research in web development

web development Recently Published Documents

Total documents.

• Latest Documents
• Most Cited Documents
• Contributed Authors
• Related Sources
• Related Keywords

Website Developmemt Technologies: A Review

Abstract: Service Science is that the basis of knowledge system and net services that judge to the provider/client model. This paper developments a technique which will be utilized in the event of net services like websites, net applications and eCommerce. The goal is to development a technique that may add structure to a extremely unstructured drawback to help within the development and success of net services. The new methodology projected are going to be referred to as {the net|the online|the net} Development Life Cycle (WDLC) and tailored from existing methodologies and applied to the context of web development. This paper can define well the projected phases of the WDLC. Keywords: Web Development, Application Development, Technologies, eCommerce.

Analysis of Russian Segment of the Web Development Market Operating Online on Upwork

The Russian segment of the web services market in the online environment, on the platform of the Upwork freelance exchange, is considered, its key characteristics, the composition of participants, development trends are highlighted, and the market structure is identified. It is found that despite the low barriers to entry, the web development market is very stable, since the composition of entrenched firms that have been operating for more than six years remains. The pricing policy of most Russian companies indicates that they work in the middle price segment and have low budgets, which is due to the specifics of the foreign market and high competition.

Farming Assistant Web Services: Agricultor

Abstract: Our farming assistant web services provides assistance to new as well as establish farmers to get the solutions to dayto-day problems faced in the field. A farmer gets to connect with other farmers throughout India to get more information about a particular crop which is popular in other states. Keywords: Farmers, Assistance, Web Development

Tradução de ementas e histórico escolar para o inglês: contribuição para participação de discentes do curso técnico em informática para internet integrado ao ensino médio em programas de mobilidade acadêmica / Translation of summary and school records into english: contribution to the participation of high school with associate technical degree on web development students in academic mobility programs

Coded websites vs wordpress websites.

This document gives multiple instructions related to web developers using older as well as newer technology. Websites are being created using newer technologies like wordpress whereas on the other hand many people prefer making websites using the traditional way. This document will clear the doubt whether an individual should use wordpress websites or coded websites according to the users convenience. The Responsiveness of the websites, the use of CMS nowadays, more and more up gradation of technologies with SEO, themes, templates, etc. make things like web development much much easier. The aesthetics, the culture, the expressions, the features all together add up in order make the designing and development a lot more efficient and effective. Digital Marketing has a tremendous growth over the last two years and yet shows no signs of stopping, is closely related with the web development environment. Nowadays all businesses are going online due to which the impact of web development has become such that it has become an integral part of any online business.

Cognitive disabilities and web accessibility: a survey into the Brazilian web development community

Cognitive disabilities include a diversity of conditions related to cognitive functions, such as reading, understanding, learning, solving problems, memorization and speaking. They differ largely from each other, making them a heterogeneous complex set of disabilities. Although the awareness about cognitive disabilities has been increasing in the last few years, it is still less than necessary compared to other disabilities. The need for an investigation about this issue is part of the agenda of the Challenge 2 (Accessibility and Digital Inclusion) from GranDIHC-Br. This paper describes the results of an online exploratory survey conducted with 105 web development professionals from different sectors to understand their knowledge and barriers regarding accessibility for people with cognitive disabilities. The results evidenced three biases that potentially prevent those professionals from approaching cogni-tive disabilities: strong organizational barriers; difficulty to understand user needs related to cognitive disabilities; a knowledge gap about web accessibility principles and guidelines. Our results confirmed that web development professionals are unaware about cognitive disabilities mostly by a lack of knowledge about them, even if they understand web accessibility in a technical level. Therefore, we suggest that applied research studies focus on how to fill this knowledge gap before providing tools, artifacts or frameworks.

PERANCANGAN WEB RESPONSIVE UNTUK SISTEM INFORMASI OBAT-OBATAN

A good information system must not only be neat, effective, and resilient, but also must be user friendly and up to date. In a sense, it is able to be applied to various types of electronic devices, easily accessible at any whereand time (real time), and can be modified according to user needs in a relatively easy and simple way. Information systems are now needed by various parties, especially in the field of administration and sale of medicines for Cut Nyak Dhien Hospital. During this time, recording in books has been very ineffective and caused many problems, such as difficulty in accessing old data, asa well as the information obtained was not real time. To solve it, this research raises the theme of the appropriate information system design for the hospital concerned, by utilizing CSS Bootstrap framework and research methodology for web development, namely Web Development Life Cycle. This research resulted in a responsive system by providing easy access through desktop computers, tablets, and smartphones so that it would help the hospital in the data processing process in real time.

Web Development and performance comparison of Web Development Technologies in Node.js and Python

“tom had us all doing front-end web development”: a nostalgic (re)imagining of myspace, assessment of site classifications according to layout type in web development, export citation format, share document.

11 Web Development Trends to Expect in 2024, According to Experts & Data

Published: August 01, 2024

When I’m surfing the web, I look at hundreds of pages a day. While I often remember interesting tidbits from my browsing, the websites themselves don’t really stick. However, there are exceptions. If there are pages with strong design and smooth UX, I definitely remember those sites.

Keeping in touc h with web development trends is bec oming increasingly important to ensure a secure, functionally competitive, and user-friendly website. Failing to keep up with recent trends can seriously affect your website performance and user experience. As a result, your traffic will dip.

In this post, I take a closer look at the top website development trends you can expect to dominate in 2023.

Web Development Trends in 2024

• Progressive Web Apps (PWAs)
• AI Chatbots
• Accelerated Mobile Pages
• Single-Page Application
• Optimized Voice Search
• WordPress Development
• Serverless Architecture
• Responsive Site Design
• Dark Mode Standardization
• Improved Native Cybersecurity

You might be surprised to notice that many web development trends already exist. They‘ll become more prevalent in the coming years, so adapting these best practices is more critical than ever. Let’s take a look at the web development trends 2024 you should keep an eye out for.

1. Progressive Web Apps (PWAs)

While progressive web apps (PWAs) aren't new, their latest iteration will replace web apps for good. PWAs help websites load in no time and work offline in apps like Google Maps. Companies including Starbucks, Uber, Pinterest, and Twitter use PWAs for an improved user experience — and in 2024, many more organizations have already caught on.

50 Free Coding Templates

Free code snippet templates for HTML, CSS, and JavaScript -- Plus access to GitHub.

• Navigation Menus & Breadcrumbs Templates
• Button Transition Templates
• CSS Effects Templates

Download Free

All fields are required.

You're all set!

Click this link to access this resource at any time.

My take: Making sure your site plays well on mobile makes a huge difference to your customers. If they have to zoom in to read content or if a desktop version of the site decreases load time, your customers will disappear.

4. Single-Page Applications

Considered one of the most significant recent trends in web development, single-page applications (SPAs) are JavaScript-based web applications that load a single HTML page in a visitor's browser and dynamically update content as needed without refreshing the page.

Don't forget to share this post!

Related articles.

A Simple Explanation of SSL Certificate Errors & How to Fix Them

How to Make a Website With User Accounts and Profiles [With WordPress, Wix, and More]

How to Start Coding: The Ultimate Guide for Beginner Programmers

XML Files: What They Are & How to Open Them

How to Use Inspect Element in Chrome, Safari, & Firefox

The Beginner's Guide to Website Development

How to Get an SSL Certificate [+10 Best Free SSLs]

Are .io Domains Good? Why Tech Startups Love .io Domains

15 Backend Project Ideas for Your Developer Portfolio

37 Backend Interview Questions and Answers: The Ultimate Guide 2022

Dozens of free coding templates you can start using right now

CMS Hub is flexible for marketers, powerful for developers, and gives customers a personalized, secure experience

• Calculators
• Swot Analysis
• Pestle Analysis
• Five Forces Analysis
• Organizational Structure
• Copywriting
• Research Topics
• Student Resources

Services We Provide

Resources We Provide

Login / Register

• List of Web Development Research Topics

Development of an inventory management system for better management of products in a retail store

Description of the topic

Retail organizations often face the problem of managing their inventories and they are not able to track the product throughout the entire supply chain (Oladele, Ogundokun, Adegun, Adeniyi and Ajanaku, 2021). The manual tracking of multiple products within the inventory is a difficult task and the inappropriate management of inventories in retail organizations often results in overstocking and understocking of products (Zhao and Tu, 2021). This problem often leads to poor performance of manufacturing KPIs of the organization. Considering this problem, an inventory management system is developed in this research for tracking every product within the company until it gets sold.

Research Objectives

• To identify the issues faced by retail organizations related to inventory management.
• To develop a web-based inventory management system for real-time tracking of the products within the store.
• To test the functionality of the system to ensure its proper functioning and reliability.

Research Questions

RQ: Does the inventory management system help the retail organization in keeping track of its products and in enhancing its inventory management processes?

Research Methodology

This research can be conducted using the agile software development methodology in which the project can be completed in different phases. Web technologies such as HTML, JavaScript and CSS can be used for the development of inventory management systems. HTML and CSS can be used for designing the interface of the system while the system can be developed using Javascript.

• Oladele, T.O., Ogundokun, R.O., Adegun, A.A., Adeniyi, E.A. and Ajanaku, A.T., 2021. Development of an inventory management system using association rules. Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 21(3), pp.1868-1876 .
• Zhao, B. and Tu, C., 2021. Research and development of inventory management and human resource management in ERP. Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing, 2021, pp.1-12.
• Saha, E. and Ray, P.K., 2019. Modeling and analysis of inventory management systems in healthcare: A review and reflections. Computers & Industrial Engineering , 137, p.106051.

Development of 3D game snakes and ladder using unity

Games are an effective way for users of any age category to entertain themselves and let their minds get diverted from stressful daily activities. Snakes and ladder is a popular game that has been played by everyone whether online or offline (Comber, Motschnig, Mayer and Haselberger, 2019). But, the 2D version of the game has been outdated and users these days are attracted towards 3D games because of better gameplay and graphics (Kim, et al, 2014). The existing 2D version of the snakes and ladders game has been losing its popularity because of the increasing trend of 3D games. Thus, in this research, a 3D snakes and ladders game is developed using Unity.

• To develop a 3D snakes and ladders game providing enhanced graphics and gameplay.
• To test the game against multiple measures such as user-friendliness, response time etc.

RQ1: Does the introduction of 3D games have helped in enhancing the experience and gameplay of modern games?

RQ2: How does the Unity development platform help in the development of enhanced 3D games and in enhancing the gameplay of the conventional snakes and ladders game?

Agile software development methodology can be used for this research in which the project can be completed in multiple phases. The designing and development of the game can be done using the Unity Development platform for enhanced 3D animations and interfaces. Multiple testing processes can be performed during the research such as usability testing, code functionality testing, performance testing etc.

• Comber, O., Motschnig, R., Mayer, H. and Haselberger, D., 2019, April. Engaging students in computer science education through game development with unity. In 2019 IEEE global engineering education conference (education) (pp. 199-205). IEEE.
• Kim, S.L., et al, 2014, March. Using Unity 3D to facilitate mobile augmented reality game development. In 2014 IEEE World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT) (pp. 21-26). IEEE.

Managing the attendance of remote employees with an attendance management system

Business organizations have continued to allow their employees to work from home even after the threat of Covid 19 has reduced. This has helped them in saving the extra expenses they used to spend on offline management of the employees in the office and also has increased productivity with flexible working hours. But, the management of the attendance of remote workers is a concern for the companies as they are not able to check whether the employee is working or not. Considering this problem, a web-based system is proposed in this research which can help the organizations in detecting whether the employee is online or not automatically and can mark their attendance.

• To identify the current issues related to the attendance management of remote employees through literature-based analysis.
• To provide a technological solution for automated management of the attendance of remote employees.
• To test the functionalities of the system with the white box testing technique.

RQ: How can the web-based solution help business organizations in enhancing and automate their attendance management processes?

Software development methodologies are used for such research projects and multiple methodologies can be used for this research such as agile, waterfall etc. Considering the complexity of the attendance management system development project, an agile software development methodology would be suitable under which the project can be divided into multiple phases and testing of the progress can be done after every phase to ensure the quality of the end product. White box testing can be used for testing the functionality of the attendance management system.

Development of library management system

Management of the issuing and returning process of books in a library is a time-consuming and hectic task. It is difficult to keep track of the issued books, their return date, the transactions etc. manually because of the high chances of human errors and loss of records (Shaw and De Sarkar, 2021). Thus, a web-based solution is proposed in this research for the better management of these tasks within a library. With this system, the key privacy issues of security, data loss, and human errors can be eliminated and the records can be managed appropriately (Deng. and Xie, 2018).

• To identify the limitations of manual management of library records.
• To provide a web-based solution for better management of library records.
• To provide a secure and reliable solution for the appropriate management of records within a library.

RQ1: What are the limitations of manual management of library records?

RQ2: How does the web-based solution can help in enhancing the library management processes?

A suitable software methodology can be selected for conducting this research successfully. The library management system can be developed using agile software development methodology in which seven different phases of the development process can be completed- Planning, requirement analysis, designing, development, testing and maintenance. Requirements can be gathered by resting the user stories, personas and fictional scenarios while the designing and development can be done using the web technologies such as HTML, CSS and Javascript.

