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Kerala flood case study

Kerala flood case study.

Kerala is a state on the southwestern Malabar Coast of India. The state has the 13th largest population in India. Kerala, which lies in the tropical region, is mainly subject to the humid tropical wet climate experienced by most of Earth’s rainforests.

A map to show the location of Kerala

Eastern Kerala consists of land infringed upon by the Western Ghats (western mountain range); the region includes high mountains, gorges, and deep-cut valleys. The wildest lands are covered with dense forests, while other areas lie under tea and coffee plantations or other forms of cultivation.

The Indian state of Kerala receives some of India’s highest rainfall during the monsoon season. However, in 2018 the state experienced its highest level of monsoon rainfall in decades. According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), there was 2346.3 mm of precipitation, instead of the average 1649.55 mm.

Kerala received over two and a half times more rainfall than August’s average. Between August 1 and 19, the state received 758.6 mm of precipitation, compared to the average of 287.6 mm, or 164% more. This was 42% more than during the entire monsoon season.

The unprecedented rainfall was caused by a spell of low pressure over the region. As a result, there was a perfect confluence of the south-west monsoon wind system and the two low-pressure systems formed over the Bay of Bengal and Odisha. The low-pressure regions pull in the moist south-west monsoon winds, increasing their speed, as they then hit the Western Ghats, travel skywards, and form rain-bearing clouds.

Further downpours on already saturated land led to more surface run-off causing landslides and widespread flooding.

Kerala has 41 rivers flowing into the Arabian Sea, and 80 of its dams were opened after being overwhelmed. As a result, water treatment plants were submerged, and motors were damaged.

In some areas, floodwater was between 3-4.5m deep. Floods in the southern Indian state of Kerala have killed more than 410 people since June 2018 in what local officials said was the worst flooding in 100 years. Many of those who died had been crushed under debris caused by landslides. More than 1 million people were left homeless in the 3,200 emergency relief camps set up in the area.

Parts of Kerala’s commercial capital, Cochin, were underwater, snarling up roads and leaving railways across the state impassable. In addition, the state’s airport, which domestic and overseas tourists use, was closed, causing significant disruption.

Local plantations were inundated by water, endangering the local rubber, tea, coffee and spice industries.

Schools in all 14 districts of Kerala were closed, and some districts have banned tourists because of safety concerns.

Maintaining sanitation and preventing disease in relief camps housing more than 800,000 people was a significant challenge. Authorities also had to restore regular clean drinking water and electricity supplies to the state’s 33 million residents.

Officials have estimated more than 83,000km of roads will need to be repaired and that the total recovery cost will be between £2.2bn and $2.7bn.

Indians from different parts of the country used social media to help people stranded in the flood-hit southern state of Kerala. Hundreds took to social media platforms to coordinate search, rescue and food distribution efforts and reach out to people who needed help. Social media was also used to support fundraising for those affected by the flooding. Several Bollywood stars supported this.

Some Indians have opened up their homes for people from Kerala who were stranded in other cities because of the floods.

Thousands of troops were deployed to rescue those caught up in the flooding. Army, navy and air force personnel were deployed to help those stranded in remote and hilly areas. Dozens of helicopters dropped tonnes of food, medicine and water over areas cut off by damaged roads and bridges. Helicopters were also involved in airlifting people marooned by the flooding to safety.

More than 300 boats were involved in rescue attempts. The state government said each boat would get 3,000 rupees (£34) for each day of their work and that authorities would pay for any damage to the vessels.

As the monsoon rains began to ease, efforts increased to get relief supplies to isolated areas along with clean up operations where water levels were falling.

Millions of dollars in donations have poured into Kerala from the rest of India and abroad in recent days. Other state governments have promised more than $50m, while ministers and company chiefs have publicly vowed to give a month’s salary.

Even supreme court judges have donated $360 each, while the British-based Sikh group Khalsa Aid International has set up its own relief camp in Kochi, Kerala’s main city, to provide meals for 3,000 people a day.

