absorb the use of each part of a dissertation/thesis. I’ll keep on reading your free course and might be able to avail the training course! Kudos!

Thank you! Better put that my lecture and helped to easily understand the basics which I feel often get brushed over when beginning dissertation work.

This is quite helpful. I like how the Golden thread has been explained and the needed alignment.

This is quite helpful. I really appreciate!

The article made it simple for researcher students to differentiate between three concepts.

Very innovative and educational in approach to conducting research.

I am very impressed with all these terminology, as I am a fresh student for post graduate, I am highly guided and I promised to continue making consultation when the need arise. Thanks a lot.

A very helpful piece. thanks, I really appreciate it .

Very well explained, and it might be helpful to many people like me.

Wish i had found this (and other) resource(s) at the beginning of my PhD journey… not in my writing up year… 😩 Anyways… just a quick question as i’m having some issues ordering my “golden thread”…. does it matter in what order you mention them? i.e., is it always first aims, then objectives, and finally the questions? or can you first mention the research questions and then the aims and objectives?

Thank you for a very simple explanation that builds upon the concepts in a very logical manner. Just prior to this, I read the research hypothesis article, which was equally very good. This met my primary objective.

My secondary objective was to understand the difference between research questions and research hypothesis, and in which context to use which one. However, I am still not clear on this. Can you kindly please guide?

In research, a research question is a clear and specific inquiry that the researcher wants to answer, while a research hypothesis is a tentative statement or prediction about the relationship between variables or the expected outcome of the study. Research questions are broader and guide the overall study, while hypotheses are specific and testable statements used in quantitative research. Research questions identify the problem, while hypotheses provide a focus for testing in the study.

Exactly what I need in this research journey, I look forward to more of your coaching videos.

This helped a lot. Thanks so much for the effort put into explaining it.

What data source in writing dissertation/Thesis requires?

What is data source covers when writing dessertation/thesis

This is quite useful thanks

I’m excited and thankful. I got so much value which will help me progress in my thesis.

where are the locations of the reserch statement, research objective and research question in a reserach paper? Can you write an ouline that defines their places in the researh paper?

Very helpful and important tips on Aims, Objectives and Questions.

Thank you so much for making research aim, research objectives and research question so clear. This will be helpful to me as i continue with my thesis.

Thanks much for this content. I learned a lot. And I am inspired to learn more. I am still struggling with my preparation for dissertation outline/proposal. But I consistently follow contents and tutorials and the new FB of GRAD Coach. Hope to really become confident in writing my dissertation and successfully defend it.

As a researcher and lecturer, I find splitting research goals into research aims, objectives, and questions is unnecessarily bureaucratic and confusing for students. For most biomedical research projects, including ‘real research’, 1-3 research questions will suffice (numbers may differ by discipline).

Awesome! Very important resources and presented in an informative way to easily understand the golden thread. Indeed, thank you so much.

Well explained

The blog article on research aims, objectives, and questions by Grad Coach is a clear and insightful guide that aligns with my experiences in academic research. The article effectively breaks down the often complex concepts of research aims and objectives, providing a straightforward and accessible explanation. Drawing from my own research endeavors, I appreciate the practical tips offered, such as the need for specificity and clarity when formulating research questions. The article serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers, offering a concise roadmap for crafting well-defined research goals and objectives. Whether you’re a novice or an experienced researcher, this article provides practical insights that contribute to the foundational aspects of a successful research endeavor.

A great thanks for you. it is really amazing explanation. I grasp a lot and one step up to research knowledge.

I really found these tips helpful. Thank you very much Grad Coach.

I found this article helpful. Thanks for sharing this.

thank you so much, the explanation and examples are really helpful

This is a well researched and superbly written article for learners of research methods at all levels in the research topic from conceptualization to research findings and conclusions. I highly recommend this material to university graduate students. As an instructor of advanced research methods for PhD students, I have confirmed that I was giving the right guidelines for the degree they are undertaking.

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You are here, developing sub-questions that can be researched: operationalization.

Operationalization is the process of translating a research idea, (which may focus on an abstract theme), into something that can actually be researched in practice (Cohen, et al. 2011). This process can be subdivided into five stages:

This process of operationalisation can be subdivided into five stages:

Stage 1: starting from your central research focus, identify the factors that could have an impact on the focus you want to study within your education context.

Stage 2: begin to frame research questions to explore these factors.

Stage 3: develop an operational definition or indicator for each of the factors you want to study to enable you to identify this practically (Newby, 2014) (particularly useful for factors that represent abstract concepts).

Stage 4: identify the kind of evidence you need to answer your research questions and select most appropriate research methods that will enable you to collect this evidence.

Stage 5: design the research tools that you will use to collect this evidence.

Creating operational definitions for the factors that are influencing your research focus involves identifying indicators that enable you to research these factors (Matthews and Ross, 2010). Creating an operational definition for each of the factors which are important in your research enables the research question to be translated into a form that can be researched i.e. it becomes operational. Therefore the purpose of operational definitions is to create indicators which enable you “to tell when the thing you are researching happens” (Matthews and Ross, 2010: 61). Also where terms in research questions describe complex ideas or processes or there is the possibility that different people may interpret terms differently, it is important to establish a working definition of key terms (Kumar, 2011). Factors that are based on abstract concepts for which operational definitions need to be developed include: attitude to learnin’; creatitvity; resilience; curiosity. These abstract concepts need to operational definitions which provide indicators that translate them into a form which can be studied. Collecting data about these indicators will enable you to explore the impact of variables / factors within the context that you are researching. These indicators are measured or explored through the use of research tools such as questionnaires or interview schedules.