• Shaw, J.N. and De Sarkar, T., 2021. A cloud-based approach to library management solutions for college libraries. Information Discovery and Delivery , 49(4), pp.308-318.
• Deng, S.T. and Xie, C., 2018, September. Design and research of mobile phone library management system in a private university based on asp. net. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 1087, No. 6, p. 062029). IOP Publishing.

Development of a web application allowing customers to review the latest movies

There are several video streaming platforms available these days where the latest movies and shows are available to watch customers. But, it is difficult for users to decide which show they should watch because of the multiple options on these platforms (Harer and Kadam, 2014). Considering this issue, a web application is developed during this research in which the users can be able to view the ratings and reviews of the latest movie or show on different platforms such as IMDB, Rotten tomatoes etc. (You, Lee and Kim, 2016) The users can also be allowed to share their reviews regarding the movie after watching it on the video streaming platforms.

• To build a platform for the users to share their opinions regarding the movies or shows with other users.
• To use the web technologies such as HTML, CSS and Javascript to develop a web-based application for posting movie reviews.

RQ: How can the web-based movie review application be helpful for users in obtaining and sharing the reviews of any latest movie or show?

The web-based application for movie reviews can be developed using agile software development methodology and the web technologies that can be used for the development are HTML, CSS for web designing, Javascript for web development and SQL for database development.

• Harer, S. and Kadam, S., 2014. Sentiment classification and feature-based summarization of movie reviews in the mobile environment. International Journal of Computer Applications, 100(1), pp.30-35.
• You, Y.S., Lee, S. and Kim, J., 2016, October. Design and development of visualization tools for a movie review and sentiment analysis. In Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Emerging Databases: Technologies, Applications, and Theory (pp. 117-123).

Mobile application development for fitness activities

An unhealthy lifestyle and an unhealthy body are home to several dangerous diseases and this is the reason the prevalence of obesity is increasing day by day. Fitness applications these days track the daily activities of people, their steps, calories etc. but do not provide any health tips for appropriate fitness activities that can help people in keeping their bodies fit (Chen and Pu, 2014). The mobile application developed during this research can be the perfect solution for these problems related to existing fitness applications (Gabbiadini and Greitemeyer, 2018). This app can take the basic details of the user as input and can provide a complete list of activities that the user can complete daily to keep their body and mind fit and distant from any disease.

• To identify the issues with the existing fitness application.
• To propose a new application for improved fitness and mental health of the people.
• To ensure the security of the personal information of the users on the application with strong security measures.

RQ: How can the mobile fitness application help users in enhancing their fitness and mental health?

The agile software development methodology is considered the most suitable methodology for software development and thus it can be used in this research for the development of Fitness applications. PHP scripting language can be used for the development of the application and white box testing can be done to ensure the proper functioning of the application. Penetration testing can also be performed to ensure the security of the application from any type of cyber intrusion.

• Chen, Y. and Pu, P., 2014, April. HealthyTogether: exploring social incentives for mobile fitness applications. In Proceedings of the second international symposium of chinese chi (pp. 25-34).
• Gabbiadini, A. and Greitemeyer, T., 2018. Fitness mobile apps positively affect attitudes, perceived behavioral control and physical activities. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, 59(3), pp.407-414.

Promoting energy-saving activities with a mobile application

Power and water resources are extremely valuable for human lives and yet these are carelessly used by human beings. Wastage of these sources in the day-to-day activities of human beings within their homes is one of the major concerns for the authorities as they can't move from house to house to check the wastage or to make people aware of this (Nguyen, 2014). To address this issue, a mobile application is proposed in this research which can be promoting energy-saving activities within the households such as turning off the tap after use, turning off the lights after leaving the room etc. This application can be designed for children to make them aware of these activities from a young age so that they can make other people aware as well (Oppong-Tawiah et al, 2020).

• To promote energy and water-saving activities.
• To provide a method for educating young children about power-saving and water-saving activities from a young age.
• To develop a high-quality mobile application with interactive animations.

RQ1: How can the mobile application be used for making people aware of power-saving activities?

RQ2: What impact can the power-saving application make on the rate of increased wastage of these resources?

During this research, the mobile application for promoting power-saving activities can be developed using the agile software development methodology. Under this methodology, designing, development and testing can be done in multiple phases. For usability testing of the application, participants between the age of 7 to 15 can be selected from a nearby school.

• Nguyen, S.P., 2014, May. Mobile application for household energy consumption feedback using smart meters: Increasing energy awareness, encouraging energy savings and avoiding energy peaks. In 2014 International Conference on Collaboration Technologies and Systems (CTS) (pp. 291-296). IEEE.
• Oppong-Tawiah, D. et al, 2020. Developing a gamified mobile application to encourage sustainable energy use in the office. Journal of Business Research, 106, pp.388-405.

Authentication system for secure vaults in banks

Banks are the most trusted place for people to keep their money, documents, jewelry and other financial elements secure from getting misused and from getting lost (Das, Jelil and Mahadeva Prasanna, 2017). But, in recent times the increased cases of robberies and other unethical accounting practices in the banks have raised a few questions about their security measures (Yang, 2019). Thus, in this research, an authentication system is proposed for the bank to keep the assets of the people secure from any event in the bank. For every locker in the bank, this system can be used to ensure that the unauthorized person can be restricted to access these valuable assets of the people.

• To identify the physical security issues in the banks.
• To provide an effective solution for the physical security issues of the banks these days.
• To use multiple authentication measures in the system for enhanced security

RQ: How can the authentication system with multiple authentication processes help in decreasing the physical security issues in the banks?

Agile software development methodology can be preferred for the development of this authentication system in which HTML can be used for designing the interface and PHP can be used for development. The RSA encryption technique can be used for securing the information. Multiple tests can be performed during the project such as penetration tests, authentication testing etc.

• Das, R.K., Jelil, S. and Mahadeva Prasanna, S.R., 2017. Development of multi-level speech based person authentication system Journal of Signal Processing Systems, 88, pp.259-271 .
• Yang, G.C., 2019. Development status and prospects of graphical password authentication system in Korea. KSII Transactions on Internet and Information Systems (TIIS), 13(11), pp.5755-5772 .

Development of ambulance booking system

This project is focused on the development of an online booking system for ambulances in any emergency. The ambulances have been helping people to reach the medical facilities in time to get their treatment (Bhonsle,et al., 2022). But, there is no such system currently available that can allow the patients or their guardians to book them online in any emergency cases or for pre-booking of ambulances for a particular date (Isong, Dladlu and Magogodi,, 2016). Thus, this system is proposed in this research to provide a simple and reliable solution for patients to book ambulances. This would help the industry in boosting its healthcare KPIs and become more efficient.

• To provide a reliable solution for the booking of ambulances for patients in emergencies.
• To build a secure and responsive system for booking ambulances so that users can get the response for ambulances in real-time.

RQ: How can the online system help patients in booking ambulances faster than the conventional ways?

In this research study, an online booking system for ambulances can be developed using the agile software development methodology. Java script can be used for the development of the system with some other web technologies such as HTML and CSS. The usability, Load management and Security of the system can also be tested to ensure high performance.

• Bhonsle, V.S.,et al., 2022, August. Ambulance booking system using GPS. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 2461, No. 1, p. 020003). AIP Publishing LLC.
• Isong, B., Dladlu, N. and Magogodi, T., 2016. Mobile-based medical emergency ambulance scheduling system. Int. J. Comput. Netw. Inf. Secur, 8(11), pp.14-22 .

Garbage management system for smart cities

Smart city projects include the use of advanced technologies for monitoring every activity with the help of sensors and connected systems. But, garbage collection is a process that is often not focused more by the authorities in these projects (Ali, Irfan, Alwadie and Glowacz, 2020). Thus, in this research, a web-based system is proposed for the effective management of garbage in smart cities to help the authorities keep the city clean. This system can be connected with the sensors installed in all the major dustbins in the city to get alerts when it gets full so that the authorities can address it immediately (Nirde, Mulay and Chaskar, 2017).

• To provide an effective solution for addressing garbage management issues in smart cities.
• To provide a reliable system for the authorities to enhance the waste management processes.
• To develop a highly responsive system with real-time alerting capabilities.

RQ: How can the smart garbage management system help the authorities in enhancing their waste management system in smart cities?

The IoT-based smart garbage management system can be developed using the agile software development methodology. The required web technologies for this development process can be React, Java Script, My SQL and HTML. Requirements can be gathered from the literature-based analysis of existing systems and also by using requirement elicitation techniques such as interviews, focus groups etc, with the IoT and IT experts.

• Ali, T., Irfan, M., Alwadie, A.S. and Glowacz, A., 2020. IoT-based smart waste bin monitoring and municipal solid waste management system for smart cities. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 45, pp.10185-10198.
• Nirde, K., Mulay, P.S. and Chaskar, U.M., 2017, June. IoT based solid waste management system for smart city. In 2017 international conference on intelligent computing and control systems (ICICCS) (pp. 666-669). IEEE.

Fun learning application for children: benefits and drawbacks

Visual effects, animations and games attract the children more as compared to simple texts and images on the application. In the existing learning applications for children simple texts, images and some audio are used to provide them with knowledge about new concepts. It is very boring for them and they are not able to build their interest in this type of learning. Thus, to address this issue, a fun learning 3D game is proposed in this research in which the children can be able to play simple learning games or different STEM apps and understand the concepts in a fun way. The application will have multiple levels and the levels can be decided based on the age level of the children. This game can be designed for children between the ages of 7-12.

• To identify the issues in the existing learning applications.
• To provide a fun way to learn for the children in which they can both play and learn.
• To build a fun learning application for children with multiple levels of learning.

RQ: How can the fun learning applications keep the children more involved in learning as compared to the simple learning applications?

For the development of fun learning applications during this research, agile methodology can be used. Under this methodology, the project can be completed in multiple phases and testing can be done after every phase. The fun learning application can be designed using 3D while its development can be done using C#.

• Kaminska, D.,et al, 2019. Virtual reality and its applications in education: Survey. Information, 10(10), p.318 .
• Lepper, M.R. and Malone, T.W., 2021. Intrinsic motivation and instructional effectiveness in computer-based education. In Aptitude, learning, and instruction (pp. 255-286). Routledge.

Recommended Readings

Latest AI Research Topics

Top Management Research Topics

Newest Machine Learning Research Topics

The web development industry is constantly evolving, and new technologies and techniques are being developed all the time. Research helps developers keep up with the latest advancements and make informed decisions about which tools and technologies to use.

Web developers need research to stay up with the emerging, comprehend customer needs, enhance functionality, stay competitive, and create more accessible websites. That being the case, this list contains 11 research topics that would help students in getting great ideas to carry out their research effectively. Alongside of the description, the list also contains possible research questions , research objectives and possible research methodologies that can be used by students to effectively carry out their research.

Copyright © 2023 CrowJack. All Rights Reserved

Subscribe to the PwC Newsletter

Join the community, search results, qos provision for controlling energy consumption in ad-hoc wireless sensor networks.

4 code implementations • ICIC Express Letters 2020

The primary goals of the research are to discover the best techniques to 1) minimize the total consumed energy in the ad-hoc wireless sensor network, and 2) maximize the ad-hoc wireless sensor network lifetime.

Test them all, is it worth it? Assessing configuration sampling on the JHipster Web development stack

1 code implementation • 11 Jun 2018

In this case study, we report on the first ever endeavour to test all possible configurations of an industry-strength, open source configurable software system, JHipster, a popular code generator for web applications.

Software Engineering

A Novel Nudity Detection Algorithm for Web and Mobile Application Development

1 code implementation • 2 Jun 2020

Google vision api is used to detect the face region.

Current Web Application Development and Measurement Practices for Small Software Firms

1 code implementation • 28 May 2012

The analysis was conducted in two stages: first, grouping the development and measurement practices using variable clustering, and second, identifying the acceptance degree.

Data-to-Text Bilingual Generation

2 code implementations • 24 Nov 2023

We describe an object-oriented organization to ensure a convenient realization in both languages.

The jsRealB Text Realizer: Organization and Use Cases -- Revised version

1 code implementation • 31 Dec 2020

This paper describes the design principles behind jsRealB (Version 4. 0), a surface realizer written JavaScript for English or French sentences from a specification inspired by the constituent syntax formalism but for which a dependency-based input notation is also available.

An Open Source Web Reader for Under-Resourced Languages

1 code implementation • SIGUL (LREC) 2022

We have developed an open source web reader in Iceland for under-resourced languages.

Learnings from Technological Interventions in a Low Resource Language: Enhancing Information Access in Gondi

1 code implementation • 29 Nov 2022

The primary obstacle to developing technologies for low-resource languages is the lack of representative, usable data.

Focal Loss for Dense Object Detection

230 code implementations • ICCV 2017

Our novel Focal Loss focuses training on a sparse set of hard examples and prevents the vast number of easy negatives from overwhelming the detector during training.

Code Recommendation for Open Source Software Developers

1 code implementation • 15 Oct 2022

In this paper, we formulate the novel problem of code recommendation, whose purpose is to predict the future contribution behaviors of developers given their interaction history, the semantic features of source code, and the hierarchical file structures of projects.

• How it works

Useful Links

How much will your dissertation cost?