International Response

In the wake of the disaster, the UAE, Qatar and the Maldives came forward with offers of financial aid amounting to nearly £82m. The United Arab Emirates promised $100m (£77m) of this aid. This is because of the close relationship between Kerala and the UAE. There are a large number of migrants from Kerala working in the UAE. The amount was more than the $97m promised by India’s central government. However, as it has done since 2004, India declined to accept aid donations. The main reason for this is to protect its image as a newly industrialised country; it does not need to rely on other countries for financial help.

Google provided a donation platform to allow donors to make donations securely. Google partners with the Center for Disaster Philanthropy (CDP), an intermediary organisation that specialises in distributing your donations to local nonprofits that work in the affected region to ensure funds reach those who need them the most.

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Flood risk and adaptation in Indian coastal cities: recent scenarios

Applied Water Science

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IJRASET Publication

Floods are water-induced disasters that lead to temporary inundation of dry land cause severe damage to the target location, such as human loss and properties and infrastructures. Knowing that floods are part of human life and that this natural phenomenon can't be fully controlled, it's essential to focus on necessary steps to improve knowledge about preventing damages. This project discusses the floods in major cities in India-Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Delhi, the main reasons behind it, and how to prevent the floods from happening on the whole. I.

India Studies in Business and Economics

Jyoti K Parikh , Priyank Jindal

Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region

Milind Mujumdar

Journal of the Institution of Engineers

Esm Suresh , SANDANA SOCRATES

Chennai flash floods of year 2015 and Sumerian’s flood story (written at about 5000 years back) are considered for reflections along with the Tsunami of year 2004. People of Tamil Nadu and especially Chennai have direct experience facing the flash floods during 2004 and 2015. The Sumerian flood story is revisited through recent translation works. These flood situations are considered in the historical context reflecting and relating in the context of life-long learning and professional development of practicing civil engineers. We find that certain ancient wisdoms are still valid, particularly locating or selection of residential building sites on high rise lands;this is apart from what we have as advanced technologies in prediction of floods in general. People have been facing floods and managing them through ancient times as recorded in Sumerian flood story. Moreover, in the case of Tsunami during 2004 and flash floods of Chennai in the year 2015, avoidance could be a preferred general rule, particularly while selecting best sites for house construction. The Chennai flash floods of year 2015 raises issues on professional ethics, practice and informing the public on city planning and development for appropriate decision making.

Dr. Sunny Agarwal

Regional Environmental Change

Upasona Ghosh

Faith Ka Shun Chan , Olli Varis

Many coastal cities are experiencing growing risk to hydrological hazards through the combination of uncontrolled urban development and exposure to natural phenomena linked to climate change, including rising sea levels, intensified storms, and amplified storm surges. This growing risk is particularly acute in Asian coastal mega-cities, many of which have yet to develop adequate adaptation policies to address plausible impacts of climate change. In this analysis, we review how Hong Kong and Singapore, two of the most affluent coastal cities in East Asia, have initiated many flood mitigation strategies policies that have allowed them to reduce the impacts flooding. These strategies, once relying largely on building flood control structures, have now evolved to include holistic flood risk management approaches that include socioeconomic factors. Arguably these two success stories provide inspiration for other coastal Asian cities. However, as climate change and uncontrolled development are likely to increase urban flooding in the future, general improvements could be made to improve knowledge transfer: e.g., develop means to work across policy silos and strike compromises between conflicting sectoral responsibilities, and develop long-term integrated strategies using planning tools and practices to address growing risk. While knowledge transfer cannot be direct because of different geographical settings, socioeconomic situations, and political situations, we encourage governments to look beyond engineering-based flood control structures as to develop flood governance programs.