The development of indicators for the variables or factors you want to research is particularly important where these are not easy to represent. In the example below possible indicators have been identified for variables exploring differences in questions that can be investigated through a quantitative or qualitative approach:

• Research Design

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Developing research questions

It is likely that at some point during your degree you will be required to create your own research question. The research question states the specific issue or problem that your assignment will focus on. It also outlines the task that you will need to complete.

There is no universal set of criteria for a good research question. Different disciplines have different priorities and requirements. A good research question for a history paper will differ from a good research question for a biology paper. In general, however, a good research question should be:

• Clear and focused. In other words, the question should clearly state what the writer needs to do.
• Not too broad and not too narrow. The question should have an appropriate scope. If the question is too broad it will not be possible to answer it thoroughly within the word limit. If it is too narrow you will not have enough to write about and you will struggle to develop a strong argument (see the activity below for examples).
• Not too easy to answer. For example, the question should require more than a simple yes or no answer.
• Not too difficult to answer. You must be able to answer the question thoroughly within the given timeframe and word limit.
• Researchable. You must have access to a suitable amount of quality research materials, such as academic books and refereed journal articles.
• Analytical rather than descriptive. In other words, your research question should allow you to produce an analysis of an issue or problem rather than a simple description of it (more on this below).

Activity: Is the question too broad or too narrow?

Imagine that you have been asked to write a 2000 word essay about nuclear power in Australia. Which of these three options is the best in terms of its scope? Drag and drop to match each question with the most accurate description of its scope.

How to create a research question

1. determine the requirements.

Before you can construct a good research question you will need to determine the requirements of your assignment.

What is the purpose of this assignment? Is it to test a proposition? Is it to evaluate a set of data? Is it to state and defend an argument? Check the assignment instructions and discuss the purpose with your tutor or lecturer.

Determining the purpose will help you to choose the most appropriate topic and word your question in the most useful way.

2. Choose a topic

Have you been given a list of topics to choose from or can you choose your own? Check the assignment instructions and if you are still in doubt discuss the requirements with your tutor or lecturer.

The best approach is to choose a topic that you are interested in. If you are interested in your topic you are more likely to invest more time, effort, and creativity into your research and writing. The greater your interest, the more likely it is that you will produce an assignment that is interesting to read.

3. Conduct preliminary research

Before you write your question it is advisable to read a small number of relevant academic sources. Limit your reading to recently published material and perhaps one or two influential works on the topic. The goal here is to familiarise yourself with the key debates in academic writing on the topic.

Reading in order to develop a research question is different from reading in order to answer it. Focus on the main ideas and arguments (these are usually found in the introduction and the conclusion). You don’t need to read every word or take down extensive notes at this stage, as you will probably come back to the text at a later date.

4. Narrow down your topic

Having conducted some preliminary research you should now be in a position to narrow down your topic.

In most cases you will need to narrow down your focus to a specific issue or debate within the broader topic. This is because it is much more effective to cover a single issue or dimension of a topic in depth than to skim the surface of several.

There are several ways that you might go about narrowing down your topic:

• Think about the subtopics, specific issues, and key debates that exist within the broader topic.
• Think about the value of focusing on a particular period of time, a particular geographical location, a particular organisation, or a particular group of people.
• Think about what you want to say in your assignment. What are the key points and arguments that you want to get across? Which subtopic, timeframe or other limitation would allow you to make these points in the most effective way?

Activity: Narrowing down your topic

• Create three columns on a piece of paper, in a word document, or in a spreadsheet.
• Select a broad topic for an upcoming assignment or choose a topic that you are interested in.
• In the first column write down the items contained in the first column below. Add any other items that may be relevant to your topic.
• In the second column write down potential sub-topics and other limitations. If you get stuck use the examples in the second column below to guide you.
• In the third column write the potential value of what you have written in the second column. What would that sub-topic or other limitation allow you to argue or demonstrate?
• Circle or highlight the items in column two that have the strongest potential value.

If you get stuck use the example below to guide you.

5. Write your question

Now that you have narrowed down your topic you can turn your attention to the wording of your research question.

As mentioned previously, the research question must outline a clear task that you will need to complete.

Remember that you will need to keep the purpose of your assignment in mind when thinking about the wording of your question and that the purpose will differ from discipline to discipline (see 1: Determine the Requirements).

In general, however, a good research question requires you to analyse an issue or problem. How and why questions are therefore more useful than what or describe questions. Other useful words that you might use are critique, argue, examine and evaluate . For definitions of these terms see Instruction Words .

Activity: Which is the best worded question?

Imagine that you have been asked to write an essay about earthquakes. The broad topic that you have chosen is the social impact of earthquakes. You have narrowed down your topic and decided to focus on the issue of homelessness caused by the Haitian earthquake of 2010. You are particularly interested in why there were high levels of homelessness several years after the earthquake. Which of these three options is the best research question? Drag and drop to match each question with the most accurate description of its effectiveness as a research question.

Poverty Reduction and Family Functioning: Results from an Experimental Study in Sub-Saharan Africa

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• Published: 02 October 2024

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• Leyla Karimli   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7255-7540 1 ,
• Josephine Nabayinda 2 ,
• Portia B. Nartey 2 &
• Fred M. Ssewamala   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4849-5650 2  

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The study tests the effect of poverty-reduction intervention on family functioning reported by AIDS-orphaned children in extended families in Southern Uganda by asking two questions: (1) based on children’s reports, how does poverty reduction intervention affect family functioning? and (2) to what extent do these effects vary by a child’s gender and orphanhood status? Informed by the social causation theory, family stress model, and asset theory, the study aims to address the existing knowledge gap on effects of poverty reduction interventions on family functioning in low-income families caring for AIDS orphaned children in Uganda. We ran multilevel regression models using longitudinal data collected in a cluster-randomized controlled trial from N = 1410 children (n = 621 boys and n = 789 girls) recruited from 48 rural primary schools in Uganda. Survey data was collected every 12 months over the course of 5 years. The average age of children at enrollment was 13 years. We found significant positive effects of the intervention on family cohesion, family communication, and child-caregiver relationship. Effects vary by child’s gender and orphanhood category. Intervention improves family communication for boys, while improving family cohesion and quality of child-caregiver relationship for girls. Single maternal orphans reported improved family communication, while single paternal orphans reported improved child-caregiver relationship. Poverty reduction interventions are important to improve family functioning for low-income families. Variations by child’s gender and orphanhood status have not been reported in previous studies, and our findings underscore the importance of continued research in this area.