Have an expert academic write your dissertation paper!

Dissertation Services

Get unlimited topic ideas and a dissertation plan for just £45.00

Order topics and plan

Get 1 free topic in your area of study with aim and justification

Yes I want the free topic

Web Development Dissertation Topics – Based on Latest Technology Trends

Published by Owen Ingram at December 29th, 2022 , Revised On August 16, 2023

Web development is one of the most common research areas among students for information technology. A career in this field of web design and web development offers a lot of opportunities and is quite rewarding.

Many IT students choose to research a topic relating to web development, yet many frequently need help in selecting an appropriate topic to write their dissertation , and this is where our topic service and dissertation writing service come into the picture.

If you are an undergraduate, Master or PhD student, the distinctiveness of the topic should be your first consideration. It would be best if you remembered that your paper must be entirely original as you write it. An issue that has previously been covered cannot be rewritten even though you could explore it from a different angle or a fresh perspective. 

So let’s take a look at the following web development topics and suggestions to see if any of the ideas motivate you.

Web Development Dissertation Topics & Ideas

• Bringing a 19th-century web gateway into the new millennium
• The best strategy to enhance and safeguard e-commerce
• A website that won’t crash even if several users login simultaneously
• How to increase the accessibility of a web portal while still selling all the extensive material
• A gadget with a speedier internet connection than other gadgets
• The following stage is correctly exploiting LTE connections in web development
• How to improve a website’s usability so visitors stay longer
• The efficient means of putting an end to online bullying
• Make social networking more appealing to encourage individuals to begin living online
• How to reconcile the real and virtual worlds
• A network that works well and is bug-free
• Creating a gateway that will enable new forms of interpersonal communication
• A tool that will assist a user in keeping their identity secure online
• A survey of website development technologies
• Analyze the online Russian web development market operating on up-work farming assistant web services
• Web accessibility for people with cognitive impairments: A study of the UK web development industry
• Web development and performance comparison between Node.js vs. Python Web development technologies. Evaluation of site categories based on the layout type
• Development of integrated access control for software product line engineering
• Web development learning multi-attribute decision-making model for ranking web development frameworks
• An intelligent system for making recommendations regarding web development education
• A fusion of machine learning and web development
• Modern web-building techniques for adaptable websites
• An assessment of web development frameworks and their performance
• Web application development technologies for automated dashboard analysis and design
• Using experiential and collaborative learning techniques to examine the effect of SEO techniques on web development

Hire an Expert Writer

Orders completed by our expert writers are

• Formally drafted in an academic style
• Free Amendments and 100% Plagiarism Free – or your money back!
• 100% Confidential and Timely Delivery!
• Free anti-plagiarism report
• Appreciated by thousands of clients. Check client reviews

Hundreds of different options may influence your thoughts, and you could start to find yourself completely clueless and directionless. To complete the dissertation that gets you a high academic grade, you must ensure that the topic is original and that you have enough material to support it.

If you are looking for help with your dissertation or thesis and whether you need a dissertation written in the UK or another country, you can hire a qualified writer online with ResearchProspect. Our team of professionals will come up with appealing web development dissertation topics for your convenience, and write a winning thesis paper on the selected title. 

Free Dissertation Topic

Phone Number

Academic Level Select Academic Level Undergraduate Graduate PHD

Academic Subject

Area of Research

Frequently Asked Questions

How to find web development dissertation topics.

To find web development dissertation topics:

• Follow industry trends and emerging technologies.
• Explore challenges like UX/UI, security, or accessibility.
• Analyze open source projects and their impact.
• Consider performance optimization or mobile development.
• Consult professionals for real-world insights.
• Select a topic that aligns with your passion and career aspirations.

You May Also Like

There are a wide range of topics in sports management that can be researched at the national and international levels. International sports are extremely popular worldwide, making sports management research issues very prominent as well.

Are you having trouble finding a good music dissertation topic? If so, don’t fret! We have compiled a list of the best music dissertation topics for your convenience.

Here’s a list of the 65 latest and most controversial yet interesting dissertation topics on gender to help you with your gender dissertation and research.

USEFUL LINKS

LEARNING RESOURCES

COMPANY DETAILS

• How It Works

• How it Works
• Case Studies
• The GDD Slack
• State of GDD Report
• Workshops and Events
• Methodology

Growth-Driven Design Blog

• Web Design (11)
• Website Strategy (8)
• Conversion Rate Optimization (CRO) (5)
• GDD Process (5)
• Agile Web Design (4)
• Optimization Experiments (4)
• UX Research (4)
• User Experience (3)
• Continuous Improvement (2)
• UX best practices (2)
• Website Content and Messaging (2)
• Copywriting Best Practices (1)
• Launch Pad Website (1)
• Navigation (1)
• Technical / Coding (1)
• Web Design Agency (1)
• Website Analytics and Reporting (1)
• Website Assets (1)

8 UX Research Methods to start using in Web Design

Need to build or optimize your website, but not sure how to make real impact? Well... stop building and listen first! 

It has become easier than ever to build a website, but just building items you think will help is a sure-fire way to see lack-luster results. We don't want to just build anything, we want to build the RIGHT items to deliver user value and drive business impact.

How do you do this? - Listen first, problem solve second, build third. Listening start with user experience (UX) research to gain a deep understanding of the desired outcomes of your audience and the challenges they are running into in trying to achieve them. 

Where do you get started with UX research ? This blog outlines the eight most common UX research methods to use when starting your UX reserach for your web design and optimization efforts. 

"Wait, why is ux research important in web design?"

Here’s one typical train of thought: “I need a website for my business. Let’s have a look at some templates. That one looks great. There we go, it’s installed and there are products on it. Traffic’s picking up. Hang on, why has no one bought anything after six months? It’s got to be the theme, I’ll find a new one…”

The relative ease of creating a basic site often means that the nuances of creating a high-performing website can get lost in the ether. Having a website as an online storefront isn’t enough. It also needs to provide returns, generate new leads on a consistent basis, convert sales and gather relevant consumer data if you’re serious about long-term business growth.

It’s not enough for your website to simply look good, either. While some sites do look incredible thanks to the creative use of HTML5, the real art of web development lies in creating an unbeatable user experience (often abbreviated to UX). Essentially, users need a site that flows, informs, entertains and – overall – intuitive to their needs.

THE UX RESEARCH PROCESS

Before we dive into specific types of UX research, it's important to know what the overall process looks like. Generally speaking there are three steps: Developing user questions, performing user research, and summarizing findings into a report. 

1. Developing User Questions:  The goal of this step is to collect observed user challenges, friction points, or gaps of understanding and formulate specific user-focused questions that you can then work to answer.

2. Performing User Research : The goal of conducting research is to gain a clear understanding of the underlying challenges, motivations, and behaviors of your users to answer the questions you created in the previous step.

3. Summarizing into a Report:  The goal of the analyze and report step is to review your findings and summarize the key takeaways, learning lessons, and recommendations. Your job is to boil down all of the information you collected to the core findings and turn them into something actionable for your team and company.

Want to learn more about the user research process? Join the (free) Growth-Driven Design Certification to watch an entire lesson the the process - including process steps, templates, and examples. 

8 UX research METHODS FOR WEB DESIGN

The better you know your audience and their needs, the more likely you are to engage them as soon as your site launches. To do this, you need to put some effort into learning what your audience want to know, how they use the internet, and who represents your biggest competition in the market.

So, how do you approach your research if you’re a junior designer or a total beginner to web design? Read on for five simple UX research methods to incorporate. 

1: Socialise with your audience

It really is that simple. You may already be aware that every successful inbound marketing strategy starts with persona research. By learning as much as you can about your target market, you can then approach the right people more effectively through search, social and biddable campaigns.

The same rule applies to UX research – you need to know what your audience look for in a website.

Social media platforms allow you to reach out to target audiences easier than ever before, while email can be effective when conducting research amongst existing leads. Incentivised surveys and feedback campaigns can help you collect crucial information with direct and in-depth inquiries.

2: USER INTERVIEWS

User interviews help you uncover the deep challenges and motivations of why users behave a certain way. What drives and motivates a person, and why they behave the way they do is a deep-rooted matter, and so user interviews are better than some other research methods to get at that “why?”

A user interview is the most common method used when beginning to try to solve a problem. Often, in the strategy phase, your team is starting out on gaining understanding of the current state of affairs and what user problems you should be addressing. That can mean you don’t have the data you need or perhaps any data at all. User interviews can be an efficient way to get the data.

You can learn more about user interviews and watch more videos on the " UX Research - User Interviews " page on the GDD How it Works section. 

3: Card sorting

Ready for some interactive customer research? Card sorting is a really effective way of discovering how users may potentially use a site, and what they consider the most important parts of their online journey. There are two types of card sorts – closed and open – that can be done both on- and offline.

Closed card sorting sees the developer providing people with a set of cards complete with numerous categories, while the open version allows people to create their own categories. The goal is for your audience to create the most effective user journey with their cards, revealing what steps are most important to them.

Not only can this help you better analyse your site’s architecture, it’s also great for developing your overall online sales funnel.

4: Usability testing

Usability testing is arguably one of the most important parts of UX research. This can again be done moderated or unmoderated (with the assistance of surveys and testing software), and offline or online through live streaming sites, screen share apps and more.

Usability testing is essentially a real-world test scenario where groups of users are asked to complete certain tasks. Some usability testers go as far as employing an independent moderator to ask questions and get results. The benefits of usability testing range from achieving real-time, real-world data from users navigating your site, and providing their thoughts and observations, to picking up on errors that may have slipped through the net during development.

Want to learn a bit more about user testing? - Read and watch videos on the " UX Research - User Testing " page on the GDD How it Works section. 

5: Eye movement tracking

Eye movement tracking is a technique that wouldn’t have been possible a few short years ago. Thanks to advances in hardware and software though, prices have come down and the technology is becoming more accurate, allowing developers to track users’ eye movements in real-time.

The technology does what it says on the tin, tracking users’ eye movements when they’re presented with a site in testing conditions. This reveals which parts instantly attract their attention, which parts are ignored and which areas could be improved upon. Eye movement tracking is brilliant for assessing the appeal of a site design and evaluating the effectiveness of your calls to action, allowing you to tweak specific areas of your inbound campaign to improve conversions.

6: Click Heatmaps / scroll heatmaps

Setting up eye tracking studies can be quite technical and require a big time and money investment. A great alternative to understanding user attention on your website is to leverage click heatmaps, scoll heatmaps, and user recordings. 

Click heat maps are a visual report of where actual users are getting on the site, and what are they trying to click on.

Example click heatmap on GrowthDrivenDesign.com

It's a great way for we to identify areas of confusion where users are trying to click on something that they think is linked or they think is a menu item, or they think they should be going somewhere and it's not. 

We can also use it as a gauge to see what users care about. If we have five different types of products, we can see which one is getting the most clicks. We can see where people are clicking on the menu and which menu items are getting the most clicks. This can inform how we structure the menu.

Additionally, we can see what users are overlooking or missing. If there are calls to action, or if there are menus that are not being used or clicked on, that can help inform in the brainstorming session how to improve those things that we want users to find and interact with. What are the things that they're not interacting with now?

In addition to click heat maps, scroll heat maps allows you to understand how far down website users are scrolling down on the page. 

This allows you to determine how engaging your content is and if it is being consumed or missed by website users. 

7: USER RECORDINGS

Session recordings are also valuable tools. With session recordings, we receive live recordings of  users’ sessions on our website. we'll see what they're scrolling on, clicking on, and where they're stopping.

It's a great way for we to understand what challenges users are running into at a very specific spot. I want to underline that specific spot because we want to avoid falling in the trap of watching a ton of user recordings just to watch them. They're a cool feature, but we're not going to get a lot of insight as just by watching a ton of different user recordings.

Instead, what we want to do is pinpoint a specific area where we're running into challenges, where people are dropping off, where there's low time on site, high bounce rate, whatever those metrics are that we're measuring, those leading indicators, or even the focus metric, and start with the quantitative data. This is the data that's telling we where they're dropping off, and then when we want to start diagnosing the issue. When we want to start digging deeper at a very specific URL or a very specific spot on a page, then we can start looking at user recordings to help get some idea on what the problem is and actually diagnose it so that we can brainstorm solutions. That's my word of caution with this. Make sure that we have a very specific spot we want to dig into before going and looking at session recordings. Don't start with session recordings. Otherwise we'll be watching a whole ton of them and not necessarily walking away with a ton of focused action items.

8: A/B testing

Although technically a hypothesis testing tool, A/B testing can offer some great insights and user learnings based on how the interact with your proposed solution.

Once you've completed your research, problem solve, and build a proposed solution to the original isue identified in your research - you must test to see if your solution actually helped.

A/B testing can help answer these types of questions: If you’re linking an important call to action on your website, what would generate better results, an image or a text-based link? How do you know which forms are best for your checkout page? Would making a button a different colour help attract eyeballs and improve conversions?

A/B testing allows you to find the answers to all these questions, as you randomly present two test versions of your site to an equal number of users, collecting analytical data to see which version is most effective and gets the best results. A/B testing is also great when updating older sites, as it helps you discover which changes work and which areas are best left untouched.