Sethu Deepak

One of the most contributory factor for urban flooding is the quick generation of high volume surface runoff. The reason for this is the general imperviousness associated with urban ecosystems. Such high volume runoff results in flooding, if water do not drain away on time. A city with inherently poor drainage, low lying and situated in the tropics, Mumbai faces the issue on an annual basis. The physical, demographic and socio-economic consequences of such floods are huge because of the extremely high population density. The situation, though is a threat now even, there are chances it may get worse with time as there is a projected increase in rainfall due to climate change and a projected increase in population. In this context, the current study deals with conducting a physical and demographic assessment of damages caused by urban flooding. The study uses the approach of mathematical modelling in the geo-informatics environment primarily using ArcGIS and ERDAS Imagine software. The study aims at assessing the number of people potentially affected in various scenarios of flooding, its correlation and to project future scenario of flooding with a forecasted change in land use pattern. A land reclamation analysis is also conducted to figure out the relationship between land reclamation and flooding in Mumbai.

Aditya Ghosh

This chapter connects the more formal and emergent climate adaptation governance regime operating at multiple scales to everyday urban spaces, in the case of reoccurring flood events in Mumbai (Bombay), India. As the author Suketu Mehta describes in the quote above, the collective climate future of Mumbai links to that of the larger story arc of India. The chapter examines how this relationship scales up to the international community and extends to other cities and contexts in relation to climate adaptation governance.

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A comparative study on 2015 and 2023 chennai flooding: a multifactorial perspective.

1. Introduction

2. study area, 3. materials and methods, 3.1. materials, 3.2. methodology, 4.1. rainfall analysis, 4.2. spatial mapping of flood, 4.3. integrated reservoir study for flood events, 4.4. study of cyclone activities and tidal wave heights during the flood event, 4.5. effects of enso/iod on northeast monsoon, 5. discussion, 6. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Radhakrishnan, S.; Duraisamy Rajasekaran, S.K.; Sujatha, E.R.; Neelakantan, T.R. A Comparative Study on 2015 and 2023 Chennai Flooding: A Multifactorial Perspective. Water 2024 , 16 , 2477. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172477

Radhakrishnan S, Duraisamy Rajasekaran SK, Sujatha ER, Neelakantan TR. A Comparative Study on 2015 and 2023 Chennai Flooding: A Multifactorial Perspective. Water . 2024; 16(17):2477. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172477

Radhakrishnan, Selvakumar, Sakthi Kiran Duraisamy Rajasekaran, Evangelin Ramani Sujatha, and T. R. Neelakantan. 2024. "A Comparative Study on 2015 and 2023 Chennai Flooding: A Multifactorial Perspective" Water 16, no. 17: 2477. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172477

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Introduction

North-east India has been witnessing unusually heavy rainfall since the beginning of May. That has resulted in one of the worst floods ever recorded in Assam. As of 3 July, flood has affected 1,835,551 people in 26 out of the state’s 35 districts and it submerged 471.98 square kilometers (47,198.87 hectares) of cropland. [1] About 200 people have died so far. Earlier on 22 June the floods had affected 5,457,601 people in 32 districts and submerged 990.26 square kilometers (99,026 hectares) of cropland. [2] Recurring floods in Assam and their devastating impacts has raised serious questions about the efficacy of current flood adaptation measures that relies primarily on grey infrastructure (or engineering solutions) such as embankments. As floods are projected to intensify as the world gets warmer, a combination of grey infrastructure and green infrastructure (or nature-based solutions) can help Assam and other flood-prone states of India adapt to its impact more effectively in the coming years.