Poverty reduction interventions are important to improve family functioning for low-income families in Sub-Saharan Africa.

Asset-based poverty-reduction intervention improves family functioning among families caring for AIDS orphans in Uganda.

Effects vary by child’s gender and orphanhood category, which has not been reported in previous studies.

Findings suggest a need for comprehensive consideration of complexities related to gender variations and family structures.

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Poverty and Family Functioning in the Context of Sub-Saharan Africa

Ending poverty in all its forms is one of the key goals of the UN’s 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, yet extreme poverty remains prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where over 490 million people live below the poverty line, defined as living on less than USD 2 a day (UNCTAD, 2021 ). SSA also has the highest number of families affected by HIV/AIDS (Disassa & Lamessa, 2021 ), and, of the 17.8 million children orphaned by HIV/AIDS worldwide, 15.1 million reside in sub-Saharan Africa (Bryant & Beard, 2016 ). HIV/AIDS combined with poverty constitutes a significant risk factor for socio-economic and emotional well-being of families (Ashaba et al., 2019 ; Kalomo & Besthorn, 2018 ). Children who have lost one or both parents to HIV/AIDS often lack family support, placing them at higher risk of adverse experiences, including stigma, depression, anxiety, hopelessness, poor peer relations, and poor educational outcomes, such as reduced attendance and attainment (Ashaba et al., 2019 ; Cluver et al., 2007 ; Raymond & Zolnikov, 2018 ). To cope with the stress associated with parents living with a highly stigmatized chronic disease (HIV) and/or loss of a parent, family disruption, and poverty, children affected by or orphaned due to AIDS rely on extended families—also referred to as family support networks—as a safety net (Heymann et al., 2007 ; Karimli et al., 2012 ; Motha, 2018 ; Nabunya et al., 2019 ). However, resource constraints and the high prevalence of HIV/AIDS pose significant challenges for many extended families in integrating children orphaned by AIDS (Shava et al., 2016 ). These children in extended family households frequently face significant resource shortages, often going to bed without a meal and dropping out of school to care for their siblings (Ntuli et al., 2020 ). Caring for orphaned children places additional demands on caregivers, while the lack of parental care increases the children’s vulnerability to poor mental health outcomes (Disassa & Lamessa, 2021 ). This situation further strains family functioning—defined as the ability of the family to achieve well-being, adapt to changing circumstances, and balance the needs of individual family members with those of the whole family (Keitner et al., 2009 ).

The effects of poverty on family functioning are complex, involving economic stress, limited access to resources, and psychological strain. Scarcity of resources often leads to stressful life events and demographic disadvantages, thereby jeopardizing family cohesion (Booysen et al., 2021 ). Empirical evidence suggests that higher socioeconomic status correlates with stronger family functioning (Botha et al., 2018 ), while lower income levels are associated with diminished family functioning and an increased reliance on social networks for managing economic stressors (Denny et al., 2014 ). Additionally, economic hardships can heighten parental stress, leading to disruptions in parenting practices (Conger et al., 2010 ; Masarik & Conger, 2017 ). Longitudinal studies consistently show a significant link between economic hardships and reduced family functioning, characterized by increased parental stress and depression, relationship conflicts, reduced parental engagement, and harsh parenting practices. These conditions, in turn, contribute to deteriorating child mental health and an increased likelihood of externalizing behaviors in children (Kavanaugh et al., 2018 ; Neppl et al., 2016 ; Simons et al., 2016 ).

Poverty Reduction Intervention: Overview and Impact on Family Functioning

This study examines a family-based poverty reduction intervention grounded in asset theory (Sherraden, 1991 , 2016 ). Asset theory posits that accumulating assets enhances individuals’ and families’ well-being by providing a sense of security. Beyond improving financial status, assets contribute to a psychological sense of stability and future orientation, positively impacting family functioning (McKernan & Sherraden, 2008 ; Sherraden, 2016 ; Shobe & Page-Adams, 2001 ). In the context of family dynamics, asset accumulation can mitigate the negative impacts of financial strain by fostering an environment where families are less vulnerable to economic stressors. This reduction in vulnerability can lead to improved family functioning (Rothwell & Han, 2010 ).

Informed by asset theory, the intervention in this study aimed to mitigate the adverse effects of poverty by providing AIDS-orphaned children and their families with opportunities to accumulate assets through Child Development Accounts, structured as matched savings accounts. The primary goals of the intervention were to increase financial savings for the secondary education of participating children and adolescents and to offer support programs, including mentoring and educational activities, to reduce potential risks faced by AIDS- orphaned children. Children and adolescents participating in this study lived within family structures and were cared for either by a surviving parent (in the case of single orphans who had lost one parent to AIDS) or by extended family members, such as aunts, uncles, and grandparents (in the case of double orphans who had lost both parents to AIDS) (Nabunya et al., 2019 ).