UX research saves you time and money in the long-term

Although this might seem like extra up-front work to add to your process, integrating UX reserach and testing will save you time, money, and drive better results in the long run. 

Comprehensive UX research is an essential part of the overall design process. After all, would you launch a business or a product without doing some basic market research? Of course you wouldn’t, so why not go to the same lengths when building a website?

The very nature of online marketing is constantly changing, due to new algorithms from search and social providers, smart devices introducing new needs (mobile-optimised websites anyone?) and individual developing unique online habits. Continual UX research allows your web designers and developers to keep up with emerging trends and offer the best customer experience possible.

Costly mistakes and large alterations to the design of a site will also be less likely If you research before starting the build. This means your creative team has more time and resources to spend on other design and development projects, and more potential to turn big profits for your business.

Want to dive futher into UX research? Join the (free) Growth-Driven Design Certification to learn more about UX research and all the other pieces for building a peak performing website. 

Have specific questions? - Leave a comment below and I'd be happy to help! 

• UX Research ,

Chris Knowles

Chris is Head of Design & Development at Six & Flow, an inbound marketing agency based in Manchester, UK.

• Legal Stuff
• Privacy Policy

Web Development Articles

Accessibility on the platform.

• Web Design ,
• Web Development

Affordances, Signifiers, and Clickability

• Code Foundations ,
• HTML & CSS ,

Authentication and OAuth

• Cybersecurity ,

Authentication vs Authorization vs Encryption

Back-end web architecture.

• Game Development ,

Bootstrap: Creating Menus, Navbars, and Modals

Browser compatibility.

• Developer Tools ,

Building Apps With Vite

• Full-Stack Engineer ,

Building Projects with VS Code

Characteristics of a good test, code coverage, comparison of build tools, connecting page elements to a dataset, consider design while you build, create a url using slugs, create and view a web page on your computer, create stunning tailwind css forms: a step-by-step guide, create your first local html/css project, creating a react app.

• JavaScript ,

Creating a Website on GitHub Pages

Creating dynamic pages, data structure apis.

• Computer Science ,

Database Scaling Strategies

• Back-End Engineer ,
• Data Scientist ,

Dataset Basics

Debugging in visual studio, deploy rails to heroku, deploying a back-end with heroku, deploying a flask app, deploying a full-stack app with heroku, deploying a simple python script with flask, deploying a static site with netlify.

• Cloud Computing ,

Deploying to GitHub Pages

• Open Source ,

Depth-First Search: Conceptual

Design - color, from editor to output, getting started with heroku, getting started with netlify, getting started with the wix editor, getting started with visual studio code.

• Data Science ,

Getting Started with Visual Studio Code and Building HTML Websites

Getting user input in node.js, git setup for mac and windows computers.

• Bash/Shell ,
• Mobile Development ,

Going Beyond with Heroku

Going beyond with netlify, handy git operations, how to create a free aws account, how to create a website, how to use jupyter notebooks, how users scan: learning from eye tracking research, html: classes vs ids, html5 game development with phaser, http errors: 404, http requests, http requests in velo, implementing the redux store from scratch, installing and using postgresql locally, installing django, intro to mozilla developer network, introduction to cdns.

• Front-End Engineer ,

Introduction to Data Wrangling and Tidying

Introduction to load balancing, introduction to nosql, introduction to testing with mocha and chai, java program structure, javascript glossary, javascript guide: arrays, learning from solution code, mocking in tests, mongodb aggregation pipelines: a hands-on tutorial, mongodb aggregation stages explained, mongodb data, mongodb data modeling basics, mvc: model, view, controller, node package manager, outside-in test-driven development, push to github, react developer tools, react: the virtual dom, reading tests with mocha and chai, rebrandly url shortener api, red, green, refactor, represent everyday things with objects, request-response cycle i, request-response cycle ii, request-response cycle iii, ridesharing algorithms: optimization and iteration, run a full-stack web application, running javascript in the browser console, running tests and interpreting output with mocha and chai, set up with git and github, setting up a backend, setting up a wix account, setting up and using screen readers, setting up node, setting up postman, setup mongodb, spies with sinon, spinning up a local server, standard controller actions, test-driven development, testing types, the testing pyramid, the tsconfig.json file, thinking about errors in your code differently, training set vs validation set vs test set, typography design, up next on velo, use devtools, users don’t read web pages, web development change log, web programming on a chromebook, web security: not an add-on, web ui conventions, what is .net, what is a database index, what is a database, what is a relational database management system, what is a spa, what is a web app, what is an ide, what is an ide, what is asp.net razor pages, what is aws, what is crud, what is digital accessibility, what is express.js, what is json, what is node, what is product usability, what is programming, what is rest, what is spring boot, what is sqlite, what is the $w selector, why css-in-js, why learn asynchronous javascript, why object-oriented programming, wireframe to wire-fame, wireframing, wix built-in methods and functions, wix lightbox, working in the code panel.

IEEE Account

• Change Username/Password
• Update Address

Purchase Details

• Payment Options
• Order History
• View Purchased Documents

Profile Information

• Communications Preferences
• Profession and Education
• Technical Interests
• US & Canada: +1 800 678 4333
• Worldwide: +1 732 981 0060
• Contact & Support
• About IEEE Xplore
• Accessibility
• Terms of Use
• Nondiscrimination Policy
• Privacy & Opting Out of Cookies

A not-for-profit organization, IEEE is the world's largest technical professional organization dedicated to advancing technology for the benefit of humanity. © Copyright 2024 IEEE - All rights reserved. Use of this web site signifies your agreement to the terms and conditions.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• PLoS Comput Biol
• v.18(1); 2022 Jan

Ten simple rules for researchers who want to develop web apps

Sheila m. saia.

1 State Climate Office of North Carolina, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America

2 Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America

Natalie G. Nelson

3 Center for Geospatial Analytics, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America

Sierra N. Young

Stanton parham, micah vandegrift.

4 North Carolina State University Libraries, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America

Associated Data

Introduction.

Web applications, also known as web apps, are increasingly common in the research communication portfolios of those working in the life sciences (e.g., [ 1 ]) and physical sciences (e.g., [ 2 – 4 ]). Web apps help disseminate research findings and present research outputs in ways that are accessible and meaningful to the general public—from individuals, to governments, to companies. Specifically, web apps enable exploration of scenario testing and policy analysis (i.e., to answer “what if?”) as well as coevolution of scientific and public knowledge [ 5 , 6 ]. However, the majority of researchers developing web apps receive little formal training or technical guidance on how to develop and evaluate the effectiveness of their web-based decision support tools. Take some of us for example. We (Saia and Nelson) are agricultural and environmental engineers with little experience in web app development, but we are interested in creating web apps to support sustainable aquaculture production in the Southeast. We had user (i.e., shellfish growers) interest, a goal in mind (i.e., develop a new forecast product and decision support tool for shellfish aquaculturalists), and received funding to support this work. Yet, we experienced several unexpected hurdles from the start of our project that ended up being fairly common hiccups to the seasoned web app developers among us (Parham). As a result, we share the following 10 simple rules, which highlight take-home messages, including lessons learned and practical tips, of our experience as burgeoning web app developers. We hope researchers interested in developing web apps draw insights from our (in)experience as they set out on their decision support tool development journey.

We focus on web apps, rather than mobile phone applications, because advances in web app coding frameworks make it possible to seamlessly scale web apps across multiple devices (e.g., phones, computers, and tablets). Web apps provide interactive services that can be accessed by web browsers [ 7 ]. Here, we further define web apps as dynamic tools that allow users to perform a task, although we acknowledge that others may define web apps differently. Web developers often separate web apps into two main components: the front end and the back end ( Fig 1 ). There are some exceptions to this design. For example, some web apps are front end only and require no dedicated back end (e.g., single-page applications like https://github.com/igvteam/igv.js ) [ 8 ]. These can usually be hosted on free third-party services such as GitHub Pages. The front end represents everything the user sees on their device screen ( Fig 1B, 1F ), while the back end represents parts of the web app that only the web developers see ( Fig 1C, 1D ). The back end typically includes (1) scripts (i.e., computer code) written in a back end language (e.g., Java and Python) to support the front end appearance and back end functionality of the web app (i.e., how periodic updates are made to the front end); (2) databases (e.g., MySQL) to store data for the web app and its users; and (3) web services (e.g., Google Cloud Platform, https://cloud.google.com ) to present the updated web app to users and connect the user’s front end experience with the back end tasks via the web app ( Fig 1C–1E ). Most commonly, a trained or experienced web developer will specialize in one particular component; however, some web developers may specialize in the full stack, which refers to the front end and back end of the web app combined.

In this line drawing, the (a) user is shown interacting with the (b) front end of the web app. The front end is updated based on changes that occur in the back end (c and d). Updates that occur in the back end can also trigger other actions, such as (f) text or email notifications via (e) third-party integrations. Image credit : Sheila M . Saia (CC BY 4 . 0) .

Web apps are powerful tools for increasing the accessibility and approachability of research data and findings because they leverage recent advancements in interactive web browsers to support browser-based user interfaces without the need for download and installation. Examples of web apps range from interactive maps depicting disease transmission (e.g., [ 9 ]), marine health (e.g., [ 10 , 11 ]), natural hazards (e.g., [ 12 , 13 ]), and pest infestations (e.g., [ 14 , 15 ]) to bioinformatics resource collections (e.g., [ 16 ]), to omics data analysis platforms (e.g., [ 17 ]), and to citation visualization tools (e.g., [ 18 ]), among others. Throughout this ten simple rules paper, we focus on web apps that help stakeholders make decisions by improving their access to information. However, web apps can be beneficial beyond their use by stakeholders. As an example, web apps can support research by improving the sharing of results and facilitating communications between scientists (e.g., [ 12 , 13 , 19 ]). In this ten simple rules paper, we reflect on our experiences developing the aforementioned decision support tool and web app, called “ShellCast” ( https://go.ncsu.edu/shellcast ), as well as how our experience applies more broadly to researchers venturing into web development. ShellCast is a noncommercial, open-source product (i.e., ShellCast source code is freely accessible and editable by anyone), but researchers interested in commercializing their web apps can look to other articles in the ten simple rules collection [ 20 , 21 ].

We were motivated to develop ShellCast after speaking with shellfish growers, state aquaculture management program staff, regional weather forecast staff, and university Extension agents, who all told us that there were no specialized weather apps to (1) help shellfish growers interpret daily rainfall forecasts; and (2) prepare their operations for temporary shellfish harvest area closures. These temporary closures, which prohibit shellfish harvesting in a particular area for approximately 1 to 2 weeks, are issued by the state of North Carolina to protect consumers from ingesting contaminated seafood after large rainfall events that flush harmful bacteria into estuarine waters [ 22 – 24 ]. Briefly, ShellCast users can sign up to create an account and receive a text message and/or email notification ( Fig 1F ) at the start of each day that will alert them of imminent rainfall events over the next 1 to 3 days, the occurrence of which can result in restrictions to their shellfish harvesting operations. By creating an account with the web app, users select a geographic location or locations that they would like to receive notifications for and their preferred notification type (i.e., text message, email, or both). Users can also view their notifications and notification locations on the web app main page ( Fig 1B ). There are many back end aspects to ShellCast that users do not see ( Fig 1C–1E ). These include but are not limited to: (1) timed running of web app back end tasks and code, also known as cron jobs, which update the web app database(s) each day at 7 AM; and (2) timed interactions between the web app database(s) and third-party notification providers (i.e., email and text message notification services).

We used Google Cloud Platform to develop ShellCast because of certain requirements (e.g., text and email message notifications) that would have been more difficult and/or costly, but not impossible, to implement with other web app frameworks. Alternative frameworks include Shiny ( https://www.shinyapps.io ), Dash ( https://plotly.com/dash ), ESRI StoryMaps ( https://storymaps.arcgis.com ), Tableau ( https://www.tableau.com ), HiCharts ( https://www.highcharts.com ), and PowerBI ( https://powerbi.microsoft.com ). As an example, web app email authentication is possible with Shiny, an open-source framework, but this service is only provided under higher web app hosting pricing plans. However, we encourage novice web developers to consider their project goals and check out these user-friendly platforms for developing interactive, engaging, and research-driven web apps.

Furthermore, in our case, there was a clear need for a web app that reduced the uncertainty of managing shellfish growing operations in coastal North Carolina. Prior to web app development, we recommend researchers ask: Is there demand for the proposed web app? Does a similar web app already exist that you could contribute to instead? Do we have the resources to maintain the app for years to come? Thinking about the utility and sustainability of the web app in the long term needs to be considered from the start and is key to developing an impact web app.

Rule 1: Start with user-centered design

An idea for a web app, no matter how useful and wonderful it may seem, will not be of much use if you cannot articulate who is going to use your web app and what they will do with it. In the case of a decision support tool, it is especially important to know how your users will go about making decisions using your web app [ 25 ]. This process of designing a web app around what the user wants is broadly known as user-centered design (UCD). UCD is an iterative approach to design that focuses on understanding the user at all stages of the design and development phase [ 26 , 27 ]. The specific methods and processes implemented with UCD may vary by the project type and application, but, in general, UCD encompasses four iterative phases (see Fig 2 ): (1) understanding the context of use; (2) specifying user requirements; (3) designing solutions; and (4) evaluating the solution against user requirements [ 28 ].