Floods and its Impact on Assam

Assam is one of the most flood-prone states in India and it experiences up to three to four waves of flooding every year. In all, 31,050 square kilometers (3,105,000 hectares) or 39.58% of its total land area is vulnerable to flooding each year. [3] Assam’s vulnerability to flood stems from a complex web of climatic, hydrological and social factors. The state is located in a region that is known for extreme rainfall. For example, while India received an average rainfall of 61.1 millimeters during the first 17 days of the current monsoon season from 1-17 June, the north-east region received 220.3 millimeters, 39% above normal. [4] In contrast, northwest India, central India and southern India reported deficit rainfall of 63%, 57% and 24% respectively. The high density of rivers further exacerbated Assam’s vulnerability to floods. The state has over 125 rivers, a significant numbers of which originated from the hills and mountains of Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya (both extreme rainfall hotspots) as well as countries like Bhutan and China. The most well-known among these rivers is the Brahmaputra which originated as the Yarlung Tsangpo in Southwest Tibet. Beyond this, a combination of other factors such as poor or inadequate drainage/channel capacity, high silt load in rivers, encroachment of riverine areas, deforestation/watershed degradation, loss/destruction of wetlands, corruption, etc. have contributed to Assam’s flood woes. Floods have a significant negative impact on Assam’s economy as it loses an estimated Rs. 200 crores every year due to it. [5] This is probably an underestimate and the true economic costs of floods are likely to be many times higher. Furthermore, floods have also washed away 4,270 square kilometers (4,27,000 hectares) of land or 7.40% of the Assam’s total land area since 1950. It continues to wash away 80 square kilometers (8,000 hectares) of land every year. It has also destroyed critical infrastructures that are essential for the maintenance of vital societal functions such as roads, bridges, railway tracks, etc.

Limitations of Current Adaptation Measures

As is the case with other flood-prone states in India, grey infrastructure - so called because it is usually built with concrete - such as embankments (also known as levees or dykes) are the preferred form of flood adaptation in Assam. Embankments are walls constructed along the banks of rivers to prevent flooding. According to reports, since the 1950s, Assam has built 423 embankments along the Brahmaputra River and its tributaries. [6] Of these, 295 are believed to have outlived their intended lifespan. It is therefore not surprising that they are being breached regularly and are even damaged and destroyed. During the post-flood reconstruction phase, government agencies often resorted to simply fixing damaged or destroyed embankments and do not build them back better. As such, they continue to remain vulnerable to future floods. Embankments themselves are also known to exacerbate Assam’s flood problems. For example, floods caused by embankment breaches are often more severe than the regular flooding of rivers and it spread over a more expansive area. Embankments also obstruct flood waters from retreating back into rivers once floods have subsided. Despite these limitations, Assam continues to remain fixated on embankments. One major reason for this is the vested interests of engineers, contractors and politicians for whom embankments are “big business.” Alluding to this, one expertopined that “Assam has increasingly moved towards becoming an ‘embankment economy’ - the construction of embankments along the Brahmaputra has become a business involving contractors for construction, maintenance and repair.” [7] He further lamented that “Floods actually mean a lot of money to a lot of people and many feed off the contractor lobby.” [8]

Rethinking Adaptation

The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) observed in the first installment of its Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) that was released on 9 August 2021 that “…the frequency and intensity of heavy precipitation events have increased since the 1950s over most land area” and that “human-induced climate change is likely the main driver.” [9] Thus, as climate change tips toward full-blown crisis, north-east India faces the prospect of more extreme rainfall. For Assam, that meant more intense and severe flooding. In the face of this challenge, a diversified approach to flood adaptation that included both grey and green infrastructures should be explored. In other words, both engineering solutions and nature-based solutions should be a critical part of Assam’s flood defence toolbox. Nature-based solution is an umbrella term that refers to “actions to address societal challenges through the protection, sustainable management and restoration of ecosystems, benefiting both biodiversity and human well-being.” [10] Such solutions may include the following:

• Protecting, restoring or managing natural forests in catchment areas (in upstream/headwaters and along rivers): Upstream forest slows and retains surface water runoff. It also reduces soil erosion and landslides.
• Protecting and restoring wetlands: Wetlands act as natural sponges. They absorb floodwaters during wet periods and release them during dry periods.
• Maintaining or enlarging natural floodplains: Floodplains are natural flooding outlets for rivers and provide more room to spread out.