The intervention was a five-year longitudinal cluster-randomized study conducted from 2011 to 2016 in Southern Uganda. Participants in the control group received “usual care” services typically provided to orphaned children and adolescents, including counseling (usually offered by church), school lunches, and scholastic materials such as textbooks, notebooks, and school uniforms. This was termed “usual care” because it included the standard support services provided to orphaned children and adolescents by local non-governmental organizations. The two treatment groups received all services included in the control condition, plus a bundled poverty reduction intervention comprising three components: (1) financial literacy training for participating children and their families provided by local partners; (2) a mentorship program following a nine-session curriculum to help participants set future goals and education aspirations; and (3) Child Development Accounts (CDA) held jointly in the name of the child and the caregiver at a formal financial institution (bank) registered with the Central Bank of Uganda. The study provided initial deposits, and savings accumulated in these accounts were matched by the program. The matching rate was the only difference between the two treatment arms: 1:1 in one treatment arm, and 2:1 in the other. The mentorship program, grounded in resilience theory (Fergus & Zimmerman, 2005 ), aimed to empower participating children and adolescents by guiding them to identify specific future goals and educational aspirations. The curriculum consisted of nine one-hour sessions, held monthly at the children’s schools over nine months. Topics included enhancing self-esteem, improving school attendance and grades, reducing stress, fostering hopefulness, developing stronger communication skills with caregivers and family members, promoting safe sexual decision-making, and reducing sexual risk-taking behavior. Mentors monitored attendance, addressed any missed sessions, and compiled mentoring reports after each session to document observations, challenges, and recommendations. Mentors were selected from local university students and project research assistant staff, following specific selection criteria and ensuring a gender match with the mentees (Ssewamala et al., 2014 ).

Previous studies have reported significant positive impacts of this intervention on crucial developmental and health outcomes among AIDS orphans. These impacts include improvements in children’s mental health (Karimli et al., 2023b ; Karimli et al., 2019 ; Kivumbi et al., 2019 ), health functioning (Ssewamala et al., 2021 ), educational outcomes (Nabunya, 2019), and non-kin support networks for children (Nabunya et al., 2019 ). They also include reductions in child poverty (Wang et al., 2021 ) and increases in financial stability and material well-being (Wang et al., 2018 ). However, no study to date has examined the impact of this intervention on family functioning.

Empirical evidence from similar interventions suggests that asset accumulation can lead to positive changes in parental practices, such as increased involvement in children’s healthcare and education (Deng, 2019 ; Kim & Sherraden, 2011 ; Ssewamala & Ismayilova, 2009 ; Ssewamala et al., 2016 ). These interventions have also been found to alleviate parental stress (Huang et al., 2014 ; Nabunya et al., 2014 ; Wang et al., 2014 ), reduce punitive parenting practices (Huang et al., 2019 ), and improve family communication, fostering emotional connectedness, which benefits the development of AIDS-orphaned adolescents (Ismayilova et al., 2012 ). However, there is still a gap in research on the effects of asset accumulation interventions on various aspects of family functioning as reported by children themselves.

Current Study

The current study focuses on the impact of a family-based poverty reduction intervention on family functioning, as reported by children. This emphasis on children’s perspectives is significant because it challenges traditional adult-centric approaches to family studies and provides unique insights into family dynamics from the children’s viewpoint. Understanding children’s perceptions and experiences is essential for grasping the impact of the family environment on their development and well-being. Our study contributes to the growing body of research aimed at understanding children’s lived experiences and how they perceive, interpret, and navigate their daily lives (Gross-Manos et al., 2021 ).

Furthermore, this study addresses a notable gap in the literature by examining potential variations in how these interventions affect family functioning based on a child’s gender and orphanhood status. This focus is crucial, as a child’s gender can significantly influence family dynamics, support systems, and responses to stressors. Extensive research highlights the importance of gender socialization and gender variations in child-parent relationships (Tenenbaum & May, 2013 ), emphasizing the need to address this gap. Evidence indicates significant gender differences in children’s relationships with caregivers and the unique roles that family support and specific caregivers play in children’s well-being (Colarossi & Eccles, 2003 ; Feldman et al., 2018 ; Figlio et al., 2019 ; Raley & Bianchi, 2006 ; Rueger et al., 2008 ; Van Polanen et al., 2017 ). Gender-based expectations and socialization practices within families often influence how children cope with stress and the support they receive. (Endendijk et al., 2016 ). Parental adherence to traditional gender roles shapes interactions and opportunities for children, impacting overall family dynamics (Few‐Demo & Allen, 2020 ). Studies suggest that communication patterns often reflect gender stereotypes, with a tendency to discuss emotions more with daughters than sons, affecting family bonds, support systems, and overall family functioning (Aznar & Tenenbaum, 2015 ; Chaplin et al., 2005 ; Fivush et al., 2019 ).

In contrast, the impact of orphanhood status on family functioning and the effectiveness of poverty reduction interventions is less understood, highlighting a significant gap in the literature. AIDS-orphaned children, in particular, face compounded challenges, such as the loss of primary caregivers, economic instability, and social stigma, which can exacerbate their vulnerabilities (Ashaba et al., 2019 ; Raymond & Zolnikov, 2018 ). These children often experience heightened economic stress and rely more heavily on extended family or community networks for support (Heymann et al., 2007 ; Karimli et al., 2012 ; Motha, 2018 ), where family functioning plays a crucial role in mitigating the effects of poverty and can lead to different dynamics and outcomes compared to children with living parents. Understanding how orphanhood status intersects with intervention outcomes is essential for tailoring effective support strategies and addressing the unique needs of these children.

Our study represents the first comprehensive investigation into the intervention’s effect on family functioning, with a specific focus on the nuanced effects of a child’s gender and orphanhood status. Drawing upon the asset theory framework discussed earlier, we also recognize the potential variations in how poverty and economic stressors influence family functioning relative to a child’s gender and orphanhood status. To address the existing research gap in this area, we investigate two primary research questions: (1) What is the effect of a family-based poverty reduction intervention on family functioning, as perceived and reported by children? (2) How does this impact differ based on the child’s gender and orphanhood status?