Dashed lines represent feedback in the iterative process. UCD, user-centered design . Figure adapted by Sierra N. Young and Sheila M. Saia from [ 27 ].

The first two phases of UCD require conducting research that will help you understand the target users and tasks for your app, emphasizing that it is critical to consider users and their tasks early on in the design process, before jumping directly into web app development. The first phase focuses on understanding who, why, and under which circumstances users will actually use your web app, while the second phase focuses on the specific user goals, needs, tasks, and challenges that will shape the requirements of the web app. There are multiple methods that can be implemented during these phases, such as contextual inquiries, user interviews, task modeling, developing personas, and user and task analysis [ 29 – 31 ]. Many of these methods require interaction with potential users of your app. As an example, task-centered design, which is widely used for web app development [ 31 , 32 ], can be implemented to identify which specific steps must be taken by the user to meet their needs. If you have trouble finding potential users, this is a good indication that you may need to rethink your web app concept. Additionally, these research-focused phases offer an opportunity to determine whether or not a web app is the most appropriate method for implementing your proposed solution.

The third phase of UCD focuses on designing and implementing solutions. Depending on how far along in the design process your team is, this solution may take the form of a simple mock-up or wireframe or a fully functioning app prototype. It is unlikely you will get the web app design right the first time; therefore, getting feedback on low-stakes mock-ups early in the design process will save you time, money, and resources (see Rule 2). Admittedly, we (Saia and Nelson) did not include mock-ups in the first version of the ShellCast contract draft ( S1 Text ; see Rule 5) and were later advised by (very patient) Office of Information Technologies staff at our institution that it was imperative for users and web developers to see mock-ups prior to the creation of the web app. To illustrate how contracts and mock-ups are drafted in practice, we offer the final version of the ShellCast contract complete with mock-ups ( S2 Text , S1 Fig ). Finally, in the fourth phase of UCD, all designs developed during the development process must be tested and evaluated against user requirements (see user testing and evaluation in Rule 2).

Rule 2: Test early, test often

Continuous testing is critical throughout the development process because it ensures that your web app is working as intended and is usable. Web apps must be checked for a variety of factors, including functionality, compatibility, security, and usability. During the software development phase, researchers should conduct functionality tests to ensure that software requirements are met. Functionality tests include evaluating individual units (e.g., forms, links, client page, and server page), unit integration (e.g., redirects and client/server couplings) as well as full system or end-to-end functionality, the latter testing all layers of an application in a single workflow [ 33 ]. These types of tests can often be automated with tools such as Cypress ( www.cypress.io ) or Selenium ( www.selenium.dev ) and are critical for finding bugs or other software-related issues. Automated functionality testing cannot always fully replicate the user experience, so be sure to supplement this type of software functionality testing with evaluation and testing by real users.

User testing and evaluation should be conducted throughout the web app development process and include a diverse range of potential users. User testing is important because it allows the web development team (including researchers, like us) to iterate on the web app design and ensure that it meets user expectations. There are commercially available services and companies dedicated to conducting comprehensive user tests; however, these services have the potential to slow down development. If budget or time constraints prevent you from using these services, you can conduct your own user testing with a little guidance (e.g., [ 31 ]). In general, there are three main types of user testing: (1) formative evaluations, which are performed during iterative design to find web app usability issues to be fixed during the next iteration; (2) field studies, which find problems in web app use contexts and collect qualitative observations; and (3) controlled experiments, which test hypotheses and collect quantitative observations about web app use [ 31 , 34 ]. In general, user testing requires finding actual users, selecting tasks for evaluation, providing users with a prototype web app for use, deciding what data to collect, choosing an evaluation method, and collecting data. There are many types of evaluation methods, each with their own purpose, pros, and cons. Common methods include surveys (chapter 5 of [ 34 ]), case studies (chapter 7 of [ 34 ]), focus groups (chapter 8 of [ 34 ]), interaction evaluation and measurement tools such as UXtweak ( uxtweak.com ) (see also chapter 23 of [ 35 ]), and online testing apps and services, such as User Testing ( www.usertesting.com ) or UsabilityHub ( usabilityhub.com ). A comprehensive survey of evaluation methods is outside the scope of this paper, but the resources provided in this section should provide enough guidance to get started on your user testing journey. In addition, if you find yourself evaluating a web application that provides new functionality, findings from formal user testing studies [ 34 ] may be publishable in an appropriate journal if the necessary steps are taken to design the experiments and protect participant privacy (see Rule 4).

We (Saia and Nelson) knew very little about user testing when developing ShellCast. Despite our limited knowledge, we understood that feedback was important and implemented two user testing periods using surveys administered via Google Forms. The goal of these surveys was to learn about potential issues that users might encounter when interacting with an initial version (user test #1, S3 Text ) and improved version (user test #2, S4 Text ) of ShellCast. While participants in these tests were not actual users of the web application (i.e., shellfish growers), they were colleagues in our field who have connections with actual users. The 2 ShellCast user testing surveys that we distributed early in the web app development process proved helpful in uncovering issues associated with signing up for an account, getting text notifications, and deciding which and how much information to convey to web app users. We are in the process of rolling out ShellCast to shellfish growers and conducting additional user testing through surveys and focus group discussions led by a professional facilitator.

Rule 3: Make it accessible

To ensure that web apps can be used by all, it is important that researchers adhere to accessibility guidelines. Here, we consider accessibility not as a measure of openness as described by Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable (FAIR) [ 36 , 37 ] research output guidelines, but rather as a measure of a web app’s utility to people of diverse abilities. Website accessibility is important because it helps ensure that a broad group of people will be able to use your app and also because there are laws mandating that your app and websites are accessible. Being based in the United States (US), we focus on US laws and standards in this ten simple rules paper. US-specific accessibility laws that impact researchers developing web apps include Title 2 [ 38 ] and Title 3 [ 39 ] of the Americans with Disabilities Act, associated web accessibility standards such as Section 504 through the US Department of Education Office of Civil Rights [ 40 ], and Revised Section 508 and 255 Guidelines of the Rehabilitation Act [ 41 ]. For researchers in the US, these legal standards are enforced by the US Department of Education’s Office of Civil Rights. These standards incorporate Web Content Accessibility Guidelines [ 42 ] developed by the international World Wide Web Consortium Web Accessibility Initiative; therefore, researchers outside of the US can look to these web accessibility guidelines too. If these laws and standards are not met, accessibility conformance can be enforced by informal complaints made directly to the web developer or formal complaints made through the Office of Civil Rights or through lawsuit to the university.

You should plan for accessibility as early as possible in the web app development process. This includes taking time early on to ensure that your web app is designed so it can be accessed by assistive technologies such as dictation software, screen readers, refreshable braille displays, and many others. For example, information provided in a map can also be made available in a table format ( Fig 1B zoomed inset), the latter of which is more accessible to screen readers. You can also practice accessibility when developing surveys and feedback forms [ 43 ], captioning web app–related videos, and including alt text along with all images. Alt text is text that describes an image (nontextual) and is assigned as an image attribute in the front end HTML tag for the image (e.g., <img src = "picture.png" alt = "A picture">; in the web app back end language [ 44 ]). Assistive technologies like screen readers rely on the image attribute to communicate meaning to their users. Some of the most common web accessibility issues (e.g., low color contrast, unlabeled form fields, and no alt text or video captions) are fairly easy for web developers to fix [ 45 ].

Digital accessibility standards are fairly new and can be confusing, especially if you have little or no experience navigating them. Second to planning ahead, researchers can refer to Web Content Accessibility Guidelines [ 42 ]. Third, researchers can ask web accessibility coordinators for help reviewing and addressing potential web app accessibility issues (see Rule 7). The organizational structure of web accessibility coordinators at each institution is unique; however, these staff are often based in a researcher’s office of information technology, office of diversity and inclusion, office of disability resources, office of communications, or office of digital accessibility. Last but not least, web app developers can use web accessibility evaluation tools to scan their web app for accessibility issues and implement solutions to these issues via updates to front end design and back end scripts. Two example web accessibility evaluation tools include the pope.tech platform ( https://pope.th ) and the ANDI bookmarklet ( https://github.com/SSAgov/ANDI ). Programs like Color Oracle ( https://colororacle.org ) can help you check that web app graphics are color blind friendly. During the development of ShellCast, we scanned the application with pope.tech and discovered the contrast of our colors needed to be increased, which we likely would have never realized had we not used the pope.tech tool.

Rule 4: Protect your users

Researchers developing web apps have a responsibility to meet modern web standards for user security, which include (1) protecting information that users share; and (2) being transparent about how data collected through the web app will be used. If based in the European Union, you must adhere to strict data privacy laws laid out in the EU’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR [ 46 , 47 ]). However, we recommend non-European–based researchers (like us) do their best to meet GDPR requirements because they protect the user and ensure that the web app is globally inclusive. Depending on the scope of your web app, researchers in the US may look to notable privacy protection laws including Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, Children Online Privacy Protection Act, and California Consumer Privacy Act. Web app security and privacy is especially important if users sign up, log in, and receive a service because information collected during this process may include personal identifiers like email addresses, phone numbers, mailing addresses, and other personal information. In our case, users can log into ShellCast, set up a profile, add map pins, and select text message and/or email notification preferences.

There are several ways researchers can put security and privacy protections into practice. First, you can leverage third-party integrations including sign up/sign in using Gmail, Facebook, Microsoft, Twitter, etc., because these services will manage passwords for you. You can also use cloud-based web services to offload typical security maintenance, thereby ensuring that your web app is deployed with the latest web security updates. In our case, our institution has access to Gmail and Google Cloud Platform, so ShellCast is built with these services. It is also important to have Transport Layer Security (TLS) to encrypt user inputs and keep them safe from hackers. From the user’s point of view, this looks like a “https://” web app hyperlink rather than the less secure “http://” hyperlink. Let’s Encrypt provides a basic level of TLS encryption at no cost that is appropriate for most needs. Second, you can include a privacy policy on your website that includes details on how information will be protected and used by the researchers. Privacy statement starter templates can be found online (e.g., [ 48 ]). As an example, you can view the ShellCast privacy policy ( S5 Text ). While it may take some planning ahead, you may also consider giving users the ability to delete their account and download their data; this is included in the GDPR discussed above. Third, you can create a data management plan, include details on what data will be made public and who will be responsible for data stewardship, and share that data management plan along with your web app documentation. Researchers can look to existing data management plan resources (DMPTool, https://dmptool.org ; [ 49 ]) and web app management plan references mentioned in Rule 10. Fourth, if you expect to publish user feedback in peer-reviewed publications, you must get ethical approval, for example, from an institutional review board, before doing so. Last but not least, we endorse proactive, transparent, and ethical data management, as described by several others [ 50 – 53 ]. Ethical data management puts data privacy and data governance needs of the users and broader community first.

Rule 5: Hire a web developer or become one

Researchers interested in creating web apps can contract out for web development. Doing so will improve web app functionality and professional appearance since the development firm will put together a team of specialists to work on your web app. Typically, this team will include a project manager, back end developer, front end developer, and possibly a graphic designer and documentation writer. If you are interested in contracting a web development firm, your first step will be to develop a request for proposals (RFPs) that will then be posted and advertised by your institution. Web development firms will then submit any follow up or clarifying questions, which you will need to answer so your institution can post your responses along with the public RFP. After reading your responses, web development firms will then submit proposals and budgets to your institution for your consideration. You will then choose which firm to contract with based on these proposals. Importantly, take time to think through web app tasks before writing and publishing the RFP. The RFP must be extremely precise and specific; it should outline all expectations for the web app, including its appearance and functionality (see Rule 1). If functions or features of the web app need to be adjusted at a later point, a contract renegotiation may be necessary. From our experience, if you are inexperienced in web app development, you may struggle to prepare an accurate and fully specified RFP, which can create a risky situation since you may go into contract for work that is not reflective of what you seek to accomplish. In addition to the challenges that come with preparing a precise RFP, budgets associated with web development firm projects can be large, as you are paying the salaries of a team of expert specialists. See the Supporting information for the early ( S1 Text ) and final ( S2 Text ) versions of our RFP; the final version includes edits that were made in response to questions from prospective web development firms.

Despite only having budgeted $20,000 USD for all web app–related expenses, we received proposed project budgets ranging from $60,000 USD to $180,000 USD. The more specificity you provide in the RFP, the smaller the proposed project budget ranges will be. Confronted with these outsized proposed budgets relative to our available funds, we explored alternatives. After going through this process, we learned that we could ask our institution to post the RFP on our local small business association email list, small business and technology development center email list (e.g., https://sbtdc.org/offices/ncsu ), and on popular freelance job websites such as Fiverr ( https://www.fiverr.com/ ) or Upwork ( https://www.upwork.com/ ), among others.

Rather than having to work through the RFP process, we ideally would have identified a qualified web developer experienced in the type of web application we were interested in creating and then worked alongside the developer to outline expectations and needed features. From our experience, we came to appreciate the need for institutions and research sponsors to provide more resources that support expert software development. As the subdiscipline of research software engineering (RSE) grows and becomes more established [ 54 – 56 ], permanent RSE positions across multiple institutional levels (i.e., from general consultants at the university level to specialized positions embedded within research groups) will hopefully become commonplace. Had a research software engineer been available at our institution, we could have avoided the RFP process and hurdles associated with vetting outside developer groups.