Implementing these could prove to be challenging because it will require actions to be taken across jurisdictional boundaries. For example, managing floods in the Brahmaputra River effectively through nature-based solutions will necessitate the adoption of a basin-wide approach. That in turn will require greater cooperation and coordination of efforts between Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya and other neighbouring states. However, the priorities, interests and values of these states may not align necessarily and may even be in conflict with each other. But this is not completely insurmountable. Although Arunachal Pradesh andMeghalaya are less vulnerable to flooding than Assam owing to their hilly terrain, they are highly vulnerable to extreme rainfall-induced landslides and mudslides. Given this, it is imperative that Assam and its neighbouring states convene a regional plan to jointly address the challenges of not only floods but also landslides and mudslides sustainably through nature-based solutions.

The ongoing floods in Assam should be seen as a wake-up call that finally galvanizes action on adaptation. Although engineering solutions such as embankments still have a role to play in mitigating floods, they are no longer sufficient. Nature-based solutions therefore have an obvious place in Assam’s flood defence toolbox and provide a powerful complement (or alternative) to engineering solutions. Working alongside engineering solutions, nature-based solutions will boost the overall resilience at all levels of flooding.

[1] “Assam Daily Flood Report as on 03-07-2022 at 4:00 PM.” Flood Reporting and Information Management System (FRIMS). Assam State Disaster Management Authority (ASDMA). July 3, 2022. http://www.asdma.gov.in/pdf/flood_report/2022/Daily_Flood_Report_03.07.2022.pdf [2] “Assam Daily Flood Report as on 17-06-2022 at 4:00 PM.” Flood Reporting and Information Management System (FRIMS). Assam State Disaster Management Authority (ASDMA). June 22, 2022. http://www.asdma.gov.in/pdf/flood_report/2022/Daily_Flood_Report_22.06.2022.pdf [3] Ministry of Jal Shakti, Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation. 2021. “Flood Management in the Country including International Water Treaties in the field of Water Resource Management with particular reference to Treaty/Agreement entered into with China, Pakistan and Bhutan.” Standing Committee on Water Resources (2020-2021). Seventeenth Lok Sabha. Lok Sabha Secretariat. August. New Delhi. http://164.100.47.193/lsscommittee/Water%20Resources/17_Water_Resources_12.pdf [4] Kalita, Prabin. “Northeast rain: ‘Wettest places on earth’ live up to reputation with highest rain in 56 years.” Times of India. June 18, 2022. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/wettest-places-on-earth-live-up-to-reputation-with-highest-rain-in-56-yrs/articleshow/92265984.cms [5] “Assam Losing ₹200 Crore Annually Due to Floods: Economic Survey.”NDTV. August 20, 2014. https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/assam-losing-rs-200-crore-annually-due-to-floods-economic-survey-650610 [6] “Banking on national embankment policy.” The Sentinel. April 5, 2022. https://www.sentinelassam.com/editorial/banking-on-national-embankment-policy-586094 [7] Sharma, Ashima. “The Mising and the Miyah have learnt to live with the Brahmaputra. Can Assam?” The Third Pole. September 30, 2021. https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/livelihoods/adapting-to-brahmaputra-floods-assam-mising-miyah/ [8] Karmakar, Rahul. “In Assam, a trail of broken barriers.” The Hindu. August 2, 2020. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/in-assam-a-trail-of-broken-barriers/article32244695.ece [9] International Panel; on Climate Change (IPCC). 2021. “Summary for Policymakers.” In: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3−32. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM.pdf [10] International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). 2020. “Ensuring Effective Nature-based Solutions.” Issues Brief. July. https://www.iucn.org/sites/default/files/2022-02/iucn_issues_brief_-_nbs_standard_eng.pdf