Study Design and Sampling

The study utilized data from 1410 children (n = 621 boys and n = 789 girls) enrolled in a three-arm randomized controlled trial. To prevent cross-arm contamination, randomization was conducted at the school level (n = 48). The initial screening covered 88 public primary schools across four study districts: Rakai, Masaka, Lwengo, and Kalungu in south-central Uganda. Among these, 48 schools were selected based on their medium-sized student population. Schools with enrollments exceeding 900 students were excluded, as they surpassed the average size, and those with fewer than 35 students per grade were also excluded, as they fell below the typical enrollment threshold of at least 50 students per grade. The final selection comprised schools that committed to participating in the study.

Recruitment relied heavily on collaboration with schools and local district administrations to identify eligible participants and facilitate enrollment. Schools organized informational meetings for families to learn about the study, during which research staff were present. These meetings provided parents with the opportunity to inquire about the study either individually or as part of a larger group. Children were eligible for enrollment if they met the following inclusion criteria: (1) being an AIDS orphan (having lost one or both parents to AIDS), (2) living in a family household, and (3) attending a public primary school at the fifth or sixth grade level (equivalent to sixth or seventh grades in the U.S. educational system). At the time of enrollment, the average age of children was 12.7 years, with ages ranging from 10 to 16 years.

Data were collected from the children and adolescents participating in the study over a period of five years (2011–2016) at the following intervals: baseline, 12 months, 24 months, 36 months, and 48 months. The intervention was administered over a 24-month period. By the end of the 48-month study period, the attrition rates were 8.8 and 10.6% for the two treatment arms, and 8.6% for the control arm. A design-based test for the independence of loss to follow-up indicated no significant differences in attrition rates between study conditions (Ssewamala et al., 2021 ). Additionally, we conducted Little’s MCAR test (Little, 1988 ) to determine if the missing data were independent of both observed and unobserved variables, indicating no systematic missingness. The test compares the means of each variable across different patterns of missing data and calculates a chi-square statistic based on the differences between observed and expected means under the MCAR assumption. Our results, with a p-value of 0.485, suggested that the data might be MCAR, as the probability of missingness appeared unrelated to the data itself. Given these results, we consider the data missing at random and apply complete case analyses to manage the missing data.

A 90-minute structured survey was administered by Ugandan interviewers who had been trained in good clinical practice and had obtained the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) Certificate before interacting with study participants. Informed assent was obtained from adolescents, and informed consent was obtained from their caregivers for participation in the study. The study protocol was approved by Columbia University Institutional Review Board (AAAI1950) and the Uganda National Council for Science and Technology (SS2586). The study protocol is registered at Clinicaltrial.gov (ID# NCT01447615).

All measures used in this study had been previously tested in studies involving children and adolescents affected by AIDS in Uganda (Karimli et al., 2019 ; Ssewamala et al., 2009 ; Ssewamala et al., 2016 ; Ssewamala et al., 2021 ).

Outcome measures

Building on previous research that used the Family Assessment Measure (FAM) and Family Environment Scale (FES) to assess family dynamics (Booysen et al., 2021 ), we utilize the three measures detailed below to examine family functioning.

Family Cohesion

This measure, adapted from the Family Environment Scale (Moos & Moos, 1994 ) and the Family Assessment Measure (Skinner et al., 2009 ), was assessed using a composite score of six items. These items captured aspects such as whether family members sought help from each other before seeking assistance from non-family members, whether they enjoyed spending leisure time together, feelings of closeness among family members, availability for communication, and shared activities as a family. Each item was rated on a 5-point scale (0 = Never to 4 = Always). The composite score ranged from 0 to 24, with higher scores indicating greater levels of family cohesion. The scale demonstrated high internal reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.72 at baseline to 0.77 at Wave 5

Family Communication

This measure, adapted from the Family Environment Scale (Moos & Moos, 1994 ) and the Family Assessment Measure (Skinner et al., 2009 ), consisted of two separate sub-scales:

Frequency of Family Communication

This sub-scale was a composite score of twelve items reflecting the frequency with which children and adolescents communicated with their caregivers on specific topics, such as education, future planning, risk-taking behaviors, and HIV/AIDS. Each item was rated on a 5-point scale (0 = Never to 4 = Always). The composite score ranged from 0 to 48, with higher scores indicating a higher frequency of communication between the child and caregiver. The scale demonstrated high internal reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.81 at baseline to 0.83 at Wave 5.

Comfort of Family Communication

This sub-scale was a composite score of twelve items reflecting the level of comfort children and adolescents felt when communicating with their caregivers about topics such as education, future planning, risk-taking behaviors, and HIV/AIDS. Each item was measured on a 5-point scale (0 = Very Uncomfortable to 4 = Very Comfortable). The composite score ranged from 0 to 48, with higher scores indicating a greater level of comfort in communication. Similar to the frequency sub-scale, this scale also demonstrated high internal reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.85 at baseline to 0.87 at Wave 5.

Child-Caregiver Relationship

This measure, adapted from the Social Support Behavior Scale (SS-B) (Vaux et al., 1987 ), was developed through factor analysis. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin test for sampling adequacy yielded a value of 0.88, exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.6 (Watkins, 2021 ). A total of twenty-six items from the survey instrument were included in the factor analysis. Both scree plot analyses and Parallel Analysis for Principal Components suggested a three-factor structure. Varimax rotation revealed significant loading of variables onto two distinct factors, indicating an inherent structure (Pett et al., 2003 ). Factor one accounted for 77% of the variance, while factor two accounted for 24%. Out of the initial 26 items, eleven demonstrated strong factor loadings (>0.3) on one factor with an eigenvalue of 3.94. The remaining variables, although loading onto another factor (with an eigenvalue of 1.23), formed a scale with Cronbach’s alpha below the recommended level (<0.6), indicating inadequate internal reliability. Consequently, these items were excluded from further analysis. The final scale comprised eleven questions assessing the quality of relationships between children and the adults they lived with. Responses were rated on a 5-point Likert scale (0 = Never to 4 = Always). The questions addressed various aspects, including whether the child could rely on the caregiver for assistance, whether they felt encouraged by the caregiver to excel, whether the caregiver provided explanations for tasks, familiarity with the child’s friends, conversational engagement, shared activities, attentive listening, emotional support, recognition of the child’s importance, and acceptance of the child’s individuality. The total score ranged from 0 to 44, with higher scores indicating a higher quality of the child-caregiver relationship. The scale demonstrated high internal reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.75 at baseline to 0.84 at Wave 5.