The second alternative we identified was to hire a computer science student, which is the option we ultimately went with for ShellCast. Although still in training, many undergraduate and graduate computer science students have the skills needed to develop web apps—plus, they are eager to gain practical experience. We were able to hire the student (Parham) on an hourly basis, which provided flexibility as we ventured into new territory and identified additional features and functions during the development process that we had not originally considered (because we are novice web developers). Had we contracted with a web development firm, we likely would have been limited in our ability to incorporate these new ideas generated by the web app development process into ShellCast without contract renegotiation. By hiring a student, we also avoided many of the administrative tasks and overhead costs associated with hiring an external freelance web developer or web development firm. Most importantly, we found that student applicants to the ShellCast team were eager to try out new tools that would best serve the project (instead of using tools they felt most comfortable with) and work with us despite our lesser experience. However, hiring a student to develop your app can come with sustainability challenges (see Rule 10).

Of course, rather than hire a web developer, you can become one yourself! Platforms like Shiny and ESRI StoryMaps offer user-friendly templates and tutorials to help novice developers create web apps. In our case, because ShellCast users needed to create accounts and receive text/email notifications, we needed external web development support. However, for researchers with introductory programming experience, there are many tools available that allow for the creation of simple web apps to present results and interactive data visualizations. Of course, undertaking web app development on your own will require time and energy that you may expend at the expense of other important tasks. In the process of developing ShellCast, we needed to outsource key elements of web app development in the interest of time efficiency, especially given that we were operating within the constraints of grant deadlines and managing other responsibilities outside of ShellCast. If we had more flexibility, we would have been more willing to take on the challenge of creating ShellCast without outsourcing a web developer. Additionally, since training students is part of our institution’s mission, we valued hiring a student over an outside organization because the student would have an opportunity to gain skills and experience as a member of our team. Therefore, deciding whether to develop a web app on your own versus hiring an outside developer will depend on your own expertise, timeline, and project vision.

Rule 6: Expect expenses

To the unseasoned web application creator, the costs associated with maintaining an application can be surprising (e.g., see our web app budget underestimation story in Rule 5). At a minimum, plan to budget for a web developer, web hosting fees, Secure Sockets Layer certificate for web app encryption, domain name costs, and cloud computing services. Setting aside a “rainy day” or “emergency” fund is also wise, as unexpected issues can arise that may derail the development or use of your app.

Web hosting refers to a suite of services needed to make a web page available to users. When a web page is constructed, it is stored or “hosted” on an internet server ( Fig 1C ). Users accessing a web app enter the web address (i.e., URL) in their web browser ( Fig 1B ), and the web browser connects to the internet service (e.g., Google Cloud Platform) hosting the web app. You can think of web hosting fees as rent paid for the space your web app occupies on an internet server. Similar to rent, web hosting fees are paid over periods (i.e., annually or monthly) and depend on whether the web app is static or dynamic, how much storage space you need (e.g., 10 GB), the number of people you expect to use the web app at the same time (i.e., network traffic), and in the case of dynamic web apps, the additional computing resources required. Many web hosting providers also offer domain name purchasing (e.g., GoDaddy, Dream Host, and Google Domains). Domain names can be purchased from a domain registrar (e.g., GoDaddy, Dream Host, and Google Domains) on a recurring basis. Notably, many institutions, such as universities, provide internal web hosting and domain name services at low rates, so be sure to check with experts at your institution before spending your hard-earned grant money.

To create a static web page, only web hosting and domain name purchasing is needed. However, some web apps may require cloud computing ( Fig 1C ), which refers to the on-demand storage and processing of data over the internet without the need for direct, active management of those services by the web app developer. Common cloud computing providers include Google Cloud Platform, Amazon Web Services, and Microsoft Azure Cloud. Many of these services provide cloud computing cost estimators (e.g., Google Cloud Platform Pricing Calculator, https://cloud.google.com/products/calculator ) and let you set budget alerts for each project. Additionally, if you plan to send emails or text messages as one of the functions of your application, expect to pay for each and every message sent using third-party integrations for emails (e.g., Mailchimp, SendGrid, and Mailgun) and short message service (SMS) texts (e.g., Twilio and Nexmo). Although the rates per message can be very low, these costs grow quickly as you scale up your web app. Lastly, we recommend you consider including funds to support user testing (see Rule 2), such as for contracted services or reimbursement for the testers’ time.

Rule 7: Leverage institutional expertise

When starting on your web development journey, look to professionals at your institution for feedback and support; these staff may share helpful resources and be great sounding boards throughout web app development while also bringing diverse perspectives and skill sets to your project. These professionals include information technology staff, library staff, computer scientists, user-experience/user-design staff, graphic designers, web accessibility staff (see Rule 3), research software engineers (see Rule 5), and many more. If your institution does not offer RSE support, you may also benefit from including students from computer science or other related fields on your team (see Rule 5). These students are often looking for hands-on experience as they work toward the completion of their degree.

We found several professionals in the information technologies office, library, and communications office that supported our work on ShellCast. Specifically, our university has designated outreach technologies staff within the information technology office; these staff regularly meet with researchers and give them feedback on resources, tools, and services that are available to support university-related web app development. Keep in mind that getting feedback from institutional staff is complementary to, but does not replace, involving users in the web app development process (see Rules 1 and 2). In a series of meetings with our outreach technologies staff, we were introduced to mock-ups (see Rule 1), university supported web app structures (see the Introduction, Fig 1C–1E ), database structures, web accessibility standards (see Rule 3), user privacy protection (see Rule 4), skills needed by the web developer to bring our app to fruition, user testing (see Rule 2), and much more. In addition to getting feedback from outreach technologies staff, we also contacted library staff to review the ShellCast web app documentation (see Rule 10). This was especially helpful because the university has staff (Vandegrift) who specialize in documentation, licensing, and sustainability of open-source software. Our funders required ShellCast to be open source, although we intended to pursue open-source standards all along. Additionally, we leveraged the expertise of a graphic designer in the communications office to help us develop the ShellCast logo as well as an infographic. These graphics enhanced the appearance of ShellCast and helped us explain how ShellCast works to members of the general public. In the end, working with a computer science student and in-house graphic designer kept us well within our budget.

Rule 8: Track your progress with existing collaboration tools

There are a number of existing resources and collaboration tools to help researchers and web developers keep track of their work, plan out project milestones, and assign tasks. The specific collaboration tools you choose to use when developing web apps may depend on many factors including whether (1) the tool easily interfaces with other available tools and resources; (2) the tool has all (or most of) the functionality needed to manage the web app project; (3) collaborators have previous experience and recommend using the tool; and (4) your team has the resources (e.g., financial and computing) to use the collaboration tool. To keep track of changes to web app code, use version control [ 57 – 59 ]. You can also use Kanban project management tools (e.g., [ 60 ]) such as those provided through platforms like GitHub projects ( https://github.com/features/project-management ), Trello ( https://trello.com ), Teamwork ( https://www.teamwork.com ), Jira ( https://www.atlassian.com/software/jira ), and many others. Project management tools can help the web app team chart project milestones, create and assign tasks, and keep track of emerging issues.

While building the ShellCast web app, we used both Git and GitHub to collaborate on and keep track of code. We created a GitHub project within the ShellCast web app repository and used this to track each team member’s progress on different tasks (also referred to as “issues” in the GitHub platform) as they moved from the “To Do” pile, to the “In Progress” pile, to the “Done” pile. We could comment on tasks in GitHub, which was helpful when referring back to past conversations and justifications for decisions even after tasks were completed. We could also use the issues to take notes and save helpful resources that we did not want to lose or could be important for new team members joining in the future. Importantly, keep in mind that when using an institution’s enterprise GitHub account, you will have to mirror your enterprise GitHub repository to a public GitHub repository should you wish to share your web app code openly. This is because the “public” setting on your enterprise GitHub repository is only public to folks within your institution. If we were to start over, we would have exclusively used a public GitHub repository.

Some of these same collaboration tools may also help you pursue open science. Reproducible and open work is often highly recommended by professional societies (e.g., [ 61 ]) and a requirement of federal funding; therefore, it’s important that you are aware of the expectations of your sponsors (e.g., [ 62 ]). Open and reproducible work may also be required by publishers (e.g., American Geophysical Union journals [ 63 ] and Public Library of Science (PLOS) journals [ 64 ]), which is important to consider early on should you wish to eventually publish a paper on your web app. The Carpentries offer several beginner-friendly, self-paced tutorials on version control, reproducible research, and programming languages widely used in open science at https://software-carpentry.org/lessons .

Rule 9: Estimate task times, then double them (and then some)

We recommend generously estimating the time needed to develop a web application, especially if you are new to application development. Keep in mind that even small changes to a web app can lead to reconfigurations of database structures and back end web application logic, often resulting in seemingly minor changes requiring a considerable amount of time to complete. You should not be surprised if tasks will change or be carried out differently after user testing. Make sure you budget conservatively for time needed to revise the application after receiving feedback from user testing (see Rule 2) and to document the web app (see Rule 10). Furthermore, we acknowledge that estimating task times can be very difficult because they depend on a number of things including (1) the number of developers working on the web app; (2) the experience the developers have working with the technologies that your web app needs; (3) the size and complexity of the web app; (4) the specificity of the web app functionality (i.e., whether or not you know exactly what the web app will do, how it will look, and how it will behave); (5) project organization and efficiency and many other uncertainties that are tough to comprehensively list here. There are tools available to help with estimating time needed to complete a web development project (e.g., Konigi [ 65 ] and Astuteo Estimator [ 66 ]), although these tools still require the user to estimate time ranges for each task. Ivan and Despa offer useful estimates of task times, particularly related to maintaining web applications [ 67 ].

Our experiences were as follows. The initial development of ShellCast took our web developer (Parham) approximately 275 hours, with revisions following two rounds of user testing amounting to 75 hours. This time does not include time spent by our second web developer (Saia) to develop the ShellCast algorithm and get up to speed on connecting to and updating the ShellCast database. To provide some more context, ShellCast is a small web app with fairly simple functionality that had two initial developers. One developer (Parham) worked on the web app overall code infrastructure, database, notifications, hosting, and documentation, while the other developer (Saia) worked on developing the forecast calculations, database, and documentation. The majority of ShellCast development was completed by these two web developers, who each worked strictly on web development for approximately 20 hours per week during the 2020 summer semester (i.e., May 15 to August 15, 2020). Web development was Parham’s primary focus, while Saia worked on web development (20 hours per week), coordinated and administered user testing (5 hours per week), managed project milestones and tasks (2 hours per week), and carried out other non-ShellCast research duties (13 hours per week). In the 2020 fall semester (i.e., August 15 to December 15, 2020), both web developers each worked on ShellCast development for approximately 5 to 10 hours per week; Parham’s focus shifted back to coursework and Saia’s focus shifted back to other research duties. This timeline worked well for us because we clearly and specifically defined ShellCast requirements in the beginning of the project; however, we had to make some significant changes along the way after having more in-depth conversations with collaborators; these changes were separate from those we made based on user testing feedback.

To balance time and web app development needs, we checked in with one another weekly to discuss what tasks we were working on, the level of urgency of a particular task, if we had any issues that were preventing progress, and our plans for addressing these tasks in the coming week. To help keep track of these tasks, we created a shared document listing out all of our milestones. We also used GitHub projects and GitHub tags (see Rule 8) that we updated on an approximately monthly basis.

Rule 10: Make it last: Plan for the long haul

The longevity of a web app depends on well-planned support (i.e., funding), maintenance, and documentation. Without proper planning, the impact of your web app will be cut short. In terms of support, web apps are commonly included in grants as a mechanism for disseminating research findings to stakeholders. In our limited US-based experience, proposals are rarely required to include plans on how a proposed web app will exist beyond the duration of the 1- to 5-year grant. Even when proposals include discussion of long-term web app support, the development phase often occurs toward the end of a project period, leaving little time for the web app to be discovered and used. By contrast, funders in the United Kingdom and EU often require a software management plan (e.g., [ 68 , 69 ]). To ensure long-term maintenance and utility of your web app, determine who will be designated as the web app maintainer(s) [ 58 , 70 ] and how long-term web app ownership and maintenance is defined [ 71 ].

Regarding documentation, we recommend budgeting time (and funds) for documenting your web app as well as incorporating documentation and project sustaining best practices (e.g., [ 72 – 74 ]). Whenever possible, build your web app using widely supported technologies and include a test suite (see Rule 2) to ensure that the web app code will function properly as an ensemble after you have made changes to the source code and web app dependencies (i.e., the software and code versions that your web app depends on to run). If your code relies on established R packages, Python libraries, or other software with particular version numbers, using a container system like Docker (e.g., [ 75 ]) or software environment like Conda (e.g., https://docs.conda.io/en/latest ) is critical for helping to future-proof your code and support its replicability. Although fundamentally different, both container systems and software environments allow for preservation of version-dependent software libraries with your unique code. You can use platforms like Zenodo ( https://about.zenodo.org ) to permanently archive versions of your web app code and allow them to be cited via a digital object identifier (DOI).