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Dhaka is one of the most densely populated cities in South Asia. In recent times, prolonged urban flooding/water logging is a recurring phenomenon and major concern in the two city corporations’ areas. This study investigates how “citizen science” could help individuals, communities, and stakeholders to understand and manage the risk of current and future urban flooding, by integrating people’s experience, concerns, and opinions on flood risk management into the formal framework. A questionnaire survey was conducted among 500 respondents in water logging affected wards of Dhaka. We identified that every year respondents in two city corporations experience 1-3 days of water logging, mostly during the monsoon season. Respondents were found to be aware about flooding and its associated risks and emphasised a concern about the increasing frequency of urban flooding in Dhaka over the next 10 years. Although 61.2% of the respondents were not familiar with the concept of citizen science, 42.8% of respondents expressed eagerness to become involved in any related project to promote awareness and mitigation of urban flooding issues in their communities. Key stakeholder and focus group discussions exposed that unplanned urbanisation, poor drainage system management, inappropriate waste management systems, and recent extreme rainfall events are the major perceived drivers behind urban flooding in Dhaka. Our discussions emphasised the need for integration of both modelling and geospatial techniques to build a Volunteer Geographic Information (VGI) system for the mitigation. We conclude that citizen science approach could play a significant role in tackling urban flooding risks in Dhaka.

Keywords: Urban Flooding, Flood risk, Risk perception, Citizen science, Dhaka

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Pakistan is ranked among the top five countries vulnerable to climate-based disasters according to global climate risk index. Over the years, torrential rains have caused flooding in several different parts of the country, claiming lives and damaging property. People from marginalised and vulnerable groups disproportionately carry the consequences of such disasters. This study investigates the challenges faced by the people in Sindh and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) in the aftermath of the 2022 floods concerning water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) needs. The focus of this exploratory participatory study is to understand the experiences of the flood-affected populations across three districts, namely Malir (Sindh), Dadu (Sindh), and Nowshera (KP), heavily impacted by the floods and hosting displaced populations. This study undertakes an in-depth assessment of the challenges - as well as localised solutions - to comprehend the accurate scale of the impact of the floods in Pakistan on the communities affected and the associated support needed.

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Hydrodynamic modelling of river training works for protection of group of villages on the left bank of Ramganga River: a case study

• Original Paper
• Published: 31 August 2024

Cite this article

• Anurag Yadav 1 ,
• Raj Mohan Singh 1 ,
• Mahesh Kumar Pandey 2 ,
• Shiv Prasad Maurya 3 &
• Sujeet Kumar Singh 4  

Frequent floods in proximity to river floodplains usually threaten settlements, leading to the loss of lives and property. The use of flood modeling is employed for understanding and effectively managing the inherent risks. In this work, the main factor contributing to the reduction of floodplain coverage is the river training works by modification of channel which is least explored for flood mitigation. The study utilized HEC-RAS 6.1.0, for hydrodynamic modelling to simulate the effects of channel modification for flood mitigation along the Ramganga river near Gauriya village (GV) and a cluster of other villages in district Hardoi (U.P.), India. The HEC-RAS model underwent calibration and validation at two distinct flow events and Landsat Imageries. The accuracy assessment involves key factors such as: accurately simulated flooded areas in satellite imagery (A), simulated flood areas absent in satellite imagery (B), and areas not simulated but present in satellite imagery (C). A Manning’s coefficient of 0.03 was identified during this process, demonstrating a strong agreement between the simulated and observed flood extents. This study focused on analyzing the impact of channel modifications on flood mitigation in village areas using possible peak discharges: 1000 cumec, 1700 cumec, and 2500 cumec. The findings revealed that at the discharge of 1700 cumec, there was a notable 23.24% reduction in the flood inundation area. Moreover, at the peak discharge of 2500 cumec, a significant reduction was observed. Additionally, there was a satisfactory decrease in depth and velocity impacting the village areas, contributing to effective flood reduction measures. Thus, river training work by introducing a dredged path adds to the protection of villages on the left bank of the river.

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Yadav, A., Singh, R.M., Pandey, M.K. et al. Hydrodynamic modelling of river training works for protection of group of villages on the left bank of Ramganga River: a case study. Nat Hazards (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-024-06888-4

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