Intervention

As previously described, the intervention included two treatment arms, with the match rate (i.e., financial incentive for saving) being the only difference between them. The average amount of savings accumulated in this intervention was around US$ 25 over the intervention period (Wang et al., 2021 ), which does not hold conceptual significance for the purposes of our study. Therefore, our analyses combined both arms into a single treatment group, creating a binary measure of intervention (0=control group; 1=treatment group).

Statistical Analyses Procedures

We followed the CONSORT (Appendix 1) guidelines to report baseline sample characteristics. To examine baseline differences across the study arms, we reported adjusted Wald F-statistics (design-based F), which account for individual-level variations and potential between-school correlations.

The analyses, run in Stata 16, accounted for the multilevel nature of data with repeated measures being nested within individuals, time points, and schools. Given the randomization at the school level, there was a potential risk of correlation for within-school observations, which could violate the independence assumption (Raudenbush & Bryk, 2002 ). To address this, we ran multilevel mixed-effects models, incorporating both between-school and within-individual variability as random effects, to estimate subject-specific effects while accounting for school-level clustering and potential within-individual correlations (Gelman & Hill, 2006 ). Finally, we decomposed the effects into comparisons against reference categories to obtain the marginal treatment effect at each time point.

To answer our first question (What is the effect of a family-based poverty reduction intervention on family functioning, as perceived and reported by children?) we ran multilevel mixed-effects models as specified below:

Here, Y it was the continuous outcome for the i -th observations (i = 1, 2, ….1410) at time t (t = 1, 2…5); I was treatment (I = 0 for control group; D = 1 for treatment group); T was time (T = 1 at baseline; T = 2 at 12 months; T = 3 at 24 months; T = 4 at 36 months; and T = 5 at 48 months); u s was the level 1 error (i.e. differences between the expected and observed values of outcome at school level); e t was the level 2 error (i.e. difference between the expected and observed values of outcome at time level); and z i was the level 3 error (i.e. difference between the expected and observed values of outcome at individual level). Robust standard errors were adjusted for clustering within schools to estimate subject-specific effects accounting for school-level clustering (Hox et al., 2017 ). Treatment effects were reported as time-within-group simple effect comparisons (i.e., treatment arm vs. control arm at each time point) obtained via multiple pairwise comparison analyses. We used Sidak’s adjustment method (Abdi, 2007 ), that mitigates the false discovery risk by offering p-value corrections for multiple comparisons.

To answer our second question (Does the effect of a family-based poverty reduction intervention on family functioning vary by child’s gender and orphanhood status?), we conducted two separate moderator analyses. These analyses examined whether the child’s gender and orphanhood status moderate (i.e., shape the direction and/or strength of) the intervention’s effect on family functioning. To assess these potential moderation effects, we ran two regression models, each incorporating a different three-way interaction term to the model described in Eq. ( 1 ): the group-by-time-by-child’s gender interaction and the group-by-time-by-child’s orphanhood status interaction. This approach allowed us to independently assess the moderating effects of child’s gender and orphanhood status. We assessed the moderation effects through joint tests of these three-way interactions, which demonstrate the interaction between time and group on the slopes of gender and orphanhood status. Specifically, these tests assessed whether the intervention’s effect over time differed by gender (boys versus girls) and across different orphanhood categories. The orphanhood categories were double orphans (children who have lost both parents to AIDS), single paternal orphans (children who have lost their fathers to AIDS but have a living mother), and single maternal orphans (children who have lost their mothers to AIDS but have a living father). To further explore these three-way interactions and understand the intervention’s effect on family functioning within each group, we conducted simple slope analyses using the “margins” command in Stata 16. This method allowed us to examine the effect of the intervention within each subgroup defined by gender and orphanhood category without cross-group comparisons. In these simple slope analyses, at each time point, participants in the control group within the same subgroup served as the reference group for comparison. For example, within the “single paternal orphans” category, we compared participants in the treatment arm to those in the control arm at each time point, without comparing them to participants in other orphanhood categories. This approach provided a clearer understanding of how the intervention affected family functioning within each subgroup, highlighting the nuances of its impact based on gender and orphanhood status.

Table 1 describes baseline characteristics of our sample.

At baseline, the majority of children were identified as single maternal orphans, while approximately one-fifth were single paternal orphans, and another one-fifth were double orphans.

Results (Table 2 ) show significant positive effect of the intervention on family communication, including both the frequency of communication and the comfort of communication, in the short term.

More specifically, at 12 months, participants in the treatment group reported a higher frequency of communication and greater comfort in communicating with their caregivers compared to their control group counterparts. The significant positive effect of the intervention on communication frequency persisted at the 24-month follow-up but eventually faded away. The results indicate no significant effect of the intervention on either family cohesion or the child-caregiver relationship.