For ShellCast, we explicitly included documentation of typical developer tasks in a DEVELOPER.md markdown file, included several other markdown files to document other important web app–related setup steps and tasks, and included a text file listing all the required R packages and Python libraries. We also documented ShellCast unit tests, and in the future, would like to implement automatic unit testing and deployment of the ShellCast web app using continuous integration platforms (e.g., Travis CI; https://travis-ci.org ). While we did not use GitHub Actions ( https://docs.github.com/en/actions ) at the time we were developing ShellCast. This tool offers another helpful approach to automate tasks, including running your testing scripts. You can learn more about successful web app documentation, maintenance, and longevity as well as doing open and reproducible science from many resources available online (e.g., [ 76 – 82 ]), several of which are in the ten simple rules collection [ 21 , 37 , 57 , 70 , 72 – 74 , 83 – 87 ].

In the case of open-source web app development, researchers may wish to plan for and initiate involvement of the user community (see Rule 1), including researchers in related fields who are interested in maintaining the web app into the future. This group of interested users is often referred to as a maintainer community. Look to collaboration guidelines such as those proposed by The Mozilla Open Leaders Project for maintainer community best practices [ 88 ] or the Sustain online discussion board for open-source projects ( https://discourse.sustainoss.org ). Last but not least, we reiterate the importance of leveraging technology services offered through your university (e.g., domain names; see Rule 7) to avoid issues that could arise if your maintenance funds are limited (now or in the future). University technology services may impose some restrictions, like the lack of a public release option for a university-sponsored GitHub Enterprise account, but they at least provide a measure of expected sustainability and support from the organization’s IT and developer teams.

In many cases, app discoverability and longevity are linked and can be improved by using established cyberinfrastructure or building upon existing web apps. For example, Openscapes ( https://openscapes.org ) staff encourages researchers interested in open and reproducible science (including software and web app development) to ask themselves: “[Am] I being as open as I can be, am I being as inclusive as I can be, and will I be able to maintain what I’m starting?” [ 58 , 89 ]. Before beginning web app development, scan the web app landscape to see if there are similar open-source projects that could be adapted, rather than building a web app from scratch. Your subject specialist librarian is a great resource for starting this scan (see Rule 7) and can also help you navigate evolving practices in software citation (e.g., [ 90 ]), data publishing (e.g., [ 91 ]), and other emerging topics that are web app related. Most research libraries have subject specialists and/or functional experts (i.e., data management librarians) and can be generally supportive of many questions beyond providing resources for research. Since research infrastructure—the services, protocols, standards, and software that the academic ecosystem needs to perform its functions—is constantly modernizing and standardizing, these library staff can also help you improve the longevity of your web app. Specifically, they can share information and resources to build sustainable products (i.e., your web app) that are also interoperable across the landscape.

Since routine web app operation requires a domain name, web hosting, and cloud computing services, funds are needed for long-term support (see Rule 6). Researchers interested in developing web apps should acknowledge the need for continued support in proposals and outline potential funding sources that they can pursue to support web app longevity. Acknowledging that web apps require regular maintenance and enduring financial support demonstrates understanding of the realistic resources it takes for a web app to come to fruition, thus increasing the researcher’s credibility. Applying for alternate funding opportunities like Fund Open Source Software ( https://fundoss.org ), Chan Zuckerberg Initiative for Essential Open Source Software ( https://chanzuckerberg.com/rfa/essential-open-source-software-for-science ), Google Summer of Code ( https://summerofcode.withgoogle.com ), and Outreachy ( https://www.outreachy.org ), to name a few, can stretch the longevity of your web app. Of course, an alternative approach for sustaining a web app is to explore options for commercialization [ 20 ], which could cover the cost of web app expenses through advertisements or other user base-associated business models.

Conclusions

Web apps serve as powerful tools to extend research findings to members of the public and research community, but their development is not easy. Successfully creating web apps for educational and outreach purposes requires teamwork with professionals that have diverse skill sets as well as careful and thoughtful planning to ensure that the web apps are relevant to end users, accessible to all, and long lasting. Here, we have outlined ten simple rules for researchers to consider as they venture out on their own web app development journeys, with several of these rules serving as “lessons learned” from our own personal experiences developing the web app, ShellCast. In summary, a good thought to keep in mind is build for usability, budget in flexibility, and begin maintenance plans from the start.

Supporting information

ShellCast wireframes, including (a) main page map view when user is not signed in, (b) main page table view, (c) ShellCast “About” page, (d) user login page, (e) user notifications/profile page, and (f) main page map view when user is signed in (can see lease pin and click pin to see lease-specific information).

RFP, request for proposals.

Acknowledgments

We thank Everette Allen, Walter Turner, and Crystal Tenan for their critical feedback on this manuscript and for teaching us many of the lessons summarized here.

Funding Statement

This work was supported in part by the North Carolina Sea Grant R/20-SFA-4 (NGN, SMS, SP), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food and Agriculture Cyberinformatics Tools (FACT) project 2019-67021-29936 (NGN, SMS), and USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) Hatch projects 1021499 (SNY) and 1016068 (NGN). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Theory and Practice of Assessing the Efficiency of Urban Agglomeration Administration Abroad and in Russia (a Case Study of Chelyabinsk Oblast)

• URBAN STUDIES
• Published: 27 November 2023
• Volume 13 , pages 725–738, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• E. Markwart 1 ,
• D. P. Sosnin 2 &
• S. V. Nechaeva 3  

49 Accesses

Explore all metrics

The efficiency of urban agglomeration administration has so far not been an object of close attention for researchers. The article proposes to evaluate it with respect to the contractual administration model based on three components, i.e., evaluate the overall efficiency of administering the development of the agglomeration as the degree of achievement of the goals of agglomeration interaction, the political efficiency of making and implementing decisions, and the managerial efficiency of implementing agglomeration projects. The approach is theoretically substantied, and the results of a study of the efficiency of agglomeration administration are presented with a case study of the agglomerations of Chelyabinsk oblast. Summarizing the results of the study based on the above three components, the authors conclude the following. First, in a broad sense, the goal of development of an agglomeration (and its administration) is to strengthen the competitiveness of the agglomeration in global, national, or at least large interregional markets and to increase its contribution to development of the economy and society. Second, efficiency (making and implementing decisions) under conditions of the contractual model of agglomeration administration implies a key role of the coordinating body, which consists in finding and achieving a balance of interests of the participants, preparing and agreeing on draft decisions, and monitoring and controlling their implementation. In fact, the efficiency of agglomeration administration is closely related to the efficiency of the coordinating body. Third, the efficiency (more precisely, success) of agglomeration administration by assessing the implementation of agglomeration projects, in turn, depends on the chosen mechanisms and forms for carrying out such projects. Analysis of the Russian practice of urban agglomeration administration, with a case study of Chelyabinsk oblast (the Chelyabinsk agglomeration and Gorny Ural agglomeration), made it possible to test these theoretical conclusions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

The Relationship Between the European Commission and Local Government Through European Urban Initiatives: Constraints and Solidarities

The Development of Polycentric Agglomeration and the Non-agglomeration Territory in the Economic Space of a Region

European Urban Agenda: The Predicaments of Decentralised Coordinative Action

See also: The impacts of metropolitan regions on their surrounding areas. Commission for Territorial Cohesion Policy and EU Budget, 2019. https://cor.europa.eu/en/engage/studies/Documents/Metropolitan-regions.pdf .

See: The Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI) project. http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/#home ; 12 Principles of Good Governance. https://www.coe.int/en/web/good-governance/12-principles .

For this approach, it is more correct to speak about the effectiveness (or success) of agglomeration administration, not about efficiency in the exact sense of the word. See below for more details.

See: Satzung des Region Koln/Bonn e.V. vom 05. September 2018, § 2. https://www.region-koeln-bonn.de/uploads/media/180905_RegionKoelnBonn_Satzung.pdf (translated from the german by E. Markwart).

See: Gesetz uber die Metropolregion Frankfurt/Rhein-Main (MetropolG) vom 8. März 2011, § 1. https://www.rv.hessenrecht.hessen.de/bshe/document/jlr-MetrRegFrankfGHEframe .

See: Gesetz uber den Regionalverband Ruhr (RVRG) vom 3. Februar 2004. https://recht.nrw.de/lmi/owa/br_bes_text?sg=0&menu=1&bes_id=5244&aufgehoben=N&anw_nr=2 (translation from German and compilation by E. Markwart).

Assuming that such goals would generally be set by individual participants in the absence of agglomeration interaction.

An example of the rationale for the choice of indicators, sources of their receipt and approach to calculation can be found in the study of the Initiative Group “European Metropolises in Germany” within the “Models of Spatial Organization” project (2007), initiated by the corresponding federal ministry ( https://www.region-stuttgart.org/mdex.php?eID=dumpFile&t=f&f=815&token=f9ecf555ad6bfd5824bee799ac099514996da931 , p. 10).

See: Bundesamt fur Bauwesen und Raumordnung. https://www.bbsr.bund.de/BBSR/DE/startseite/_node.html .

See: Assessing the development of urban agglomerations. https://www.urbaneconomics.ru/sites/default/files/07.12_ocenka_ razvitosti_gorodskih_aglomeraciy.pdf .

See: Interkommunale Zusammenarbeit Studie der Kienbaum Management Consultants GmbH in Kooperation mit dem Deutschen Stadte- und Gemeindebund. Dusseldorf, Juni 2004. https://docplayer.org/191835644-Interkommunale-cooperation-study-of-kienbaum-management-consultants-gmbh-in-cooperation-with-the-german-towns-and-community-day.html.

See: Richtlinie fur Zuwendungen des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen zur Forderung der interkommunalen Zusammenarbeit. Runderlass des Ministeriums fur Heimat, Kommunales, Bau und Gleichstellung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen - 301 - 43.02.05/04 vom 31. August 2021. https://recht.nrw.de/lmi/owa/br_bes_text?anw_nr=1&gld_nr=2&ugl_nr=202&bes_id=46868&val=46868&ver=7&sg=0&aufgehoben=N&menu=1 .

See: GOST R 54870-2011: Project Management. Requirements for Project Portfolio Management . http://docs.cntd.ru/document/1200089605 ; GOST R 54869-2011: Project Management. Project Management Requirements . http://gostrf.eom/normadata/1/4293797/4293797785.pdf ; GOST R 54871-2011: Project Management. Program Management Requirements . http://gostrf.eom/normadata/1/4293797/4293797787.pdf ; GOST R ISO 21500-2014: Project Management Guide . http://meganorm.ru/Data2/1/4293765/4293765998.pdf .

Agreement on the creation of the Gorny Ural agglomeration. https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=http://www.karsob.ru/upload/iblock/22a/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%20%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9%20%D0%A3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB.doc&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK .

Agreement on the creation of the Gorny Ural agglomeration. https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=http%3A%2F% 2Fwww.karsob.ru%2Fupload%2Fiblock%2F22a%2F%25D0% 25A1%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D0%25BB%25D0%25B0%25D1%2588%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B5%2520%25D0%2593%25D0%25BE%25D1%2580%25D0%25BD%25D1%258B%25D0%25B9%2520%25D0%25A3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B0%25D0%25BB.doc&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK .

See: Strategy of Socioeconomic Development of Chelyabinsk oblast for the Period up to 2035. https://docs.cntd.ru/document/553133071?ysclid=I57x7p80lq421416409 .

Decree of the Government of Chelyabinsk oblast no. 387-P of August 3, 2020, On Approval of the Territorial Planning Scheme for a Part of the Territory of Chelyabinsk oblast (Zlatoust, Mias, Karabash, and Chebarkul Urban Okrugs, Kusinsky and Satkinsky Municipal Districts (the Territory of the Gorny Ural Agglomeration). https://docs.cntd.ru/document/570871608 .

Decision of the Chelyabinsk City Duma no. 52/6 of June 24, 2014, On Approval of the Agreement on the Creation of the Chelyabinsk Agglomeration. http://www.kapo-gorbunov.ru/index.php?docid=234882 .

It should be noted that the boundaries of the Chelyabinsk agglomeration in the territorial planning scheme do not coincide with the boundaries of the agglomeration in the current Strategy for the Socioeconomic Development of Chelyabinsk oblast (in the regional strategy, they are much wider and include the territories of the Argayashsky and Kunashaksky municipal districts). This allows us to claim “mobility” of ideas about the boundaries of the agglomeration, depending on the considered control loop: intermunicipal cooperation, regional management in the field of urban planning or regional management in the field of long-term socioeconomic development.

Created Coordinating Council of Municipalities of the Chelyabinsk Agglomeration, August 31, 2015. http://www.deputat74.ru/content/sozdan-koordinatsionnyi-sovet-munitsipalnykh-obrazovanii-chelyabinskoi-aglomeratsii .

Based on the report “Project ‘Modern City: The First Youth University for the Development of Agglomerations’” at the IV Forum of Best Municipal Practices of the Union of Russian Cities in Ufa (June 16–18, 2016).

For more detail on the so-called redistribution of authority between municipalities and the federal subject and consequences thereof, see (Markwart, 2016).