Moderator analyses and joint three-way interaction tests (Table 3 ) indicate that the intervention’s effect on family functioning was not significantly moderated by the child’s gender. However, simple slope analyses (Table 3 ) show a significant positive effect of the intervention on family communication, including both the frequency of communication and comfort in communicating, for boys in the short term. In particular, compared to their counterparts in the control group, boys in the treatment group reported higher frequency of communication at the 12-month and 24-month follow ups. They also reported greater comfort in communicating, but only at the 12-month follow-up. The seeming inconsistency between these findings can be attributed to the distinct methodological approaches of the two types of analyses. Moderator analyses and three-way interaction tests are designed to evaluate whether the effect of the intervention varies across distinct levels of the moderator variable—here, the child’s gender—across the entire sample. Such tests may not yield statistically significant results if the overall moderating effect is weak or displays variability across time points. Conversely, simple slope analyses are focused on examining specific subgroups and discrete time points, which allows for the detection of significant effects within these more narrowly defined contexts. This approach can reveal a positive intervention effect on communication for boys at particular follow-up intervals, even in cases where the overall moderation effect is not statistically significant.

Girls, on the other hand, experienced significant positive effects of the intervention on family cohesion and the child-caregiver relationship. More specifically, at the 24-month follow-up, girls in the treatment group reported greater family cohesion and better child-caregiver relationship than girls in the control group.

Moderator analyses and three-way interaction tests (Table 4 ) show that a child’s orphanhood status moderates only the intervention’s effect on the child-caregiver relationship. Simple slope analyses (Table 3 ) show a significant and lasting positive effect (at 24, 36, and 48 months) of the intervention on this outcome for paternal orphans only. We found no significant intervention effect on this outcome for other orphanhood categories. For single maternal orphans, the results show a significant positive effect of the intervention on family communication, including both the frequency of communication and comfort of communicating. Compared to their counterparts in the control group, single maternal orphans in the treatment group reported a higher frequency of communication at the 12-month and 24-month follow ups. They also reported greater comfort in communicating at 12, 24, 36, and 48 months following the baseline assessment.

For double orphans, the results show no positive effect of the intervention on any of the family functioning outcomes. On the contrary, the results suggest that at 36 months, double orphans in the treatment group reported lower levels of communication comfort than their counterparts in the control group.

Our research is among the few studies in the field that employ an experimental design to rigorously evaluate the effects of an asset-based poverty reduction intervention on family functioning. This contribution is significant, given the well-documented role of family functioning as a protective factor against adverse experiences and its importance as a predictor of positive health outcomes for vulnerable children and adolescents worldwide (WHO, 2016 ). A robust evaluation of poverty reduction interventions’ impact on family functioning is crucial, as these interventions have substantial potential to mitigate the long-term effects of poverty—such as economic stress and family dysfunction—on adverse childhood experiences and subsequent physical and mental health outcomes in adulthood (Chen et al., 2017 ; Choi et al., 2019 ).

Our findings present a nuanced perspective that partially aligns with the hypotheses proposed by asset theory (McKernan & Sherraden, 2008 ; Sherraden, 1991 , 2016 ). We found significant intervention effects on family communication, including the frequency and comfort of communication. However, these effects were not sustained beyond the 24-month intervention period. The mentorship component, which included sessions focused on developing stronger communication skills with caregivers and family members, likely contributed to the observed improvements in family communication during the 24-month intervention period. Once the intervention was concluded, its significant positive effects on family communication dissipated. Furthermore, on average, we found no significant intervention effects on family cohesion or the child-caregiver relationship.

Poverty reduction interventions that enhance a family’s financial resources address only one of the many protective factors within a family system that contribute to the family’s resilience (Henry et al., 2015 ). Other aspects of family functioning, such as family cohesion and the quality of child-caregiver relationships, might be more deeply rooted in the emotional and psychological structure of the family, requiring additional resilience-promoting interventions (Black & Lobo, 2008 ). Family strengthening interventions aimed at improving intra-family relationships and fostering a supportive family environment can effectively complement economic support initiatives. Recent evidence (Karimli et al., 2023a ) suggests that combining asset accumulation interventions with multifamily group (MFG) therapy, which focuses on therapeutic processes like child management techniques and emotional regulation, significantly enhances family cohesion and the quality of child-caregiver relationships. This aligns with earlier research (Ismayilova & Karimli, 2020 ) indicating that combination of poverty reduction intervention with family coaching centered around family communication on child protection issues can substantially improve child-caregiver relationships and parenting practices in low-income settings. These examples emphasize the importance of an integrated, comprehensive approach that combines economic assistance with psychosocial and behavioral interventions to address the multifaceted nature of family dynamics. Further research is essential to explore and refine integrated models for supporting low-income families and to establish a comprehensive framework for enhancing family functioning among economically disadvantaged families.

We found no evidence that the child’s gender moderated the effect of the intervention on family functioning. In contrast, the child’s orphanhood status significantly moderated the effect of the intervention on the child-caregiver relationship. Additional simple slope analyses, conducted for each category of the moderator variables (i.e., child’s gender and orphanhood status), revealed significant variations in intervention effects, suggesting potential nuances within specific subpopulations. It is important to interpret these subgroup differences cautiously and avoid overstating their significance, especially given the absence of a significant overall moderation effect. However, the findings are intriguing and offer valuable insights for further exploration. The emergence of significant results within certain subgroups, despite a non-significant three-way test of moderation, may be due to the increased sensitivity of simple slope analyses in detecting variations within specific categories. The three-way interaction test evaluates whether the relationship between the intervention and outcomes differs consistently across all combinations of the moderator variables. A non-significant result in this test does not rule out the possibility of significant effects within individual subgroups. Subgroup analyses can uncover differential intervention effects that are contextually dependent and may not be evident in broader interaction tests. Consequently, these findings, although preliminary, provide valuable insights into the complex interplay between intervention effects and specific characteristics, warranting further investigation into these nuanced dynamics.

More specifically, we found improved family communication (including the frequency and comfort of communication) for boys, and improved family cohesion and quality of the child-caregiver relationship for girls. Similarly, single maternal orphans (i.e., children who lost their mothers) in the treatment groups reported improved family communication, whereas single paternal orphans (i.e., children who lost their fathers) in the treatment group reported improved child-caregiver relationship. This finding aligns with previous studies that suggest significant gender variations in family functioning outcomes and processes (Colarossi & Eccles, 2003 ; Feldman et al., 2018 ; Figlio et al., 2019 ; Raley & Bianchi, 2006 ; Rueger et al., 2008 ; Van Polanen et al., 2017 ). Our results can be contextualized within the framework of gender schema theory (Bem, 1983 ; Starr & Zurbriggen, 2017 ), gender socialization theory (Leaper & Friedman, 2007 ), and the hypothesis that children develop closer relationships with the same-gender caregivers(Van Polanen et al., 2017 ). Previous research (Karimli et al., 2012 ) has highlighted the predominant role of female caregivers for children in our sample. Consequently, considering the proposition that girls might develop more secure attachment relationships with female caregivers and boys with male caregivers (Van Polanen et al., 2017 ), it is possible that the intervention specifically improved the quality of relationships with primarily female caregivers and fostered a greater sense of family cohesion among girls, but not among boys. Moreover, gender-based socialization patterns can contribute to variations in how children perceive and respond to interventions, as well as the support they receive from their families (Endendijk et al., 2016 ). In Uganda, traditional gender norms are deeply rooted in societal expectations and cultural practices. Women are often expected to fulfill nurturing roles within the household, focusing on caregiving and maintaining family cohesion, while men are typically associated with providing and less involved in emotional caregiving (Ninsiima et al., 2018 ). This division of gender roles can influence how children are socialized from a young age, reinforcing the idea that emotional expression and communication are more acceptable for girls than boys (Nalukwago et al., 2019 ; Vu et al., 2017 ). These traditional gender norms and practices extend to parental communication styles with their children, as parents and caregivers often reinforce traditional gender stereotypes by showing a greater inclination to discuss emotions with daughters compared to sons (Aznar & Tenenbaum, 2015 ; Chaplin et al., 2005 ; Fivush et al., 2019 ). These gender-related dynamics may help understand the observed intervention effects, which showed improvement in family communication for boys, and in child-caregiver relationships and family cohesion for girls.

Limitations

This study has two key limitations to be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the absence of caregiver data limits our insight into family functioning, which is based solely on children’s accounts of family cohesion, the child-caregiver relationship, and communication within the family. The lack of caregiver-reported data, particularly regarding parenting stress, restricts our understanding of the caregiver’s perspective on these relationships. Furthermore, we have no data from various family members to assess the strengths and challenges of the family, as well as the communication patterns and capabilities that define the household’s dynamics. Without these broader measures and viewpoints, the study falls short of capturing the full complexity of the family environment.

Second, the study does not capture the nuances of intra-household dynamics, particularly the complexity of care arrangements for orphaned children. These children may experience various care structures offered by their extended families (Bryant & Beard, 2016 ; Heymann et al., 2007 ; Karimli et al., 2012 ). For instance, a maternal orphan—a child who lost their mother—might reside with their father but depend primarily on their grandmother for daily sustenance and emotional support. Our dataset does not specify the caregivers’ roles and contributions, leaving a gap in our comprehension of who provides critical forms of care such as emotional support, supervision, and basic needs. Without this detailed understanding, we cannot fully appreciate the intricate fabric of family functioning in these households, nor can we properly acknowledge the contributions of extended family members who may play pivotal roles in the lives of these children. Despite its limitations, our study is an important contribution to the robust examination of effects of poverty reduction interventions on family functioning, providing valuable insights from children’s perspectives.

Implications

Assessing the impact of poverty reduction interventions on family functioning is important, with economic strengthening serving as a means to the broader objective of emotional and social well-being of a family. When asset accumulation and poverty reduction alone is insufficient, additional resources need be invested in complementary programs to ensure more lasting and robust effects on family functioning. Our findings indicate that asset accumulation and economic strengthening alone may not substantially improve family functioning, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive, multifaceted approach to fostering family resilience. This may contribute to a shift in policy and intervention design towards an integrated approach, addressing both economic and psychosocial indicators of family functioning and family well-being.

Further research is needed to identify resilience-strengthening interventions that effectively complement poverty reduction and asset accumulation initiatives, while considering the diverse cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds of populations. Gathering comprehensive data from family members to fully capture the complexity of family functioning will enhance this field.

Conclusions

In summary, our findings indicate that the asset-based poverty reduction intervention targeting poor families in Southern Uganda, specifically those caring for AIDS orphaned children, has a limited effect on family functioning. Our study suggests that poverty reduction interventions may need to be combined with other resilience-strengthening measures to achieve lasting and robust improvements in family functioning, especially among families caring for AIDS orphaned children in a low-income setting. Furthermore, our study suggests that the effects of these interventions on specific aspects of family functioning may vary depending on the gender and orphanhood status of the children. These variations have not been reported in previous studies, emphasizing the need for continued further research in this underexplored area. Our findings also highlight a need for comprehensive consideration of complexities related to interpersonal aspects, gender variations, and family structures when designing poverty reduction interventions, aiming for their impact to extend beyond mere material well-being.

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Author contributions

Study conceptualization and data analysis were performed by L.K.. Randomized Controlled Trial was designed and implemented by F.M.S.. J.N. and P.B.N. contributed to material preparation and data collection. All authors contributed to writing the first draft of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

The study was funded by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) (#R01HD070727; PI: Fred M. Ssewamala).

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Karimli, L., Nabayinda, J., Nartey, P.B. et al. Poverty Reduction and Family Functioning: Results from an Experimental Study in Sub-Saharan Africa. J Child Fam Stud (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-024-02920-0

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