Service for verification and analysis of Russian legal entities and entrepreneurs. https://www.rusprofile.ru/id/10161284 .

Abramov, R.A., Mukhaev, R.T., and Sokolov, M.S., Criteria for the effectiveness of state and regional management in the context of the project approach, Teor. Prikl. Ekon ., 2017, no. 1, pp. 96–112.

Akhremenko, A.S. and Yureskul, E.A., Efficiency of public administration: Political and economic approaches, Obshchestv. Nauki Sovrem., 2013, no. 1, pp. 77–88.

Albert, S. and Theobald, D., Evolution von Governance-Strukturen der Europaischen Metropolregionen in Deutschland, Dissertation, TU Dortmund, 2012. https://eldorado.tu-dortmund.de/bitstream/2003/29890/1/Dissertation.pdf. Cited August 2, 2022.

Antonov, E.V., Territorial concentration of the economy and population in European Union countries and Russia and the role of global cities, Reg. Res. Russ. , 2020, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 360–372.

Article   Google Scholar  

Antonov, E.V., Kulikov, D.A., and Savoskul, M.S., Urban agglomerations: Approaches to the definition and delimitation of boundaries, in Doklad o sostoyanii mestnogo samoupravleniya v Rossiiskoi Federatsii: Mezhmunitsipal’noe sotrudnichestvo kak mekhanizm upravleniya gorodskimi aglomeratsiyami (Report on the State of Local Government in the Russian Federation: Inter-Municipal Cooperation as a Mechanism for Managing Urban Agglomerations), Ivanova, K.A. and Markwart, E., Eds., Moscow: Prospekt, 2021, pp. 44–69.

Google Scholar  

Bratchenko, S.A., Kachestvo gosudarstvennogo upravleniya: teoreticheskii, metodologicheskii i institutsional’nyi aspekty: Doklad (Quality of Public Administration: Theoretical, Methodological and Institutional Aspects: Report), Moscow: Inst. Ekon. Ross. Akad. Nauk, 2021.

Danielzyk, R. and Blotevogel, H.H., Leistungen und Funktionen von Metropolregionen, in Metropolregionen und Raumentwicklung (Metropolitan Regions and Spatial Development), Part 3: Metropolregionen. Innovation, Wettbewerb, Handlungsfahigkeit (Metropolitan Regions: Innovation, Competition, Ability to Act), Knie-ling, J., Ed., Hannover: ARL, 2009, pp. 22–29.

Giuliano, G., Kang, S., and Yuan, Q., Agglomeration economies and evolving urban form, Ann. Reg. Sci ., 2019, no. 63, pp. 377–398.

Glazychev, V.L., Starodubrovskaya, I.V., Slavgorodskaya, M.Yu., Khrustalev, A.A., and Turuntsev, E.V., Chelyabinskaya aglomeratsiya: potentsial razvitiya (Chelyabinsk Agglomeration: Development Potential), Chelyabinsk, 2008.

Gritsenko, E.V., Theoretical and legal foundations of the organization of public authority in urban agglomerations (comparative legal analysis), in Mestnoe samoupravlenie i razvitie territorii: rossiiskii i evropeiskii opyt (Local Self-Government and Development of Territories: Russian and European Experience), Perm: Perm. Nats. Issled. Politekh. Univ., 2014, pp. 387–412.

Kaminskii, V.S, Effectiveness of public administration: An analysis of the main methods, Soc. Security Insights , 2019, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 13–33.

Kiseleva, N.N., Kiselev, V.V., and Snopova, K.V., Agglomeration effect: Myth or reality?, in Doklad o sostoyanii mestnogo samoupravleniya v Rossiiskoi Federatsii: Mezhmunitsipal’noe sotrudnichestvo kak mekhanizm upravleniya gorodskimi aglomeratsiyami (Report on the State of Local Government in the Russian Federation: Inter-Municipal Cooperation as a Mechanism for Managing Urban Agglomerations), Ivanova, K.A. and Markvart, E., Eds., Moscow: Prospekt, 2021, pp. 93–115.

Knieling, J. and Blatter, J.K., Metropolitan Governance: Institutionelle Strategien, Dilemmas und Variationsmoglichkeiten fur die Steuerung von Metropolregionen, in Metropolregionen und Raumentwicklung (Metropolitan Regions and Spatial Development), Part 3: Metropolregionen. Innovation, Wettbewerb, Handlungsfahigkeit (Metropolitan Regions: Innovation, Competition, Ability to Act), Knieling, J., Ed., Hannover: Verlag der ARL, 2009, pp. 223–269.

Knorr, A., Okonomisierung der offentlichen Verwaltungeinige grundsatzliche ordnungstheoretische Anmerkungen, Bremen: IWIM, 2005. https://dopus.uni-speyer.de/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/3387/file/%c3%96konomisierung.pdf. Cited August 2, 2022.

Kuznetsov, Yu.G., Management of urban agglomerations: methodological approaches, organizational and legal forms and practice, in Sovremennyi gorod: vlast’, upravlenie, ekonomika (Modern City: Power, Management, Economics), Perm: Perm: Perm. Nats. Issled. Politekh. Univ., 2018. https://www.urc.ru/node/122. Cited August 2, 2022.

Lappo, G.M., Razvitie gorodskikh aglomeratsii v SSSR (Development of Urban Agglomerations in the USSR), Moscow: Nauka, 1978.

Lappo, G., Urban agglomerations of the USSR–Russia: Features of dynamics in the 20th century, Ross. Ekspert. Obozr. , 2007, nos. 4–5, pp. 6–9.

Lappo, G.M. and Lyubovnyi, V.Ya., Largest urban agglomerations in Russia at the beginning of the 21st century: Status, problems, and approaches to solving them, Reg. Res. Russ ., 2011, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 133–140.

Lappo, G., Polyan, P., and Selivanova, T., Agglomerations of Russia in the 21st century. http://www.frrio.ru/uploads_files/Lappo.pdf. Cited August 2, 2022.

Leksin, V.N., Effectiveness and efficiency of the activities of regional and municipal governments: purpose and possibility of a correct assessment, Reg. Res. Russ ., 2013, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 277–290.

Leksin, V.N., Administrative reform and assessment of the quality of public administration, Tr. Inst. Sist. Anal. Ross. Akad. Nauk , 2006, vol. 22, pp. 113–132.

Leksin, V.N., Effectiveness and efficiency of actions of regional and municipal authorities: The purpose and possibilities of a correct assessment, Reg.: Ekon. Sotsiol ., 2012, vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 3–39.

Loibl, W., Etminan, Gh., Gebetsroither-Geringer, E., Neumann, H.-M., and Sanchez-Guzman, S., Characteristics of urban agglomerations in different continents: History, patterns, dynamics, drivers and trends in Urban Agglomeration , Ergen, M., Ed., London: InTech,, 2018. https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/59481. Cited August 2, 2022.

Markwart, E., Competence of local self-government—A mutation in the course of another municipal reform, Probl. Teor. Prakt. Upr ., 2016, no. 5, pp. 77–88.

Markwart, E., Organizational and legal aspects of the contractual model of urban agglomeration management, in Doklad o sostoyanii mestnogo samoupravleniya v Rossiiskoi Federatsii: Mezhmunitsipal’noe sotrudnichestvo kak mekhanizm upravleniya gorodskimi aglomeratsiyami (Report on the State of Local Government in the Russian Federation: Inter-Municipal Cooperation as a Mechanism for Managing Urban Agglomerations), Ivanova, K.A. and Markvart, E., Eds., Moscow: Prospekt, 2021.

Markwart, E. and Petukhov, R.V., Organizational and legal models of agglomeration management, Menedzh. Biz.-Adm. , 2016, no. 3, pp. 12–27.

Markwart, E. and Shvetsov, A.N., Territorial’naya organizatsiya mestnogo samoupravleniya i upravlenie gorodskimi aglomeratsiyami (Territorial Organization of Local Self-Government and Management of Urban Agglomerations), Moscow: Delo, 2017.

Markwart, E., Agapova, E.V., and Voblenko, S.V., Upravlenie khozyaistvennoi deyatel’nost’yu munitsipal’nykh obrazovanii: Uchebnoe posobie (Management of Economic Activities Of Municipalities: Textbook), Moscow: Prospekt, 2015.

Mukhaev, R.T. and Abramova, O.G., Criteria for the effectiveness of modern systems of public administration: The problem of quantification of the quality of public administration, Fundam. Issled ., 2016, no. 7-1, pp. 146–154.

Pavlov, Yu.V. and Khmeleva, G.A., Properties of urban agglomeration management models, Upravlenie , 2021, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 57–75.

Pavlov, Yu.V., Koroleva, E.N., and Evdokimov, N.N., Theoretical foundations of the formation of the urban agglomeration management system, Ekon. Reg ., 2019, vol. 15, pp. 3, pp. 834–850.

Popov, R.A. and Puzanov, A.S., Urban agglomerations: Methods of delimitation and management, in Doklad o sostoyanii mestnogo samoupravleniya v Rossiiskoi Federatsii: Mezhmunitsipal’noe sotrudnichestvo kak mekhanizm upravleniya gorodskimi aglomeratsiyami (Report on the State of Local Government in the Russian Federation: Inter-Municipal Cooperation as a Mechanism for Managing Urban Agglomerations), Ivanova, K.A. and Markwart, E., Eds., Moscow: Prospekt, 2021, pp. 70–92.

Puzanov, A.S. and Popov, R.A., Analiz dokumentov strategicheskogo planirovaniya i programmnykh dokumentov regional’nogo i mezhmunitsipal’nogo urovnei na predmet otrazheniya v nikh voprosov razvitiya gorodskikh aglomeratsii (Analysis of Strategic Planning Documents and Program Documents of the Regional and Inter-Municipal Levels in Terms of Reflection of the Development of Urban Agglomerations in Them), Moscow: Fond Inst. Ekon. Goroda, 2018. https://www.urbaneconomics.ru/sites/default/files/aglacts2018.pdf. Cited August 2, 2022.

Raisikh, A., On the issue of determining the boundaries of urban agglomerations: World experience and formulation of the problem, Demogr. Obozr. , 2020, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 27–53.

Schulze, K. and Blotevogel, H.H., Zum Problem der Quantifizierung der Metropolfunktionen deutscher Metropolregionen, in Metropolregionen und Raumentwicklung (Metropolitan Regions and Spatial Development), Part 3: Metropolregionen. Innovation, Wettbewerb, Handlungsfahigkeit (Metropolitan Regions: Innovation, Competition, Ability to Act), Knieling, J., Ed., Hannover: ARL, 2009, pp. 30–58.

Sestrukhina, A.O., Evaluation of the effectiveness of local development management: Terminological and methodological aspects, Munits. Ekon ., 2011, no. 3, pp. 14–19.

Shvetsov, A.N., Municipal-state management of urban agglomerations, Munits. Imushchestvo: Ekon., Pravo, Upr ., 2018, no. 2, pp. 17–21.

Shvetsov, A.N., Urban agglomerations in the transformation of urban space, Ross. Ekon. Zh. , 2018, no. 1, pp. 45–65.

Shvetsov, A.N., Structural transformations of the municipal space: Substantiation of expediency and evaluation of efficiency, Reg. Res. Russ. , 2019, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 304–310.

Shvetsov, A.N., Stanovlenie novoi organizatsii ekonomicheskogo prostranstva Rossii: Opyt gosudarstvennogo regulirovaniya i nauchnykh issledovanii prostranstvennykh preobrazovanii (Formation of a New Organization of the Economic Space of Russia: Experience of State Regulation and Scientific Research of Spatial Transformations), Moscow: LENAND, 2021.

Tsipes, G.L., Methods for evaluating the effectiveness of project-oriented activities: A review of the current state and development prospects, Upr. Proektami Program ., 2009, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 190–215.

Vasil’eva, V.M., Kolesneva, E.A., Inshakov, I.A., Gosudarstvennaya politika i upravlenie: Uchebnik i praktikum (Public Policy and Management: Textbook and Tutorial), Moscow: Yurait, 2017.

Wollmann, H., Reformen in Kommunalpolitik und -verwaltung: England, Schweden, Frankreich und Deutschland im Vergleich (Reforms in Local Politics and Administration: Comparison of England, Sweden, France, and Germany), Wiesbaden: Wustenrot Stiftung, 2008.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Volkshochschule Moers–Kamp-Lintfort, Moers, Germany

E. Markwart

Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, 119571, Moscow, Russia

D. P. Sosnin

Chelyabinsk Branch, Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, 454077, Chelyabinsk, Russia

S. V. Nechaeva

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to E. Markwart , D. P. Sosnin or S. V. Nechaeva .

Ethics declarations

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Markwart, E., Sosnin, D.P. & Nechaeva, S.V. Theory and Practice of Assessing the Efficiency of Urban Agglomeration Administration Abroad and in Russia (a Case Study of Chelyabinsk Oblast). Reg. Res. Russ. 13 , 725–738 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1134/S2079970523701083

Download citation

Received : 03 August 2022

Revised : 19 September 2022

Accepted : 06 July 2023

Published : 27 November 2023

Issue Date : December 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1134/S2079970523701083

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• administration of agglomerations, urban agglomerations, administration efficiency
• agglomeration interaction, development of agglomerations
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research